i love anatomy!!!!!! ( ilana kovach)

90
I Love Studying Anatomy & Physiolgy The image above is depicting a moment expressing how I feel about anatomy & physiology. It’s very difficult to describe in words but I deem the feeling as a love & Hate relationship with this intense subject that has a lot to offer in knowledge. Frustration is equivalent to an athlete with sore muscles… Learning is pushing the limits and frustration is the essential key ingredient to accumulating Knowledge. Anatomy was not easy for me however questions was vital to aide in the growth of understanding the functions of the Human body. Our bodies our fascinating & complex but it’s important to have a foundation of understanding the Body to help with future cures for when the body isn’t completely working properly. I went through many stages of frustration, anxiety, and in the end felt incredibly satisfying. Future anatomy students science is continuously growing in physiology comprehension and Anatomy at Collin college gave me the proper in depth education to allow me to proceed to the Next level. Remember Study it’s not a deathly word to avoid. Studying can be in many forms simply asking questions allowing your mind to expand which allows you to actively think or making friends to discuss topics over a cup of coffee, writing notes, Drawing. I used all these methods in the end of this class I made a PowerPoint for the last practical. I hope this review can not only help myself but many other students. Studying is a term that should be something to look forward to doing. Studying does NOT mean staring at a book for hours reading; some may prefer this method but it isn’t the only way! Actively thinking, speaking, drawing helped me immensely. The key word is doing is what helped me retain what I learned. Studying shouldn't equal isolation but activate discussions among students. Another thought to keep in mind is quality versus quantity there is no competition to who studies more and the saying “why did I fail “I studied for hours?” I strongly advise students to instead train your thoughts to say “look at how much I learned!”. The Goal is learning the truth is not all the information will appear on the Exam so in reality the main goal is continuously learning more exponentially. Having a negative attitude toward studying is a dangerous quality to have in thus it prevents a person to want to learn, we become memorization machines instead of curious human beings which is the driving force to take the course. Being curious is a from of studying so in other words you can technically study 24 hours a day just for being curious and simply wondering to the point not knowing bothered a student that they actually remembered to ask their question.

Upload: ilana-kovach

Post on 12-Aug-2015

94 views

Category:

Health & Medicine


2 download

TRANSCRIPT

I Love Studying Anatomy & Physiolgy

The image above is depicting a moment expressing how I feel about anatomy & physiology. It’s very difficult to describe in wo rds but I deem the feeling as a love & Hate relationship with this intense subject that has a lot to offer in knowledge. Frustration is equivalent to an athlete with sore muscles… Learning is pushing the limits and frustration is the essential key ingredient to accumulating Knowledge. Anatomy was not easy for me however questions was vital to aide in the growth of understanding the functions of th e Human body. Our bodies our fascinating & complex but it’s important to have a foundation of understanding the Body to help with future cures for when the body isn’t completely working properly. I went through many stages of frustration, anxiety, and in the end felt incredibly satisfying. Future anatomy students science is continuously growing in physiology comprehension and Anatomy at Col lin college gave me the proper in depth education to allow me to proceed to the Next level. Remember Study it’s not a deathly word to avoid. Studying can be in many forms simply asking questions allowing y our mind to expand which allows you to actively think or making friends to discuss topics over a cup of coffee, writing notes, Drawing. I used all these methods in the end of this class I made a PowerPoint for the last practical. I hope this review can not only help myself but many other students. Studying is a term that should be something to look forward to doing. Studying does NOT mean staring at a book for hours reading; some may prefer this method but it isn’t the only way! Actively thinking, speaking, drawing helped me immensely. The key word is doing is what helped me retain what I learned. Studying shouldn't equal isolation but activate discussions amo ng students. Another thought to keep in mind is quality versus quantity there is no competition to who studies more and the sayi ng “why did I fail “I studied for hours?” I strongly advise students to instead train your thoughts to say “look at how much I learned!”. The Goal is learning the truth is not all the information will appear on the Exam so in reality the main goal is continuously learning more exponentially. Having a negative attitude toward studying is a dangerous quality to have in thus it prevents a person to want to learn, we become memorization machines instead of curious human beings which is the driving force to take the course. Being curious is a from of studying so in other words you can technically study 24 h ours a day just for being curious and simply wondering to the point not knowing bothered a student that they actually remembered to ask their question.

Endocrine System Long term Regulation of Homesostaticmechanisms

1. Regulate Fluid & Electrolyte Balance2. Cell & Tissue Metabolism 3. Reproductive Functions 4. Nervous system in responding to

stressful stimuli General Adaptation Syndrome

EndocrineModels Endocrine Histology

Endocrine Histology

Adenopophoysis

Neuropophoysis

Thymus Neuropophoysis

Hassall’s Corpuscle

Thyroid Gland

Parathyroid

Adrenal Glands

Zona Fasisculata“Lollipop”

Zona Reticularis

Medulla

Zona Glomerulosa

Homeostasis & Intracellular CommunicationTarget Cells Are specific cells that possess receptors needed to bind and “read” hormonal messages

HormonesStimulate synthesis of enzymes or structural proteinsIncrease or decrease rate of synthesisTurn existing enzyme or membrane channel “on” or “off”

Hormones 1. Amino Acid Derivative2. Peptide Hormone3. Lipid Derivative

PlasmaReceptors1st Messenger (Peptide, Hormone, Catecholamine)

2nd Messenger (cAMP & Calcium Ions)

*G proteins (Enzyme link 1st & 2nd Messengers)

Amplification Up Regulation (Absence of a hormone) More sensitive

Down Regulation (presence of hormone) less sensitive

Intracellular ReceptorsLipid SolubleAlter DNA transcription!!! (Directly effects metabolic activity)

Examples: Steroid & Thyroid Hormones

Triggered By…1. Humoral Stimuli2. Hormonal Stimuli 3. Neural Stimuli

Control of Endocrine ActivityTypes of Responses:Endocrine ReflexComplex Endocrine ReflexNeuroEndocrine ReflexHypothalamus “master Gland” Secretes Regulatory Hormones Amount of Hormone Secreted Pattern of Hormonal Release “sudden Burst” Frequency Changes Response of Target Cell

Thyroid Gland Parathyroid Gland

Pitutiary Gland Adrenal Gland

Pancrease Gland

AndenohypophysisFSH, LH, TSH, ACTHProlactin, GH

NeuropophysisADH & Oxytocin

T3 more Active than T4T3= 3 Iodides T4 = 4 iodidesProduce Calcitonin (Lower Ca+)Increased excretion of the Kidneys Inhibiting osteoclast (Break

down)

“Equilibrium Exist between Bound & Unbound”

Determine Functions of the thyroids basic metabolic rate for all cells

Bind to receptors in: Cytoplasm,

surface of Mitochondria, & Nucleus

Effects of thyroid on Peripheral Tissue1. Elevates O2 consumption & Energy

Consumption “Children may cause a rise in Body Temp.”

2. Increases Heart Rate & Force of Contraction ; Generally results in a rise of BP

3. Increases sensitivity to sympathetic stimulation

4. Maintains normal sensitivity of respiratory centers to changes in o2 & Co2 concentrations

5. Stimulates activity in other endocrine tissue

6. Accelerates turnover of minerals in bone.

Parathyroid Chief Cells Produce

PTH antagonist of

Calcitonin

response to LOW Ca+ levels in Increased Reabsorption by the kidneys Inhibiting Osteoblast (Make bone)

Adrenal CortexZona Glmoerulosa (mineralcorticoids)Aldosterone Goes to kidney’s & retains Na+

Zona Fasiculata (Glucocorticoids) Sugar/Glucose“Lollipop” Cortisol

Zona Reticularis(Gonatocorticoids) Ovaries & Testes

Adrenal Medulla Inside HIGHLY VASCULAR(E/NE) Moblize glycogen reserveseAccelerates break down of ATP

AlphabetPancreatic Islets 1. Alpha cells Produce

GLUCAGON

1. Beta cells Produce INSULIN

Blood Glucose LevelsRise: beta cells secrete insulinDecline: Alpha cells secrete Glucagon

9 Peptide Hormones

Hypophyseal Portal System Fenestrated Capillaries Ensures Regulatory Factors reach the intended target cells in the pituitary before entering circulation

Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone System

Kidney’s: Calcitrol & Erythropoietin Calcitrol Calcium & phosphate ion absorption at the digestive tract

Erythropoietin stimulates RBC production in Bone marrow

Natriuretic PeptidesSpecialized muscle cells when blood pressure becomes to high (oppose angiotensin II)

ANP/BNP Thymosins Testosterone & Estrogen/Progesterone

1. Capillaries in Lungs convert BY Enzyme (ACE) Angiotensin I Angiotensin II

2. Angiotensin II stimulates adrenal production of Aldosterone

3. Stimulates the Pituitary Release of ADH

4.Promotes Thirst

5. Elevates Blood Pressure

Thymosins Developing & maintaining & developing normal immune defense

T lymphocytes!!

Continuously decreases In size after puberty

Androgens (Male) interstitial Cells

Estrogen assist in follicle developing & Progesterone (Corpus Leuteum)

Hormones InteractAnatagoinsistic Effect opposing effect “PTH & calcitonin” or “Insulin & Glucagon”

Synergistic Effect Additive effect

Permissive Effect 1st one needed for 2nd one to produce effect

Integrative Effect complementary

General Adaptation SyndromeAlarm Phase Directed by the sympathetic Fight or Flight response of the ANS

Resistance Phase Dominated by glucocorticoids

Exhaustion Phase eventual breakdown of homeostatic regulation & failure of one or more organ

Diabetes MellitusHyperglycemia: Abnormally High Blood Glucose Levels Glucose appears in the urine & Urine Volume becomes Excessive Polyuria

1. Types 1 (Insulin Dependent) 2. Type 2 (non insulin Dependent) Manageable with diet3. Type 3 (Gestational) diabetes The placenta deactivated insulin BIG OBESE BABIES

Complication of poorly managed DiabetesKidney degeneration (Dialysis)Retinal Damage (Diabetic Retinopathy) Early Heart AttacksPeripheral Nerve Problems (Neuropathy)Peripheral Nerve Damage (Infection/Amputation)

Reproductive System

Ovaries & Testes

Meiosis is The reason we are NOT identical

Male System Female System Spermatogensis

& SpermiognesisSeminiferous Tubules

OogensisMitosis of

Spermatogonium

Primary Spermatogonium

Meiosis I

Secondary Spermatocyte

Meiosis II

Spermatids

Spermiogeneis (Physical Maturation)

Mitosis of Oogonia

Divisions completed before Birth

Meiosis I

Primary Oogonium

Meiosis II

Suspended state of metaphase

Proceed to complete meiosis if

Fertilization Occurs

Equal

Division of

Cytoplasm

EQUAL division of DNA but NOT EQUAL division of cytoplasm, for nutrient purposesPolar body will be discarded Secondary oocyte, more cytoplasm, becomes a mature ovum, is ovulated

MEIOSIS II WILL ONLY BE COMPLETED IF FERTILIZATION TAKES PLACE, IF not stops at metaphase of meiosis II

Male Histology

Spermatic CordProstate Gland Penis

Seminiferous Tubules in the TestesEpididymis

Female Histology

Primordial Follicles Primary Follicle Secondary Follicle Tertiary Follicle Corpus Luteum

Ovarian Cycle1. Follicular Phase: Granulosa Cells increase as FSH levels

increase2. Luteal Phase: Corpus Leuteum Preparing for BABY after ovulation Produces Progesterone

Male Models

Female Models

Female Models

Female

Male Models

Superior & InferiorVena Cava

Right Atrium

Tricuspid Valve

Right Ventricle Pulmonary Trunk Arteries

Pulmonary Veins

Left Atrium

Left Ventricle Aortic Semilunar Valve

Oxygenated Blood

Distributed

LungsExternal Respiration

Deoxygenated

Blood collected

White Blood Cells

Monocyte

Neutrophil

Basophils

Lymphocyte

Neutrophils MOST abundant!!!! 70%

Lymphocyte 2nd Most Abundant! 20-30%2 Types TcellsB cells

Respiratory System Physiology

Bronchiole sounds

Vesicular breathing

Spirometer

Tidal volume

Inspiratory reserve volume

Expiration reserve volume

Vital capacity

Residual volume

Respiration

Pulmonary ventilation

External ventilation

Transport of respiratory gases

Internal respiration

Entrance

of Air External nares

Nasal cavity

Nasal septum

Nasal Concha's

Sinuses

Hard plate

Soft plate

Cleft plate

Lungs Trachea

Primary bronchi

Hilum

Secondary bronchi

Tertiary bronchi

Bronchioles

Terminal bronchiole

Respiratory bronchiole

Alveolar ducts

Alveoli

Respiratory membrane

Respiratory zone

Conducting zone

Pleura

Parietal pleura

Visceral pleura

Diaphragm

Larynx Thyroid cartilage

Cricoid cartilage

C shaped tracheal

cartilage

Epiglottis

Hyoid bone

Vestibular fold

Vocal folds

Arytenoid cartilage

Pharynx

Nasopharynx

Oropharynx

Laryngopharynx

Otitis media's

Respiratory System

Upper Respiratory

System

Nose

Nasal Cavity

Sinuses

Pharynx

Lower Respiratory

System

Larynx

Trachea

Bronchus

Bronchioles

Aveoli

Entrance of Air

External

nares

Hard Palate

Nasal

cavity

Laryngophargynx

Pharyngeal

Tonsil Nasal Septum

Perpendicular plate of the EthmoidVomer

8Uvula

10

9

Frontal

Sinus

19

7

6

5

16

1

2

13

14

3

4

15

12

17

18

Larynx

C- Shaped Tracheal CartilageHyaline Cartilage

Elastic Cartilage

Hyoid Bone

Cricoid Cartilage

Hyoid Bone Elastic Cartilage

Cricoid Cartilage

ArytenoidCartilage

ArytenoidCartilage

C- Shaped Tracheal CartilageHyaline Cartilage

6

1

21

3

4 4

5

7

2

3

5

7

Physiology of speaking… or my

favorite singing

Vocal

fold“Inferior”

Vestibular

fold“Top”

Cricoid CartilageCricoid

Cartilage

Thyroid Cartilage

Epilottis

Vocal

Fold Open

& Close During Speaking,

Singing

1 3

2

5

7

4

6

Don’t Forget about the Esophagus! that’s why the Tracheal cartilages are C shaped

Esophagus

1

2

LungsRight Lung Left Lung

BronchiPulmonary

Arteries

Pulmonary

Veins

Pulmonary

Veins

Pulmonary

Arteries

Bronchi

Cardiac

Notch “Because the

heart is tilted

to the left”

1

6

2

3

23

1

Pleura = Lungs

Visceral

Pleura Parietal

Pleura

Pleura

Fluid Thoracic Wall most Superificial

3

2

1

4

Pulmonary VeinPulmonary Artery

Esophagus

Cricoid Cartilage

Thyroid Cartilage

Inferior Vena Cava

Abdominal Aorta

Diagram

1

2

4

5

67

8

10

3

9

11

12

Respiratory zone Conducting zoneNasal Cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Larger Bronchioles Smallest Thinnest Bronchioles Associated Alveoli “Air filled pockets”

Trachea

Brochi Right Primary

Bronchi Shorter

& More linear!“Children who swallow toys most likely make their

destination in Right primary Bronchi”

1

2

4

3

5

Bronchioles & Alveoli

Aveoli Duct

Term

ina

l Bro

nc

hio

les Pulmonary

ArteriesPulmonary

Veins

Smooth Muscle On respiratory bronchiole

7

3

1

2

4

5

Respiratory membrane

at the AlveoliAlveolar

Macrophage

Type I

pneumocyte

Elastic Fibers

Type II

pneumocyte

“Surfactant”

Capillary

Fuse Basement Membrane

Alveolar

Epithelium

Surfactant

Capillary

Epithelium

Capillary Lumen

12

3

5 4

67

8

9

10

11

PhysiologyLung Volume & CapacitiesTidal volume The amount of air inhaled and exhaled during normal breathing. Average 500ml

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)The amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled above a normal tidal inspiration. Average 3300ml

Expiration reserve volume (ERV)The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled above a normal tidal Exhalation. Average 100ml

Residual volume (RV)The amount of air that cannot be forcibly exhaled from the lungs, meaning that the lungs are never

completely empty of air. This is due to surfactant being produced by septal cell in the aveoli to completely

collapse. Average 1200ml

IRV+ERV+TVThe maximum amount of air that can be exhaled from the lungs after a maximum inhalation. Averages:

Males: 4800ml, Females: 3100ml

Total lung Capacity (TLC)= +RVThe maximum amount of air the lungs are capable of holding. Average 6000ml

Minimal Volume RR*TVThe amount of air that will remain in the lungs even if they were to collapse. Average 30-120ml

Minute Volume (MV) = RR* TV

The amount of air exchanged between the lungs and the environment in ONE minute.

SpirometerDevice used to measure respiratory Volumes

Minimal Volume RR*TV

Tidal volume

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

Expiration reserve volume (ERV)

IRV+ERV+TV

Total lung

Capacity

(TLC)

+RV

Residual volume (RV)

Inhalation

Exhalation

ExpirationExhalation. Diaphragm

relaxes, rib cage returns to

resting positions decreasing

size of thoracic cavity.

Thoracic pressure decreases,

air exits lungs. This is a passive

process.

.

Pulmonary ventilationMovement of air in and out of the lungs

*At Rest the pressure inside & Outside of the

thoracic cavity is equal, so no air is moving.

Respiratory Rate (RR)- Number of breath per

minute, average is 12bpm

Respiratory Physiology

InspirationInhalation. Diaphragm

contracts, rib cage

elevates to increase size

of thoracic cavity,

thoracic pressure

decreases, air flows

into lungs. This is an

active process

External Respiration

Gas exchange between

the alveoli and the

capillaries

Co2 Exits

O2 Enters

Aveolus & Pulmonary Capillaries

Exhange

Blood & Body Tissue

Exhange

Internalrespiration

Gas exchange

between the blood

and the body’s

tissues

Respiratory

Histology

Trachea:

Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar

Hyaline Cartilage

Healthy Lungs vs. Emphysma

Aveoli

Bronchi Bronchioles

2

1

3

7

68

5

4

Kidneys Fibrous capsule

Cortex

Medulla

Medullary pyramid

Papilla

Renal column

Pelvis

Major calyx

Minor calyx

Glomerulus

Blood Flow Renal artery

Segmental artery

Interlobar artery

Arcuate artery

Afferent arterioles

Glomerulus

Cortical Radiate vein

Arcuate vein

Interlobar vein

Renal vein

Microscopic Anatomy Glomerulus

Renal tubule

Bowman's capsule

Renal Corpuscle

Proximal convulated tube

Loop of Henley

Distal convulated tube

Cortical nephron

Juxtamedullary nephron

Collecting duct

Afferent arterioles

Efferent arterioles

Peritubular capillary bed

Vasa recta

Filtration

Tubular reabsorption

Tubular secretion

Micturition

Incontinence

Posts

Entrance

& Exit Renal arteries

Renal veins

Hilum

Ureter

Urinary Bladder

Trigonone

Urethra (Male/Female)

Urinary System

Kidney Ureter

Urinary Bladder

Trigonone

(Transitional Epithelium)

Urethra

Male or Female?

(Micturition)

Right

Kidney

Left

Kidney

Urinary

Bladder

Male or Female?

3

5

4

3

21

RenalFascia

Perinephric Fat

Fibrous capsule

Hilum Renal sinus

Cortex Medulla Medullary Pyramid

Renal Column

Renal Lobe

Renal Papilla

Minor

Calyx

Major Calyx

Renal Pelvis

Gross Anatomy of the Kidney

Medullary

pyramid

Ren

al

colu

mn

Cortex

Medulla

Fibrous capsule

Renal Lobe “Piece of Pizza” Cortex & Medulla

Renal Column & Medullary Pyramid

2

4

6

11

5

9

8

7

3

1

10

Renal

Pelvis

Renal Artery

Segmental Artery

Interlobar Artery

Arcuate Arteries

Cortical Radiate Arteries

Afferent Arterioles

Glomerulus

Efferent Arterioles

Peritubular Capillaries

(Vasa Recta)

Venules

Cortical Radiate veins

Arcuate VeinsInterlobar

Veins

Renal Vein

Blood Supply to Kidney

Segmental

Arteries

Interlobar

Arteries

& Veins

Cortical Radiate

Arteries & Veins

Arcuate

Veins

Renal Vein

HilumArteries, Veins &

Nerves Innervate

the Kidney

Afferent

Arterioles Entrance to

Glomerulus

Afferent

Arterioles Entrance to

Glomerulus

9 32

4

2

5

6

71

8

10

Juxtamedullary & Cortical Nephrons

Renal Corpuscle

FILTRATION

Bowman's Capsule

Capsular Epithelium

Capsular Space

GlomerulusGlomerulus Epithelium

Podocytes

Filtration Slits

Renal Tubule

ABSORPTION &

SECRETION

PCT

Loop of Henle

Descending Limb

Ascending LimbDCT

Juxtaglomerular Apparatus

Macula Densa

Juxtaglomerular Cells

Collecting Sysem

Collecting Duct

PapillaryDuct

Nephron Organization

GlomerulusBowman’s

Capsule

Descending

Thi (N)(N)egative

Ascending

Thic (k)Lets go fly a (k)ite

PCTMicrovilli

PCTMicrovilli

DCTMaculae Densa

2

3

59

1

10

4 4

4

6

8711

Renal Corpuscle

Glomerulus“Glomerular Hydrostatic

Pressure”

=(GHP- CsHP) - BCOP

1 2

3

45

6

PCTDCT

Juxtamedullary

NephronMore concentrated Urine“Countercurrent multiplication”

Cortical

Nephron

11

3

2

1

56

7

8

6

9

5

10

4

12

13

15

13

16

Renal Tubule

PCT DCT

Thick Descending

Thick Ascending

Thin Ascending

Thin Descending

Juxtamedullary

NephronMore concentrated Urine“Countercurrent multiplication”

Cortical

Nephron

Renal Lobule

1 2

5

3 4

6

7

8

10

9

11

12

6 7

71

4

3

2

5

8

910

11

1

5

13

12

14

15

8

10

2 3

64

9

Analysis of Urine

pH

Average 6

Normal : 4.5 -8

High Protein Acidic

High Vegetable Diet Akaline

Specific Gravity

Water 1.000

Normal Urine 1.003-1.030

Normal Constiutients

Water

Urea

Creatinine

Electrolyte

Physical

Color

Uchrome

Dark Red or Brown (Blood)

TurbidityBacteria Mucus Cells castCrystals

Smell

Starvation Breakdown Fats (KETONES)

Diabetes = Sweet urine

Chemical

Ketones (Ketosis)

Glucosuria

Albumin (Albuminuria )

(Hematuria)

(Pyuria)

(Hemoglobinuria)

Bilirubin ( Bilirubinuria)

Urolininogen(Urobilogenuria)

urea (deamination, Creatinine)

Nitries

Sodium Choloride(Table Salt))

Ammonia

Healthy

Urine?We can test if you micturition in a cup!

Urinary

Histology

Urinary Bladder:

Transitional Epithelium

Kidney: Cortex & Medulla

Renal Corpuscle:

Glomerulus

Bowman capsule

DCT & PCT

Bowman’s

Capsule

Cortex

Medulla

Cortex

Renal Corpuscle

1

2

3

4 4

510

76

8

9

7

Entrance of

FoodMechanical

Digestion

Chemical Digestion

Absorption

Alimentary Canal

Oral Cavity

Uvula

Labia

Cheeks

Hard palate

Soft Palate

Tongue

Oral Cavity Proper

Pharynx

Esophagus

Stomach Cardia

Body

Fundus

Pylorus

Pyloric sphincter

Rugae

Small Intestine Duodenum

Sphyncter of Odi

Jejunum

Ileum

Peyers Patches

Ileocecal valve

Modifications

Villi

Microvilli

Plicae Circularis

Large Intestine Cecum

Appendix

Ascending Colon

Hepatic Flexure

Transverse Colon

Splenic Flexure

Descending Colon

Sigmoid Colon

Rectum

Haustra

Tania coli

Anus Anal Sphyncter

Deciduous teeth &

Permanent Teeth Incisor

Canin

Premolar

Molar

Dentin

Cemetin

Enamel

Root

Crown

Periodontal ligament

Apical formaent

Salivary

Glands Parotid

Submandibular

Sublingual

Gallbladder Cystic duct

Left & Right Common Hepatic Duct

Bile Duct

Digestive System

Liver Right Lobe

Left Lobe

Caudate Lobe

Quadrate Lobe

Lobule

Central canal

Sinusoid

Hepatocytes

Kpuffer cells

Hepatic arteriole

Portal venule

Bile canaliculi

Portal triad

Layers of the Digestive Tract Mucosa

Submucosa

Muscularis Externa

Serosa

Adventitia

Pancreas Acinar cells

Functions of the Digestive System

Ingestiona. Material Enter digestive Tract Via Mouth

b. Conscious & Unconscious

Digestiona. Crushing & Shearing

b. Makes materials easier to propel through digestive Tract

Secretion a. Is the release of water, acids, enzymes, Buffers & Salts

b. By epithelium of the digestive Tract

c. By Glandular Organs

Absorptiona. Movement of Organic

substrates, Electrolytes, Vitamins, & Water

b. Across digestive epithelium

c. Into interstitial fluid of digestive tract

Excretiona. Removal of waste products from body fluids

b. Process called defecationremoves feces

Digestive System

Digestive

System

Major Organs

Oral Cavity, Teeth & Tongue

Pharynx

Esophagus

Stomach

Small Intestine

Large Intestine

Accessory

Organs

Tongue

Salivary Glands

Pancrease

Liver

Gallbladder

CatabolismDecomposes substances to provide Energy cells need the Function

Anabolism Uses Raw materials to synthesize essential compounds Required Two essential Ingrediencts 1. Oxgen 2. Organic molecules broken down by

intracellular Enzymes “Carbohydrates, Fats & Proteins”

The Foood We Eat

Peritoneum

Superficial Mesothelium

Covers a Layer of

Areolar Tissue

Serosa or Visceral Peritoneum

Covers Organs within

Peritoneal Cavity

Peritoneal FluidProduced by serous membrane lining

Provides Essential Lubrication

Separates parietal & visceral Surfaces

Allows sliding without friction or irritation

About 7 Liters produced & Absorbed Daily

But very little in peritoneal cavity at ONE time

Parietal Peritoneum

Lines Inner surface of

Body wall

Abdominopelvic Cavity contains the peritoneal cavity lined by serous membrane

Serous Membrane Contains:

Ascities: Fluid Buildup causes

abdominal swelling

Peritonitis- Inflammation of the

Peritoneum Membrane

Mesenteriesa. Are Double sheets of peritoneal membrane

b. Suspended portions of the Digestive Tract within peritoneal cavity by sheets of serous

membrane

Connect parietal peritoneum visceral peritoneum

Embryonic Development:Dorsal Mesenteries

Greater Omentum

Conforms to shapes of surrounding organs

Pads and protects surfaces of abdomen

Provides insulation to reduce heat loss

Stores lipid energy reserves

Adipose Tissue

Embryonic Development:

Ventral Mesenteries

Disappears Except for:

Falciform Ligament & Lesser Omentum

Beer Belly Mesentary Proper

FunctionsIs a thick mesenteries sheet

Provides stability

Permits some independent movement

ALL intestines Covered by mesenteries

Digestive Tract Movement of Materials

Muscular Layer of Digestive Tract: Visceral Smooth Muscles Tissue Rhythmic Cycles: Pacesetter cells Stimulate GI Tract (Located muscularis mucosae & muscularis Externa)

Spontaneous Depolarization: wave of contraction throughout entire muscular sheet

Initial State circular & Longitudinal

Muscle are Relaxed

1. Contraction of Circular Superficial

muscle Behind Bolus

2. Contraction

of Longitudinal Deep muscle Behind Bolus

3. Contraction

in Circular muscle layer Forces Bolus Forward

Peristalsis “Squeezing Toothpaste”

SegmentationMost areas of small Intestine & some portions of Large Intestine: Undergo cycles of contractions that churn & Fragment bolus mixing the content with intestinal secretions. No Set Pattern!!!Segmentations does not push materials along tract in ANY ONE direction

Control of Digestive Functions

Local Factors Neural Mechanisms Hormonal MechanismsChanges in pH

(Chemoceptors) Local Factors stimulated by the presence of Chemicals: Prostagladins, Histamine, & Other chemicals released into interstitial fluid may affect adjacent cells within a small segment of the tract

(Stretch Receptors) Stretching of the Intestinal Wall:Stimulate localized contractions of smooth muscles

CNS = “Long Reflexes” Large Scale Peristalsis & Local Reflexes ENS = “Short Reflexes”

Sensory Information from Receptors in the digestive tract is distributed to the CNS trigger long reflexes (Motor & Interneurons)

Sensory Receptors: in the walls of the Digestive Tract: Trigger Peristaltic Waves

Motor Neurons:Control Smooth muscle contraction & Glandular Secretion are located in the Myentric plexusUsually Considered parasympathetic

Enhance or Diminish sensitivity smooth muscle cells to Neural command

EnteroEndocrine Cells Travel by Bloodstream produce peptides (Endocrine Cells in the epithelium of the digestive tract)

Local Factors

Stretch chemoReceptors

Myentric Plexus

CNS

Secretory Cells

Enter endocrine Cells

Carried By the Blood stream

Peristalsis & Segment

Movements

Hormones Released

Buffer Acids & Enzymes Released

LongReflexes

Short Reflexes

OralCavity & Salivary Glands

Pharynx Esophagus

Stomach

(HCl, Pepsin)

DuodenumJejunum IleumCecum

Ascending Colon

Transverse Colon

DescendingColon

Sigmoid

Colon

Rectum Anus

Alimentary Canal “Journey of Food”

Esophagus

Oral

Cavity Pharynx

1

2

3

45

6

7

89

10

11 12

13

14

15

16

HistologyLayers

Mucosa

Mucosal Epithelium

Moistened by: Glandular Secretions

Stratified Squamous & Simple Columnar

Stratified Squamous

Mechanical Stresses:

Oral Cavity, Pharynx & Esophagus

Simple Columnar with mucous Glands

scattered EntoendocrineCells: secrete hormones

Absorption: Stomach, Small intestine & Large intestine

Permanent Transverse Folds:

Plicae Circularis

Purpose:

Increase Surface Areas

Longitudinal folds:

disappear tract fills up

Lamina Propria

Areolar Tissue

Contains:

Blood vessels

Sensory nerve endings

Lymphatic vessels

Smooth muscle cells

Scattered areas of

lymphatic tissue

Muscularis Mucosae

Narrow band of smooth muscle & elastic fibers in

lamina propria

Smooth muscle cells arranged in two

concentric layers:

Inner layer Circular

Outer layer Longitudinal

Purpose: to squeeze lymphatic, get fat out to have room & absorb more

Submucosa

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Contains:

Has large blood

vessels and lymphatic

vessels

May contain exocrine

glands

Secrete buffers and

enzymes into digestive

tract

Submucosal Plexus

Muscularis Externa

Peristalsis

Peristalsis:Involved in:

Mechanical processing

Movement of materials

along digestive tract

Movements coordinated by enteric nervous system (ENS); 3rd set of ANS

a. Sensory neurons

b. Interneurons

c. Motor neurons

ENS

Innervated primarily by parasympathetic division of ANS

Sympathetic postganglionic fibers

The mucosa

The myenteric plexus Turn on … movement of divgestive materials

Serosa

Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus & inferior part of large intestine:

Adventita "network of collagen fiber"

Rest of digestive tract:

Serosa or visceral Peritoneum "loose Connective Tissue"

Epithelial Renewal& RepairThese cells keep pace with the rate of cell destruction

Esophagus (2-3 days) & Large intestine (6 days) The High rate of cell division explains why radiation & anticancer

drugs that inhibit mitosis have drastic effects on the digestive tract

Digestive

Tract Layers

Esophagus

Stomach

Small

Intestine

Large

Intestine

Esophagus

Mu

co

sa

Se

ro

sa

Cir

cu

lar

Su

bm

uco

sa

Se

ro

sa

2

1

3

4

56

78

9

Submucosa

Mucosa

Muscularis

Externa

Serosa

Lacteal

Peyer’s

Patch

Brunner's

Gland

Villi

Circular

Longitudinal

Lamina propria

Muscularis Mucosae

Plicae

Circularis

Esophagus &

Pharynx

Large

Intestines

Small

IntestinesStomach

Esophagus &

Pharynx

Stomach Small

IntestineLarge

Intestine

43

4

2

3

1

1 2

2

1

6

11

3

4

5

7

8

9

10

12

13

14

Histology

Esophagus: Stratified Squamous

Stomach: Simple Columnar Mucosa “Gastric Pits”

Submucosa Muscularis

Externa

All 3 layers

Mucosa

1

2 3

4

65

7 8

1.Oral CavityFunctions of The Oral Cavity

1. sensory analysisOf material before swallowing

2. Mechanical processingThrough actions of teeth, tongue, and palatal surfaces

3. LubricationMixing with mucus and salivary gland secretions

4. Limited digestion

Of carbohydrates and lipids

Oral Mucosa

Tongue

• Lining of oral cavity stratified squamous

• cheeks, lips, and inferior surface of tongueIs relatively thin, nonkeratinized, and delicate

• Inferior to tongue is thin and vascular enough to rapidly absorb lipid-soluble drugs

• Cheeks are supported by pads of fat and the buccinators muscles

Manipulates materials inside mouth

Functions of the tongue

1. Mechanical processing by compression,

abrasion, and distortion

2. Manipulation to assist in chewing and to

prepare material for swallowing

3. Sensory analysis by touch, temperature,

and taste receptors

4. Secretion of mucins and the enzyme

lingual lipase

Decidious & Permanent

Teeth

Teeth Crown

Neck

Root

Peridontal

Ligament

1

2

3

45

6

7

MolarIncisor

Premolar Canines

1110

12 13

8

9

Salivary Glands

Parotid Gland

Submandibular Gland

“Produce Amaylase = breakdown

carbs”

Salivary Glands

IgA

Sublingual Gland

Parotid

Gland

Subligual

Gland

Submandibular

Gland

Submandibular

Gland

Subligual

Gland

1

2

3

5

4

2. PharynxFood passes through the

oropharynx and

laryngopharynx to the

esophagus

3.Esophagusus

Resting Muscle Tone In the circular muscle layer in the superior 3 cm (1.2 in.) of esophagus

prevents air from entering

Swallowing

Also called deglutition

Can be initiated voluntarily

Proceeds automatically

three phases1.Buccal phase2.Pharyngeal phase3.Esophageal phase

Collapsed When Not Eating

Regulation of Gastric

ActivityProduction of acid and enzymes by the

gastric mucosa can be: Controlled by the CNSRegulated by short reflexes of ENSRegulated by hormones of digestive tract

Three phases of gastric control 1. Cephalic phase 2. Gastric phase3. Intestinal phase

Major Regions

Cardia

Fondus

Pylorus

"Pyloric Sphincter"

Body

Curvuture &

Momentum

Lesser Curvuture & Lesser Momentum

Greater Curvuture & Greater Momentum

Smooth Muscle Layers

(Liquefy chyme)

Oblique Layer

Circular Layer

Longitudinal Layer

Stomach“Rugae Inside! Helps Expand”

Pyloric

Sphincter

Cardiac

Sphincter

2

1

5

6

4

3

8

7

Stomach contentsBecome more fluid

pH approaches 2.0

Pepsin activity increases

Protein disassembly begins Although digestion occurs in the stomach, nutrients are not absorbed there

1

2

Major Regions

Duodenum

Jejunum

Ileum

Segment Properties

Submucosal: Brunner Gland

secrete Alkaline Mucin

Sphincter of Odi

Many intestinal Crypts “Glands”

manufacture enzymes for chemical digestion

Many Villi

increase surface area

for nutrient absorption

Peyer’s Patch

Ileocecal Valve

Small Intestines

Special Properties

Plicae Circularis

Villi

Base: Intestinal

gland/ crypts of Lieberkuhn

secrete enzymes & pH buffers

Microvilli

Lacteal Lymphatic vessel absorb

Fatty Acids

Small Intestine

Duodenum

Jejunum

Ileum

Ileocecal Valve

Sphincter of Odi

1

5

2

4 3

Histology Deuodenum “Shorter Villi & more glands” Jejunum “Longer Villi” Ileum “ look for Peyers patch”

1 1 1

4 Peyer’s Patch

Passageway

1. Cecum

"Appendix "

2. Ascending Colon

3. Transverse Colon

4. Descending Colon

5. Sigmoid Colon

6. Rectum

7. Anus

Flexures

Right Colic (Hepatic Flexure)

Ascending Transverse

Left (Colic) splenic Flexure

Transverse Descending

Muscles Of

Large Intestine

Tenia Coli

"Longitudinal layer of muscular Externa; 3 bands"

Hausta

Large Intestine

Haustra

4

3

2

1

5

67

8

9

10

11

12

Exocrine & Endocrine

Acini CellsSecrete Enzymes

Pancreatic Islets

Glucagon & Insulin

Pancreas

Plicae Circularis

1

2

HistologyPancrease

Islet of

Langerhans

Acinar Cells Excreting Enzymes to

aid in chemical Digestion

12

3

Gallbladder"muscular sac; stores & concentrates bile salts used in the digestion of lipids”

Common Hepatic

Duct

(Liver)

Cystic Duct

(Gallbladder)

Common Bile Duct

Gall

Bladder

Liver

Common

Bile Duct

Sphincter of Oddi

7

2

3

4

56

1

Gallbladder

Cystic Duct

Common

Hepatic Duct

Common

Bile Duct4

3

2

1

Lobes

Right Lobe

Left Lobe

Quadrate Lobe

Caudate Lobe

Liver

Quadrate Lobe

CaudateLobe

“Cloud”

LeftLobe

Right Lobe Common

Hepatic Ducts

Cystic Duct

1

2

3

4

67

8

5

Passage of Lobule

Hepatic

Arteries

Portal

Vein

Hepatic

Veins

1

2

3

4

Hepatocytes

Secrete Bile

“Dish Soap”

Bile Canaliculi

Bile Ductules

“Surrounds each Lobule”

Right & Left Hepatic Ducts

Common Hepatic Duct

Sinusoids (Central Canal)

“Receives Blood from Hepatic artery or Hepatic

Portal Vein”

Central Vein

Histology

ModelsPortal

Triad

Sinusoids

Hepatic Arteriole

Central

Vein

Lobule1

2

3

6

4

5

7

8

10

9

11

Histology

Lobules Hepatic Triad Sinusoids & Hepatocytes

Lobule

Lobule

Lobule

Lobule

Lobule

Lobule

3

4

2

1

1

1

1

1

Credits

https://images.search.yahoo.com/images/view;_ylt=AwrTcXImFEpVwdIAYu82nIlQ;_ylu=X3oDMTIydDdnOGlwBHNlYwNzcgRzbGsDaW1nBG9pZANhYTdkNzI1MGVhNzYzZTkzYmYxNzVmY2EzNDJhZjQ0NQRncG9zAzkEaXQDYmluZw--?.origin=&back=https%3A%2F%2Fimages.search.yahoo.com%2Fyhs%2Fsearch%3Fp%3Durinalysis%26n%3D60%26ei%3DUTF-8%26y%3DSearch%26type%3Dwny_dnldstr_15_16%26fr%3Dyhs-iry-fullyhosted_003%26fr2%3Dsb-top-images.search.yahoo.com%26hsimp%3Dyhs-fullyhosted_003%26hspart%3Diry%26tab%3Dorganic%26ri%3D9&w=886&h=591&imgurl=www.urbanhealth.com.my%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F01%2Furinalysis.jpg&rurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.urbanhealth.com.my%2Fhealth%2Fyour-2014-health-check-checklist%2F&size=361.5KB&name=%3Cb%3Eurinalysis%3C%2Fb%3E&p=urinalysis&oid=aa7d7250ea763e93bf175fca342af445&fr2=sb-top-images.search.yahoo.com&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&tt=%3Cb%3Eurinalysis%3C%2Fb%3E&b=0&ni=288&no=9&ts=&tab=organic&sigr=126mktbaa&sigb=16phgpjki&sigi=12006l2ob&sigt=10hp4t579&sign=10hp4t579&.crumb=hbW1yazrcqY&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&fr2=sb-top-images.search.yahoo.com&hsimp=yhs-fullyhosted_003&hspart=iry&type=wny_dnldstr_15_16

https://images.search.yahoo.com/images/view;_ylt=AwrTcYTmFEpVosYATfg2nIlQ;_ylu=X3oDMTIza2c1YnJoBHNlYwNzcgRzbGsDaW1nBG9pZAM3ZWE3OTM5N2UwNTkwNjQzNWQ2Yjk2ODAxOGZjNTY1ZQRncG9zAzc0BGl0A2Jpbmc-?.origin=&back=https%3A%2F%2Fimages.search.yahoo.com%2Fyhs%2Fsearch%3Fp%3Durinary%2Bsystem%26n%3D60%26ei%3DUTF-8%26y%3DSearch%26type%3Dwny_dnldstr_15_16%26fr%3Dyhs-iry-fullyhosted_003%26fr2%3Dsb-top-images.search.yahoo.com%26hsimp%3Dyhs-fullyhosted_003%26hspart%3Diry%26nost%3D1%26tab%3Dorganic%26ri%3D74&w=443&h=689&imgurl=www.einsteins-emporium.com%2Fhuman-anatomy%2Fimages%2Fsh440-ab.jpg&rurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.einsteins-emporium.com%2Fhuman-anatomy%2Fsh440.htm&size=183.6KB&name=Human+%3Cb%3EUrinary+System%3C%2Fb%3E+Models&p=urinary+system&oid=7ea79397e05906435d6b968018fc565e&fr2=sb-top-images.search.yahoo.com&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&tt=Human+%3Cb%3EUrinary+System%3C%2Fb%3E+Models&b=61&ni=288&no=74&ts=&tab=organic&sigr=11pmmpmf3&sigb=1755u5io8&sigi=11s9b4fp8&sigt=112otrq08&sign=112otrq08&.crumb=hbW1yazrcqY&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&fr2=sb-top-images.search.yahoo.com&hsimp=yhs-fullyhosted_003&hspart=iry&type=wny_dnldstr_15_16

https://images.search.yahoo.com/images/view;_ylt=AwrB8p4LFkpVOU4A7q02nIlQ;_ylu=X3oDMTIzdjdpOWQwBHNlYwNzcgRzbGsDaW1nBG9pZAM5MmZkYmVhZGQyMWZhMDJiMWJkMDJlYzNhYWVhODUyMwRncG9zAzQzBGl0A2Jpbmc-?.origin=&back=https%3A%2F%2Fimages.search.yahoo.com%2Fyhs%2Fsearch%3Fp%3DLarge%2BIntestine%26type%3Dwny_dnldstr_15_16%26fr%3Dyhs-iry-fullyhosted_003%26fr2%3Dpiv-web%26hsimp%3Dyhs-fullyhosted_003%26hspart%3Diry%26tab%3Dorganic%26ri%3D43&w=310&h=321&imgurl=www.aboutthemcat.com%2Fimages%2Fbiology%2Flarge-intestine.png&rurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smscs.com%2Fphoto%2Flarge_intestine_photos%2F33.html&size=66.2KB&name=%3Cb%3Elarge+intestine%3C%2Fb%3E+photos&p=Large+Intestine&oid=92fdbeadd21fa02b1bd02ec3aaea8523&fr2=piv-web&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&tt=%3Cb%3Elarge+intestine%3C%2Fb%3E+photos&b=0&ni=21&no=43&ts=&tab=organic&sigr=11p8i3da6&sigb=15hn35721&sigi=11nn40frm&sigt=10t8ct87n&sign=10t8ct87n&.crumb=hbW1yazrcqY&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&fr2=piv-web&hsimp=yhs-fullyhosted_003&hspart=iry&type=wny_dnldstr_15_16

https://images.search.yahoo.com/images/view;_ylt=AwrB8pozGkpVNkYAaTo2nIlQ;_ylu=X3oDMTI0ZGJ1Z29uBHNlYwNzcgRzbGsDaW1nBG9pZANjZjE1YmEyNzJjZWI4ODA5ZTQyODJkOWI4NDU5NDkwMgRncG9zAzEwMwRpdANiaW5n?.origin=&back=https%3A%2F%2Fimages.search.yahoo.com%2Fyhs%2Fsearch%3Fp%3DStomach%26fr%3Dyhs-iry-fullyhosted_003%26hsimp%3Dyhs-fullyhosted_003%26hspart%3Diry%26nost%3D1%26tab%3Dorganic%26ri%3D103&w=1044&h=827&imgurl=apchute.com%2Fap2models%2Fstomach2.jpg&rurl=http%3A%2F%2Fapchute.com%2Fap2model.htm&size=149.6KB&name=%3Cb%3EStomach%3C%2Fb%3E+Internal+%28link%29&p=Stomach&oid=cf15ba272ceb8809e4282d9b84594902&fr2=&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&tt=%3Cb%3EStomach%3C%2Fb%3E+Internal+%28link%29&b=61&ni=288&no=103&ts=&tab=organic&sigr=10vskug29&sigb=14ehumtvn&sigi=1121qrrp6&sigt=10uvjhnk3&sign=10uvjhnk3&.crumb=hbW1yazrcqY&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&hsimp=yhs-fullyhosted_003&hspart=iry

https://images.search.yahoo.com/images/view;_ylt=AwrB8pozGkpVNkYAaTo2nIlQ;_ylu=X3oDMTI0ZGJ1Z29uBHNlYwNzcgRzbGsDaW1nBG9pZANjZjE1YmEyNzJjZWI4ODA5ZTQyODJkOWI4NDU5NDkwMgRncG9zAzEwMwRpdANiaW5n?.origin=&back=https%3A%2F%2Fimages.search.yahoo.com%2Fyhs%2Fsearch%3Fp%3DStomach%26fr%3Dyhs-iry-fullyhosted_003%26hsimp%3Dyhs-fullyhosted_003%26hspart%3Diry%26nost%3D1%26tab%3Dorganic%26ri%3D103&w=1044&h=827&imgurl=apchute.com%2Fap2models%2Fstomach2.jpg&rurl=http%3A%2F%2Fapchute.com%2Fap2model.htm&size=149.6KB&name=%3Cb%3EStomach%3C%2Fb%3E+Internal+%28link%29&p=Stomach&oid=cf15ba272ceb8809e4282d9b84594902&fr2=&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&tt=%3Cb%3EStomach%3C%2Fb%3E+Internal+%28link%29&b=61&ni=288&no=103&ts=&tab=organic&sigr=10vskug29&sigb=14ehumtvn&sigi=1121qrrp6&sigt=10uvjhnk3&sign=10uvjhnk3&.crumb=hbW1yazrcqY&fr=yhs-iry-fullyhosted_003&hsimp=yhs-fullyhosted_003&hspart=iry

Professor Melody Holmes PowerPoints on blackboard Histology slide of ileum of Peyers patch, Mucosal layers of Ileum and Alveoli Model.