hungarian conquest of the carpathian basin

8/13/2019 Hungarian Conquest of the Carpathian Basin

1/24

Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin 1

Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin

Part of a series on the

History of Hungary

Prehistory and early history

Hungarian prehistory Hungary before the Hungarians Roman Pannonia Hungarian conquest

Middle Ages

Principality 8951000

High Medieval Kingdom 10001301

Late Medieval Kingdom 13011526

Ottoman Wars 13661526

Early modern history

Habsburg kingdom 15261867

Eastern kingdom 15261570

Ottoman Hungary 15411699

Principality of Transylvania 15701711

Late modern period

Rkczi's War 17031711

Revolution of 1848 18481849

Austria-Hungary 18671918

Lands of the Crown 18671918

World War I 19141918

Interwar period 19181941

Kingdom of Hungary 19201946

World War II 19411945

Contemporary history
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungary_in_World_War_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281920%E2%80%9346%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungary_between_the_World_Warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungary_in_World_War_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lands_of_the_Crown_of_Saint_Stephenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Austria-Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=R%C3%A1k%C3%B3czi%27s_War_of_Independencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Principality_of_Transylvania_%281570%E2%80%931711%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Hungarian_Kingdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281526%E2%80%931867%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottoman%E2%80%93Hungarian_Warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281301%E2%80%931526%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281000%E2%80%931301%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Principality_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pannonia_%28Roman_province%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hungary_before_the_Hungarianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_prehistoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Hungary.svghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:History_of_Hungary


2/24


Republic of Hungary 19461949

People's Republic 19491989

Revolution of 1956

Republic of Hungary since 1989

By topic

ChristianityMilitaryMusic HungariansSzkelysJews

Hungary portal

v t e[1]

The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin,[2] also Hungarian conquest[3] or Hungarian land-taking[4]

(Hungarian: honfoglals: "conquest of the homeland"),[5]

is an umbrella term that refers to a series of historicalevents ending with the settlement of the Hungarian people in Central Europe at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries.

Before the arrival of the Hungarians, three early medieval powers, the First Bulgarian Empire, East Francia and

Moravia had fought each other for control of the Carpathian Basin. They occasionally hired Hungarian horsemen as

soldiers. Therefore, the Hungarians who dwelled in the eastern regions of the Pontic steppes were familiar with their

future homeland when their "land-taking" started.

The Hungarian conquest started in the context of a "late or 'small' migration of peoples".[2] Contemporary sources

attest that the Hungarians crossed the Carpathian Mountains following a joint attack in 894 or 895 by the Pechenegs

and Bulgarians against them. They first took control over the lowlands east of the river Danube and attacked and

occupied Pannonia (the region to the west of the river) in 900. They exploited internal conflicts in Moravia and

annihilated this state sometime between 902 and 906.

The Hungarians strengthened their control over the Carpathian Basin by defeating a Bavarian army in a battle fought

atBrezalauspurc on July 4, 907. They launched a series of plundering raids between 899 and 955 and also targeted

the Byzantine Empire between 943 and 971. However, they gradually settled in the Basin and established a Christian

monarchy, the Kingdom of Hungary around 1000.

Sources

Written sources

Byzantine authors were the first to record these events.[6]

The earliest work is Emperor Leo the Wise's Tactics,finished around 904, which recounts the Bulgarian-Byzantine war of 894896, a military conflict directly preceding

the Hungarians' departure from the Pontic steppes.[7] Nearly contemporary narration[6] can be read in the

Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk.[8] However, De Administrando Imperio ("On Governing the

Empire") provides the most detailed account.[9] It was compiled under the auspices of Emperor Constantine VII

Porphyrogenitus in 951 or 952.[10]
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_VII_Porphyrogenitushttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_VII_Porphyrogenitushttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Administrando_Imperiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Hamartolos%23Chroniclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pontic_steppeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine%E2%80%93Bulgarian_Wars%23Simeon_I%E2%80%99s_Imperial_ambitionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tactica_of_Emperor_Leo_VI_the_Wisehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_the_Wisehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_literaturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Hungary_in_the_Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_invasions_of_Europehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Pressburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Pressburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duchy_of_Bavariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pannoniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Hungarian_Plainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bulgarianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pechenegshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_Mountainshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Migration_of_peopleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pontic_steppeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_Basinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Moraviahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Franciahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Bulgarian_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Central_Europehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_peoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Hungary&action=edithttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:History_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Hungary.svghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sz%C3%A9kelyshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_peoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Music_history_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity_in_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Hungary%23Third_Republic_.281989-_.29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=People%27s_Republic_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Republic_of_Hungary_%281946%E2%80%9349%29


3/24


First page of theIlluminated Chronicle

Works written by clergymen in the successor states of the

Carolingian Empire narrate events closely connected to the

conquest.[6] The Annals of Fulda which ends in 901 is the earliest

among them.[11] A letter from Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg to

Pope John IX in 900 also refers to the conquering Hungarians, but it

is often regarded as a fake.[12]

Abbot Regino of Prm who compiledhis World Chronicle around 908[13] sums up his knowledge on the

Hungarians in a sole entry under the year 889.[12] Another valuable

source is Bishop Liutprand of Cremona's Antapodosis

("Retribution") from around 960.[14][15] Aventinus, a 16th-century

historian provides information not known from other works,[16]

which suggests that he used now-lost sources.[16][17] However, his

reliability is suspect.[18]

An Old Church Slavonic compilation ofLives of saints preserved an

eyewitness account on the Bulgarian-Byzantine war of

894896.[19][20] The first[21]Life of Saint Naum, written around 924,

contains nearly contemporary information on the fall of Moravia

caused by Hungarian invasions, although its earliest extant copy is

from the 1400s.[20] Similarly late manuscripts (the oldest of which was written in the 1300s) offer the text of the

Russian Primary Chronicle, a historical work completed in 1113.[22] It provides information based on earlier

Byzantine and Moravian[23] sources.[22]

The Hungarians themselves initially preserved the memory of the major events in "the form of folk songs and

ballads" (C. A. Macartney).[24]The earliest local chronicle was compiled in the late 11th century.[25] It exists now in

more than one variant, its original version several times extended and rewritten during the Middle Ages.[26][27] For

instance, the 14th-centuryIlluminated Chronicle contains texts from the 11th-century chronicle.[26][28]

An anonymous author's Gesta Hungarorum ("Deeds of the Hungarians"), written before 1200,[29] is the earliest

extant local chronicle.[28][30] However, this "most misleading" example "of all the early Hungarian texts" (C. A.

Macartney) contains much information that cannot be confirmed based on contemporaneous sources.[31] Around

1283 Simon of Kza, a priest at the Hungarian royal court wrote the next surviving chronicle. [28] He claims that the

Hungarians were closely related to the Huns, earlier conquerors of the Carpathian Basin. [32] Accordingly, in his

narration, the Hungarian invasion is in fact a second conquest of the same territory by the same people.[28]

Archaeology

Graves of the first generations of the conquering Hungarians were identified in the Carpathian Basin, but fewer than

ten definitely Hungarian cemeteries have been unearthed in the Pontic steppes.[33] Most Hungarian cemeteries

include 25 or 30 inhumation graves, but isolated burials were common.[34][35] Adult males (and sometimes women

and children)[36] were buried together with either parts of their horses or with harness and other objects symbolizing

a horse.[37][38] The graves also yielded decorated silver belts, sabretaches furnished with metal plates, pear-shaped

stirrups and other metal works.[39] Many of these objects had close analogues in the contemporaneous multiethnic

"Saltovo-Mayaki culture"[36] of the Pontic steppes.[40]Most cemeteries from the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries

are concentrated in the Upper Tisza region and in the plains along the rivers Rba and Vg, for instance, at Tarcal,

Tiszabezdd, Naszvad (Nesvady, Slovakia) and Gymre,[41] but early small cemeteries were also unearthed at

Kolozsvr (Cluj-Napoca), Marosgombs (Gmba) and other Transylvanian sites.[42]

Some decades after the Hungarian conquest, a new synthesis of earlier cultures, the "Bijelo Brdo culture" spread inall over the Carpathian Basin, with its characteristic jewellery, including S-shaped earrings.[43][44] The lack of
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiszabezd%C3%A9dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naszvadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slovakiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gy%C3%B6m%C3%B6rehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kolozsv%C3%A1rhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marosgomb%C3%A1shttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bijelo_Brdo_culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bijelo_Brdo_culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marosgomb%C3%A1shttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kolozsv%C3%A1rhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gy%C3%B6m%C3%B6rehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slovakiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naszvadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiszabezd%C3%A9dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tarcalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V%C3%A1hhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=R%C3%A1bahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saltovo-Mayakihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sabretachehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horse_harnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inhumationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hunshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Simon_of_K%C3%A9zahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gesta_Hungarorumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illuminated_Chroniclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Moravia%23Culture%23Literaturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_Primary_Chroniclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manuscripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Moravia%23History%23Decline_and_fallhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saint_Naumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hagiographyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Church_Slavonichttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Aventinushttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liutprand_of_Cremonahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regino_of_Pr%C3%BCm%23Works%23Chroniconhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regino_of_Pr%C3%BCmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pope_John_IXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dietmar_I%2C_Archbishop_of_Salzburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annals_of_Fuldahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carolingian_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Verdunhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AK%C3%A9pes_Kr%C3%B3nika_1360.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illuminated_Chronicle


4/24


5/24


6/24


TheHetumoger confederation was under a dual leadership, according to Ibn Rusta and Gardizi (two Muslim scholars

from the 10th and 11th centuries, respectively, whose geographical books preserved texts from an earlier work

written by al-Jayhani from Bukhara).[82][83][84] The Hungarians' nominal or sacred leader was styled kende, while

their military commander bore the title gyula.[83][85] The same authors add that the gyula commanded an army of

20,000 horsemen,[86] but the reliability of this number is uncertain.[87]

Regino of Prm and other contemporary authors portray the 9th-century Hungarians as nomadic warriors.[88]

Emperor Leo the Wise underlines the importance of horses to theirmilitarytactics.[89] Analysis of horse skulls found

in Hungarian warriors graves has not revealed any significant difference between these horses and Western

breeds.[90] Regino of Prm states that the Hungarians knew "nothing about fighting hand-to-hand in formation or

taking besieged cities",[91] but he underlines their archery skills.[92] Remains indicate that composite bows were the

Hungarians' most important weapons.[93] In addition, slightly curved sabres were unearthed in many warrior tombs

from the period.[94] Regino of Prm noted the Hungarians' preference for deceptions such as apparent retreat in

battle.[92] Contemporaneous writers also recounted their viciousness, represented by the slaughter of adult males in

settlement raids.[37]

[The Hungarians] are armed with swords, body armor, bows and lances. Thus, in battles mo st of them bear

double arms, carrying the lances high on their shoulders and holding the bows in their hands. They make use

of both as need requires, but when pursued they use their bows to great advantage. Not only do they wear

armor themselves, but the horses of their illustrious men are covered in front with iron or quilted material.

They devote a great deal of attention and training to archery on horse-back. A huge herd of horses, ponies and

mares, follows them, to provide both food and milk and, at the same time, to give the impression of a

multitude.

Leo the Wise: Tactics[95]

Carpathian Basin on the eve of the Conquest

Central and Southeastern Europe around 850

The Carpathian Basin was controlled from the 560s by the Avars,[96]

a Turkic-speaking people.[97] Upon their arrival in the region, they

imposed their authority over the Gepids who had dominated the

territories east of the river Tisza.[98] However, the Gepids survived

up until the second half of the 800s, according to a reference in the

Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians to their groups

dwelling in Lower Pannonia around 870.[58]

The Avars initially were nomadic horsemen, but both large

cemeteries used by three or four generations and a growing number

of settlements attest to their adoption of a sedentary (non-nomadic)

way of life from the 700s.[99][100] The Avars' power was destroyedbetween 791 and 795 by Charlemagne,[101] who occupied

Transdanubia and attached it to his empire.[102] Archaeological investigation of early medieval rural settlements at

Balatonmagyard, Nemeskr and other places in Transdanubia demonstrate that their main features did not change

with the fall of the Avar Khaganate.[103] New settlements appeared in the former borderlands with cemeteries

characterized by objects with clear analogues in contemporary Bavaria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Moravia and other

faraway territories.[103] A manor defended by timber walls (similar to noble courts of other parts of the Carolingian

Empire) was unearthed at Zalaszabar.[103]

Avar groups who remained under the rule of their khagan were frequently attacked by Slav warriors.[104] Therefore,

the khagan asked Charlemagne to let his people settle in the region between Szombathely and Petronell inPannonia.[105] His petition was accepted in 805.[105] The Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians lists the
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khaganhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Slavshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Szombathelyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Szombathelyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petronell-Carnuntumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Szombathelyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Slavshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khaganhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zalaszabarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Croatiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avar_Khaganatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nemesk%C3%A9rhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Balatonmagyar%C3%B3dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charlemagnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avar_Khaganate%23History%23Collapsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lower_Pannoniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiszahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gepidshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkic_languageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurasian_Avarshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ABalkans850.pnghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Southeastern_Europehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Central_Europehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tactica_of_Emperor_Leo_VI_the_Wisehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_the_Wisehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sabrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Composite_bowhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archeryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gyula_%28title%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kendehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sacred_kinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bukharahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muslim_geographyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gardizihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Rusta


7/24


Avars among the peoples under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Salzburg around

870.[106] According to Pohl, it "simply proved impossible to keep up an Avar identity after Avar institutions and the

high claims of their tradition had failed."[107] The growing number of archaeological evidence in Transdanubia also

presumes Avar population in the Carpathian Basin at the eve of the 10th century.[108] Archaeological findings

suggesting that there is a substantial late Avar presence on the Great Hungarian Plain, however it is difficult to

determine their proper chronology.[108]

A charter issued in 860 by King Louis the German for the Mattsee Abbey may well attest that the Onogurs (another

people of Turkic origin) were also present in the territory.[109] The charter refers to the "Marches of the Wangars"

(marcha uuangariourum) situated in the westernmost regions of the Carpathian Basin.[110] The Wangar

denomination seems to reflect the Slavic form of the Onogurs' ethnonym.[109]

According to Bla Mikls Szke's theory, the detailed description of the Magyars by western contemporary sources

and the immediate Hungarian intervention in local wars give the presumption that the Hungarians had already lived

on the eastern territories of the Carpathian Basin since the middle of the 9th century. Regarding the right location of

early Hungarian settlements, the Arabic geographer al-Jayhani (only snippets of his work survived in other Muslim

authors' papers)[111] in the 870s placed the Hungarians between Don and Danube rivers. Szke identifies al-Jayhani's

Danube with the middle Danube region, as opposed to the previously assumed lower Danube region, becausefollowing al-Jayhani's description the Christian Moravians were the western neighbors of the Magyars.

Based on the extant Hungarian chronicles, it is clear that more than one (occasionally extended) list existed of the

peoples inhabiting the Carpathian Basin at the time of the Hungarian landtaking.[112] Anonymous, for instance, first

writes of the "Slavs, Bulgarians, Vlachs and the shepherds of the Romans" [113] as inhabiting the territory,[114] but

later he refers to "a people called Kozar"[115] and to the Szkelys.[112] Similarly, Simon of Kza first lists the "Slavs,

Greeks, Germans, Moravians and Vlachs",[116][117] but later adds that the Szkelys also lived in the territory.[118]

Ruins of the 9th-century church at Zalavr

The territories attached to the Frankish Empire were initially

governed by royal officers and local chieftains.[119] A Slavic prince

named Pribina received large estates along the river Zala around

840.[120] He promoted the colonization of his lands,[121] and also

erected Mosaburg, a fortress in the marshes.[120] Initially defended

by timber walls, this "castle complex"[122] (Andrs Rna-Tas)

became an administrative center. It was strengthened by drystone

walls at the end of the century. Four churches surrounded by

cemeteries were unearthed in and around the settlement. At least one

of them continued to be used up to the 11th century.[123]

Pribina died fighting the Moravians in 861, and his son, Kocel inherited his estates. [124] The latter was succeeded

around 876 by Arnulf, a natural son of Carloman, king of East Francia.[125] Under his rule, Moravian troops interved

into the conflict known as the "Wilhelminer War" and "laid waste from the Raab eastward", between 882 and 884,according to theAnnals of Fulda.[126][127]
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=R%C3%A1bahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wilhelminer_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carloman_of_Bavariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_sonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arnulf_of_Carinthiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kocelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drystonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zalav%C3%A1rhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zala_%28river%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pribinahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AZalav%C3%A1r_-_Convent.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zalav%C3%A1rhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greekshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sz%C3%A9kelyshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moravians_%28tribe%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Danubehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Don_River_%28Russia%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_Basinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnonymhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcheshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Onogurshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Hungarian_Plainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transdanubiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Salzburg


8/24


Europe around 900

Moravia emerged in the 820s[128] under its first known ruler, Mojmir

I.[120] His successor, Rastislav, developed Moravia's military

strength. He promoted the proselytizing activities of the Byzantine

brothers, Constantine and Methodius in an attempt to seek

independence from East Francia.[120][129] Moravia reached its "peak

of importance" under Svatopluk I[130]

(870

894) who expanded itsfrontiers in all directions.[131]

Moravia's core territory is located in the regions on the northern

Morava river, in the territory of present-day Czech Republic and

Slovakia.[132] However, Constantine Porphyrogenitus places "great

Moravia, the unbaptized"[133] somewhere in the regions beyond

Belgrade and Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia).[134] His report supported further theories on Moravia's

location.[135] For instance, Krist and Senga propose the existence of two Moravias (one in the north and other one

in the south),[136] while Boba, Bowlus and Eggers argue that Moravia's core territory is in the region of the southern

Morava river, in present-day Serbia.[137] The existence of a southern Moravian realm is not supported by artifacts,

while strongholds unearthed at Mikulcice, Pohansko and other areas to the north of the Middle Danube point at theexistence of a power center in those regions.[138]

In addition to East Francia and Moravia, the first Bulgarian Empire was the third power deeply involved in the

Carpathian Basin in the 800s.[139] A late 10th-century Byzantine lexicon known as Suda adds that Krum of Bulgaria

attacked the Avars from the southeast around 803.[140] The Royal Frankish Annals narrates that the Abodrites

inhabiting "Dacia on the Danube"[141] (most probably along the lower courses of the river Tisza) sought the

assistance of the Franks against the Bulgars in 824.[142] Bulgarian troops also invaded Pannonia, "expelled the Slavic

chieftains and appointed Bulgar governors instead"[143] in 827.[144][145] An inscription at Provadia refers to a

Bulgarian military leader named Onegavonais drowning in the Tisza around the same time.[146] The emerging power

of Moravia brought about a rapprochement between Bulgaria and East Francia in the 860s.[147]

For instance, KingArnulf of East Francia sent an embassy to the Bulgarians in 892 in order "to renew the former peace and to ask that

they should not sell salt to the Moravians".[148] The latter request suggests that the route from the salt mines of the

Eastern Carpathians to Moravia was controlled around that time by the Bulgarians.[149][150]

The anonymous author of the Gesta Hungarorum, instead of Svatopluk I of Moravia and other rulers known from

contemporary sources, writes of personalities and polities that are not mentioned by chroniclers working at the end

of the 9th century.[151] For instance, he refers to Menumorut residing in the castle of Bihar (Biharia, Romania), to

Zobor "duke of Nitra by the grace of the Duke of the Czechs",[152] and to Gelou "a certain Vlach"[153] ruling over

Transylvania.[151] Although early medieval fortresses were unearthed at Bihar and other places east of the Tisza,

none of them definitively date to the 800s.[154] For instance, in the case of Doboka (Dbca), two pairs of

bell-shaped pendants with analogues in sites in Austria, Bulgaria and Poland have been unearthed, but Florin Curtadates them to the 9th century, while Alexandru Madgearu to the period between 975 and 1050.[155][156]

The Hungarian conquest

Prelude (892c. 895)

Three main theories attempt to explain the reasons for the "Hungarian land-taking".[157] One argues that it was an

intended military operation, prearranged following previous raids, with the express purpose of occupying a new

homeland.[157] This view (represented, for instance, by Bakay and Padnyi) mainly follows the narration of

Anonymous and later Hungarian chronicles.[158] The opposite view maintains that a joint attack by the Pechenegs

and the Bulgarians forced the Hungarians' hand.[159] Krist, Tth and the theory's other followers refer to the

unanimous testimony provided by the Annals of Fulda, Regino of Prm and Porphyrogenitus on the connection
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pendanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transylvaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vlachhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gelouhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Czechshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nitrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bihariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Menumoruthttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Carpathianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Provadiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frankshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daciahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abodriteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Frankish_Annalshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Krum_of_Bulgariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sudahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Danubehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Breclav%23History%23Pohanskohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mikulcicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Moravahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Moravahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Moravia%23Territory%23Alternative_theorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Moravia%23Territory%23Alternative_theorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Serbiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sremska_Mitrovicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sirmiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Belgradehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Czech_Republichttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morava_%28river%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morava_%28river%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Svatopluk_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saints_Cyril_and_Methodiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mojmir_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mojmir_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AEurope_around_900.jpg


9/24


between the Hungarians' conflict with the Bulgar-Pecheneg coalition and their withdrawal from the Pontic

steppes.[160][161] An intermediate theory proposes that the Hungarians had for decades been considering a westward

move when the Bulgarian-Pecheneg attack accelerated their decision to leave the Pontic steppes.[162] For instance

Rna-Tas argues, "[the] fact that, despite a series of unfortunate events, the Magyars managed to keep their heads

above water goes to show that they were indeed ready to move on" when the Pechenegs attacked them.[163]

In fact, following a break of eleven years, the Hungarians returned to the Carpathian Basin in 892.[78]

They came toassist Arnulf of East Francia against Svatopluk I of Moravia.[78][164]Widukind of Corvey and Liutprand of Cremona

condemned the Frankish monarch for destroying the defense lines built along the empire's borders, because this also

enabled the Hungarians to attack East Francia within a decade.[165]

Meanwhile Arnulf () could not overcome Sviatopolk, duke of the Moravians (); and alas! having

dismantled those very well fortified barriers which () are called "closures" by the populace. Arnulf

summoned to his aid the nation of the Hungarians, greedy, rash, ignorant of almighty God but well versed in

every crime, avid only for murder and plunder ().

Liutprand of Cremona:Retribution[166]

A late source,[18] Aventinus adds that Kurszn (Cusala), "king of the Hungarians" stipulated that his people would

only fight the Moravians if they received the lands they were to occupy.[164] Accordingly, Aventinus continues, the

Hungarians took possession of "both Dacias on this side and beyond" the Tisza east of the rivers Danube and Garam

already in 893.[164] Indeed, the Hungarian chronicles unanimously state that the Szkelys had already been present in

the Carpathian Basin when the Hungarians moved in.[167] Krist argues that Aventinus and the Hungarian historical

tradition together point at an early occupation of the eastern territories of the Carpathian Basin by auxiliary troops of

the Hungarian tribal confederation.[167]

Svatopluk I of Moravia disguised as a monk in

Arnulf of East Francia's court in the Chronicle of

Dalimil

The Annals of Fulda narrates under the year 894 that the Hungarians

crossed the Danube into Pannonia where they "killed men and old

women outright and carried off the young women alone with them like

cattle to satisfy their lusts and reduced the whole" province "todesert".[168][169] Although the annalist writes of this Hungarian attack

after the passage narrating Svatopluk I's death,[168] Gyrffy,

Krist,[170] Rna-Tas[171] and other historians suppose that the

Hungarians invaded Pannonia in alliance with the Moravian

monarch.[172] They argue that the "Legend of the White Horse" in the

Hungarian chronicles preserved the memory of a treaty the Hungarians

concluded with Svatopluk I according to pagan customs.[173] The

legend narrates that the Hungarians purchased their future homeland in the Carpathian Basin from Svatopluk for a

white horse harnessed with gilded saddle and reins.[170]

Then [ Kusid ] came to the leader of the region who reigned after Attila and whose name was Zuatapolug, and

saluted him in the name of his people [...]. On hearing this, Zuatapolug rejoiced greatly, for he thought that

they were peasant people who would come and till his land; and so he dismissed the messenger graciously.

[...] Then by a common resolve [the Hungarians] despatched the same messenger again to the said leader and

sent to him for his land a big horse with a golden saddle adorned with the gold of Arabia and a golden bridle.

Seeing it, the leader rejoiced all the more, thinking that they were sending gifts of homage in return for land.

When therefore the messenger asked of him land, grass and water, he replied with a smile, "In return for the

gift let them have as much as they desire." [...] Then [the Hungarians] sent another messenger to the leader

and this was the message which he delivered: "Arpad and his people say to you that you may no longer stay

upon the land which they bought of you, for with the horse they bought your earth, with the bridle the grass,
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bridlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kursz%C3%A1nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saddlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ADvur.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chronicle_of_Dalimilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chronicle_of_Dalimilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arnulf_of_Carinthiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Svatopluk_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sz%C3%A9kelyshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kursz%C3%A1nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liutprand_of_Cremonahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Widukind_of_Corvey


10/24


and with the saddle the water. And you, in your need and avarice, made to them a grant of land, grass and

water." When this message was delivered to the leader, he said with a smile: "Let them kill the horse with a

wooden mallet, and throw the bridle on the field, and throw the golden saddle into the water of the Danube."

To which the messenger replied: "And what loss will that be to them, lord? If you kill the horse, you will give

food for their dogs; if you throw the bridle on the field, their men will find the gold of the bridle when they

mow the hay; if you throw the saddle into the Danube, their fishermen will lay out the gold of the saddle upon

the bank and carry it home. If they have earth, grass and water, they have all."

Illuminated Chronicle[174]

Ismail Ibn Ahmed, the emir of Khorasan raided "the land of the Turks" [175] (the Karluks) in 893. Later he caused a

new movement of peoples who one by one invaded the lands of their western neighbors in the Eurasian

steppes.[176][177] Al-Masudi clearly connected the westward movement of the Pechenegs and the Hungarians to

previous fights between the Karluks, Ouzes and Kimeks.[178] Porphyrogenitus writes of a joint attack by the Khazars

and Ouzes that compelled the Pechenegs to cross the Volga River sometime between 893 and 902[179] (most

probably around 894).[177]

Originally, the Pechenegs had their dwelling on the river [Volga] and likewise on the river [Ural] (). But

fifty years ago the so-called Uzes made common cause with the Chazars and joined battle with the Pechenegs

and prevailed over them and expelled them from their country ().

Constantine Porphyrogenitus:De Administrando Imperio[180]

Leo the Wise and his son, Constantine

Porphyrogenitus on a Byzantine golden solidus

Seal of Simeon I of Bulgaria

The relationship between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire

sharpened in 894, because Emperor Leo the Wise forced the

Bulgarian merchants to leave Constantinople and settle in

Thessaloniki.[181] Subsequently, Tzar Simeon I of Bulgaria invaded

Byzantine territories[182] and defeated a small imperial troop.[183]

The Byzantines approached the Hungarians to hire them to fight the

Bulgarians.[182]

Nicetas Sclerus, the Byzantine envoy, concluded atreaty with their leaders, rpd and Kurszn (Kusan)[184] and

Byzantine ships transferred Hungarian warriors across the Lower

Danube.[182] The Hungarians invaded Bulgaria, forced Tzar Simeon

to flee to the fortress of Dristra (now Silistra, Bulgaria) and

plundered Preslav.[183] An interpolation in Porphyrogenitus's work

states that the Hungarians had a prince named "Liountikas, son of

Arpad" at that time, which suggests that he was the commander of

the army, but he might have been mentioned in the war context by

chance.[185]

Simultaneously with the Hungarian attack from the north, the

Byzantines invaded Bulgaria from the south. Tzar Simeon sent

envoys to the Byzantine Empire to propose a truce. At the same

time, he sent an embassy to the Pechenegs to incite them against the

Hungarians.[183] He succeeded and the Pechenegs broke into

Hungarian territories from the east, forcing the Hungarian warriors

to withdraw from Bulgaria.[186] The Bulgarians, according to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, attacked and routed the

Hungarians.[182][187]

The Pechenegs destroyed the Hungarians' dwelling places.[182] Those who survived the double attack left the Pontic

steppes and crossed the Carpathians in search of a new homeland.[182]

The memory of the destruction brought by thePechenegs seems to have been preserved by the Hungarians.[188] The Hungarian name of the Pechenegs (beseny)
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Southern_Buhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Southern_Buhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Li%C3%BCntikahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Preslavhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dristrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%81rp%C3%A1dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Simeon_I_of_Bulgariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thessalonikihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_the_Wisehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ASeal_of_Simeon_I_of_Bulgaria.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Simeon_I_of_Bulgariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AGoldSolidusLeoVIAndConstantinVIIPorphyrogenetos908-912.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solidus_%28coin%29%23Roman_and_Byzantine_coinagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_Porphyrogenitushttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_Porphyrogenitushttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_the_Wisehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Administrando_Imperiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_Porphyrogenitushttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ural_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volga_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khazarshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kimekshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ouzeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Masudihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurasian_steppeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurasian_steppeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karlukshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greater_Khorasanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ismail_Samanihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illuminated_Chroniclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mallet


11/24


corresponds to the old Hungarian word for eagle (bese). Thus the 14th-century Hungarian chronicles' story of eagles

compelling the Hungarians' ancestors to cross the Carpathians most probably refers to the Pechenegs' attack.[188]

The Hungarians were () driven from their home () by a neighboring people called the Petchenegs,

because they were superior to them in strength and number and because () their own country was not

sufficient to accommodate their swelling numbers. After they had been forced to flee by the violence of the

Petchenegs, they said goodbye to their homeland and set out to look for lands where they could live andestablish settlements.

Regino of Prm: Chronicle[189]

[At] the invitation of Leo, the Christ-loving and glorious emperor [the Hungarians] crossed over and fought

Symeon and totally defeated him, () and they went back to their own county. () But after Symeon () sent

to the Pechenegs and made an agreement with them to attack and destroy [the Hungarians] And when [the

latter] had gone off on a military expedition, the Pechenegs with Symeon came against [them] and completely

destroyed their families and miserably expelled thence [those] who were guarding their country. When [the

Hungarians] came back and found their country thus desolate and utterly ruined, they settled in the land where

they live today ().

Constantine Porphyrogenitus:De Administrando Imperio

Passing through the kingdom of the Bessi and the Cumani Albi and Susdalia and the city named Kyo, they

crossed the mountains and came into a region where they saw innumerable eagles; and because of the eagles

they could not stay in that place, for the eagles came down from the trees like flies and devoured both their

herds and their horses. For God intended that they should go down more quickly into Hungary. During three

months they made their descent from the mountains, and they came to the boundaries of the kingdom of

Hungary, that is to Erdelw [...].

Illuminated Chronicle[190]

First phase (c. 895

899)

The Hungarians' arrival in the Carpathian Basin

depicted in theIlluminated Chronicle

The date of the Hungarian invasion varies according to the

source.[191] The earliest date (677) is preserved in the 14th-century

versions of the "Hungarian Chronicle", while Anonymous supplies

the latest date (902).[192] Contemporaneous sources suggest that the

invasion followed the 894 Bulgarian-Byzantine war.[193]

The route taken across the Carpathians is also contested.[194][3]

Anonymous and Simon of Kza have the invading Hungarians

crossing the northeastern passes, while the Illuminated Chronicle

writes of their arrival in Transylvania.[195]

According toAnonymous, the Hungarians first occupied territories between the

Danube and the Tisza and fought with Menumorut before

conquering Gelou's Transylvania.[196] Thereafter, he continues, the

Hungarians turned against Salanus,[197] the ruler of the Slavs and

Bulgarians in the central territories between the Danube and the Tisza who received Byzantine and Bulgarian

assistance.[198] In contrast with Anonymous, Simon of Kza writes of the Hungarians' fight with Svatopluk

following their arrival.[3] Finally, according to the Illuminated Chronicle, the Hungarians "remained quietly in

Erdelw and rested their herds"[199] there after their crossing because of an attack by eagles.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AMagyarok-Bejovetele-ChroniconPictum.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illuminated_Chroniclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illuminated_Chroniclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transylvaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kievhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suzdaliahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cumanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pechenegshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Administrando_Imperiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_Porphyrogenitushttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regino_of_Pr%C3%BCm


12/24


Hungarian Conquest memorial at the Verecke Pass

(Ukraine)

The Hungarian chronicles preserved two separate lists of the

Hungarians' leaders at the time of the Conquest.[200] Anonymous

knows of lmos, Eld, Knd, nd, Tas, Huba and Ttny,[201] while

Simon of Kza and the Illuminated Chronicle list rpd, Szabolcs,

Gyula, rs, Knd, Ll and Vrbulcs.[200][202] Contemporaraneous

or nearly contemporaraneous sources make mention of lmos(Constantine Porphyrogenitus), of rpd (Continuation of the

Chronicle by George the Monk and Constantine Porphyrogenitus), of

Liountikas (Constantine Porphyrogenitus) and of Kurszn

(Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk).[203]

According to the Illuminated Chronicle, lmos, rpd's father "could not enter Pannonia, for he was killed in

Erdelw".[3] The episode implies that lmos was the kende, the sacred ruler of the Hungarians, at the time of their

destruction by the Pechenegs, which caused his sacrifice.[204] If his death was in fact the consequence of a ritual

murder, his fate was similar to the Khazar khagans who were executed, according to Ibn Fadlan and al-Masudi, in

case of disasters affecting their whole people.[3]

Berengar I of Italy

Regino of Prm states that the Hungarians "roamed the wildernesses

of the Pannonians and the Avars and sought their daily food by

hunting and fishing" following their arrival in the Carpathian

Basin.[14] Their advance towards the Danube seems to have

stimulated Arnulf who was crowned emperor to entrust Braslav (the

ruler of the region between the rivers Drava and Sava)[205] with the

defense of all Pannonia in 896.[206] In 897 or 898 a civil war broke

out between Mojmir II and Svatopluk II (two sons of the late

Moravian ruler, Svatopluk I), in which Emperor Arnulf alsointervened.[207][208][209] There is no mention of the Hungarians'

activities in those years.[210]

The next event recorded in connection with the Hungarians is their raid against Italy in 899 and 900. [211] The letter

of Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg and his suffragans suggests that Emperor Arnulf incited them to attack King

Berengar I of Italy.[212] They routed the Italian troops on September 2 at the river Brenta[213] and plundered the

region of Vercelli and Modena in the winter,[214] but the Doge of Venice, Pietro Tribuno defeated them at Venice on

June 29, 900.[212] They returned from Italy when they learned of the death of Emperor Arnulf at the end of 899. [215]

Second phase (900902)

The emperor's death released the Hungarians from their alliance with East Francia.[214] On their way back from Italy

they expanded their rule over Pannonia.[216] Furthermore, according to Liudprand of Cremona, the Hungarians

"claimed for themselves the nation of the Moravians, which King Arnulf had subdued with the aid of their

might"[217] at the coronation of Arnulf's son, Louis the Child in 900.[218] The Annals of Grado relates that the

Hungarians defeated the Moravians after their withdrawal from Italy.[219] Thereafter the Hungarians and the

Moravians made an alliance and jointly invaded Bavaria, according to Aventinus. [220] However, the contemporary

Annals of Fulda only refers to Hungarians reaching the river Enns.[221]

One of the Hungarian contingents crossed the Danube and plundered the territories on the river's north bank, but

Luitpold, Margrave of Bavaria gathered troops and routed them between Passau and Krems an der Donau [222] on

November 20, 900.[223] He had a strong fortress erected against them on the Enns.[224] Nevertheless, the Hungariansbecame the masters of the Carpathian Basin by the occupation of Pannonia.[223] TheRussian Primary Chronicle may
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Krems_an_der_Donauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Passauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luitpold%2C_Margrave_of_Bavariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Enns_%28river%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_the_Childhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Venicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pietro_Tribunohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doge_of_Venicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modenahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vercellihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brenta_%28river%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berengar_I_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Italy_%28medieval%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Svatopluk_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mojmir_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Savahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dravahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Braslav_of_Pannonian_Croatiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ABerengar_I_of_Italy.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berengar_I_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Fadlanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ritual_murderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ritual_murderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pannoniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%81lmos%2C_Grand_Prince_of_the_Magyarshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AConquest_memorial_Verecke_5.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Verecke_Pass


13/24


also reflect the memory of this event[218] when relating how the Hungarians expelled the "Volokhi" who had earlier

subjugated the Slavs' homeland in Pannonia.[225] These Volokhi, however, have also been associated either with the

Romans or with the Vlachs (Romanians), for instance by Cross[226] and Spinei,[227] respectively.[23]

Over a long period the Slavs settled beside the Danube, where the Hungarian and Bulgarian lands now lie.

From among these Slavs, parties scattered throughout the country and were known by appropriate names,

according to the places where they settled. (...) The [Hungarians] passed by Kiev over the hill now calledHungarian and on arriving at the Dnieper, they pitched camp. They were nomads like the Polovcians. Coming

out of the east, they struggled across the great mountains and began to fight against the neighboring

[Volokhi][225]and Slavs. For the Slavs had settled there first, but the [Volokhi] had seized the territory of the

Slavs. The [Hungarians] subsequently expelled the [Volokhi], took their land and settled among the Slavs,

whom they reduced to submission. From that time the territory was called Hungarian.

Russian Primary Chronicle[228]

King Louis the Child held a meeting at Regensburg in 901 to introduce further measures against the Hungarians.[224]

Moravian envoys proposed a peace between Moravia and East Francia, because the Hungarians had in the meantime

plundered their country.[224] A Hungarian army invading Carinthia was defeated[229] in April and Aventinus

describes a defeat of the Hungarians by Margrave Luitpold at the river Fischa in the same year.[230]

Consolidation (902907)

Ruins of the Moravian fortress at Ducov (Slovakia)

The date when Moravia ceased to exist is uncertain, because there is

no clear evidence either on the "existence of Moravia as a state" after

902 (Spinei) or on its fall.[216] A short note in the Annales

Alamannici refers to a "war with the Hungarians in Moravia" in 902,

during which the "land (patria) succumbed", but this text is

ambiguous.[231] Alternatively, the so-called Raffelstetten Customs

Regulations mentions the "markets of the Moravians" around905.[208] The Life of Saint Naum relates that the Hungarians

occupied Moravia, adding that the Moravians who "were not

captured by the Hungarians, ran to the Bulgars". Constantine

Porphyrogenitus also connects the fall of Moravia to its occupation

by the Hungarians.[21] The destruction of the early medieval urban centers and fortresses at Szepestamsfalva

(Spisk Tomovce), Dvny and other places in modern Slovakia is dated to the period around 900.[232]

After the death of (...) [Svatopluk I, his sons] remained at peace for a year and then strife and rebellion fell

upon them and they made a civil war against one another and the [Hungarians] came and utterly ruined them

and possessed their country, in which even now [the Hungarians] live. And those of the folk who were left were

scattered and fled for refuge to the adjacent nations, to the Bulgarians and [Hungarians] and Croats and to the

rest of the nations.

Constantine Porphyrogenitus:De Administrando Imperio[233]

According to Anonymous, who does not write of Moravia, the Hungarians invaded the region of Nyitra (Nitra,

Slovakia) and defeated and killed Zobor, the local Czech ruler, on Mount Zobor near his seat. [234] Thereafter, as

Anonymous continues, the Hungarians first occupied Pannonia from the "Romans" and next battled with Glad and

his army composed of Bulgarians, Romanians and Pechenegs from Banat. Glad ceded few towns from his duchy[235] Finally, Anonymous writes of a treaty between the Hungarians and Menumorut,[197] stipulating that the local

ruler's daughter was to be given in marriage to rpd's son, Zolta.[236] Macartney[237] argues that Anonymous's

narration of both Menumorot and of Glad is basically a transcription of a much later report of the early 11th-centuryAchtum, Glad's alleged descendant.[238] In contrast, for instance, Madgearu maintains that Galad,Kladova, Glade
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zolt%C3%A1n_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Achtumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kladovahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zolt%C3%A1n_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Achtumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kladovahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kladovahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Achtumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zolt%C3%A1n_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Menumoruthttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glad_%28duke%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nyitrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Administrando_Imperiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_Porphyrogenitushttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Croatshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Szepestam%C3%A1sfalvahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raffelstetten_Customs_Regulationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raffelstetten_Customs_Regulationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annales_Alamannicihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annales_Alamannicihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ADucove_hradisko_4.JPGhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slovakiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ducov%C3%A9https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Moraviahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fischahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=March_of_Carinthiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regensburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_Primary_Chroniclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_Mountainshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cumanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kievhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romanianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome


14/24


and other place names recorded in Banat in the 1300s and 1500s attest to the memory of a local ruler named

Glad.[239]

[The Hungarians] reached the region of Bega and stayed there for two weeks while they conquered all the

inhabitants of that land from the Mures to the Timis River and they received their sons as hostages. Then,

moving the army on, they came to the Timis River and encamped beside the ford of Foeni and when they

sought to cross the Timis's flow, there came to oppose them Glad, (...) the prince of that country, with a greatarmy of horsemen and foot soldiers, supported by Cumans, Bulgarians and Vlachs. (...) God with His grace

went before the Hungarians, He gave them a great victory and their enemies fell before them as bundles of hay

before reapers. In that battle two dukes of the Cumans and threekneses of the Bulgarians were slain and

Glad, their duke escaped in flight but all his army, melting like wax before flame, was destroyed at the point of

the sword. (...) Prince Glad, having fled, as we said above, for fear of the Hungarians, entered the castle of

Kovin. (...) [He] sent to seek peace with [the Hungarians] and of his own will delivered up the castle with

diverse gifts.

Anonymous: Gesta Hungarorum[240]

An important event following the conquest of the Carpathian Basin, the Bavarians' murder of Kurszn, was recorded

by the longer version of theAnnals of Saint Gall, theAnnales Alamannici and theAnnals of Einsiedeln.[241] The firstplaces the event in 902, while the others date it to 904.[241][242] The three chronicles unanimously state that the

Bavarians invited the Hungarian leader to a dinner on the pretext of negotiating a peace treaty and treacherously

assassinated him.[243] Krist and other Hungarian historians argue that the dual leadership over the Hungarians

ended with Kurszn's death.[244][245]

The Hungarians invaded Italy using the so-called "Route of the Hungarians" (Strada Ungarorum) leading from

Pannonia to Lombardy in 904.[246] They arrived as King Berengar I's allies[242] against his rival, King Louis of

Provance. The Hungarians devastated the territories occupied earlier by King Louis along the river Po, which

ensured Berengar's victory. The victorious monarch allowed the Hungarians to pillage all the towns that had earlier

accepted his opponent's rule,[246]and agreed to pay a yearly tribute of about 375 kilograms (827 lb) of silver. [242]

The longer version of the Annals of Saint Gall reports that Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg fell, along with

Bishops Uto of Freising and Zachary of Sben, in a "disastrous battle" fought against the Hungarians at

Brezalauspurc on July 4, 907.[247] Other contemporary sourcesWikipedia:Please clarify add that Margrave Luitpold

of Bavaria and 19 Bavarian counts[242] also died in the battle.[247] Most historians (including Engel,[213] Makkai,[248]

and Spinei) identify Brezalauspurc with Pressburg (Bratislava, Slovakia), but some researchers (for instance Boba

and Bowlus) argue that it can refer to Mosaburg, Braslav's fortress on the Zala in Pannonia.[249][250] The Hungarians'

victory hindered any attempts of eastward expansion by East Francia for the following decades [249] and opened the

way for the Hungarians to freely plunder vast territories of that kingdom.[213]
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zalav%C3%A1rhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pressburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Pressburg%23Locationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Please_clarifyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Po_%28river%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_the_Blindhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_the_Blindhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berengar_I_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annales_Sangallenses_maioreshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gesta_Hungarorumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kovinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knyazhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bega_River%2C_Romania_and_Serbia


15/24


Consequences

Settlements bearing the name of a Hungarian tribe in the Carpathian Basin

(after Sndor Trk). They may point at the places where the Hungarians lived

amongst other peoples and help in reconstructing where the tribes settled.

The Hungarians settled in the lowlands of the

Carpathian Basin along the rivers Danube,

Tisza and their tributaries,[251] where they

could continue their semi-nomadic

lifestyle.[252] As an immediate consequence,their arrival "drove a non-Slavic wedge

between the West Slavs and South Slavs"

(Fine).[253] Fine argues that the Hungarians'

departure from the western regions of the

Pontic steppes weakened their former allies, the

Khazars, which contributed to the collapse of

the Khazar Empire.[253]

The Hungarians left wide marches (the

so-called gyep) in the borderlands of their newhomeland uninhabited for defensive

purposes.[254] For instance, the Hungarians

conquered Transylvania in several stages between 900 and 1200. [255][256] In this easternmost territory of the

Carpathian Basin, the earliest graves attributed to Hungarian warriorsfor instance, at Szk (Sic), Torda (Turda)

and Vzakna (Ocna Sibiului)are concentrated around the Transylvanian salt mines in the valley of the rivers

Kis-Szamos (Someul Mic) and Maros (Mure).[257] All the same, warriors were also stationed in outposts east of the

Carpathians, as suggested by 10th-century graves unearthed at Krylos, Przemyl, Sudova Vyshnia, Grozeti, Probota

and at Tei.[258] The Hungarians' fear of their eastern neighbors, the Pechenegs, is demonstrated by Porphyrogenitus's

report on the failure of a Byzantine envoy to persuade them to attack the Pechenegs.[259] The Hungarians clearly

stated that they could not fight against the Pechenegs, because "their people are numerous and they are the devil'sbrats".[259][260]

Mihly Munkcsy: Conquest (1893)

Instead of attacking the Pechenegs and the Bulgarians in the east, the

Hungarians made several raids in Western Europe.[248] For instance,

they plundered Thuringia and Saxony in 908, Bavaria and Swabia in

909 and 910 and Swabia, Lorraine and West Francia in 912.[249]

Although a Byzantine hagiography of Saint George refers to a joint

attack of Pechenegs, "Moesians" and Hungarians against the

Byzantine Empire in 917, its reliability is not established. [261] The

Hungarians seem to have raided the Byzantine Empire for the first

time in 943.[262] However, their defeat in the battle of Lechfeld in

955 "put an end to the raids in the West" (Kontler), while they

stopped plundering the Byzantines following their defeat in the battle of Arkadiopolis in 970.[263]

The Hungarian leaders decided that their traditional lifestyle, partly based on plundering raids against sedentary

peoples, could not be continued.[128] The defeats at the Lechfeld and Arkadiopolis accelerated the Hungarians'

adoption of a sedentary way of life.[263] This process culminated in the coronation of the head of the Hungarians,

Stephen the first king of Hungary in 1000 and 1001.[264]
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=King_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephen_I_of_Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grand_Prince_of_the_Hungarianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Arcadiopolis_%28970%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Lechfeldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=West_Franciahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duchy_of_Lotharingiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duchy_of_Swabiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duchy_of_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duchy_of_Thuringiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AMunk%C3%A1csyHonfoglal%C3%A1sPM.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mih%C3%A1ly_Munk%C3%A1csyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tei%2C_Bucharesthttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Probotahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groze%C5%9Fti%2C_Iasihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sudova_Vyshniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Przemy%C5%9Blhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kryloshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maroshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kis-Szamoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V%C3%ADzaknahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turdahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sz%C3%A9khttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gyepuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=March_%28territory%29https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khazar_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khazarshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Slavshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=West_Slavshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ASummarised_map_of_occurrences_of_Hungarian_tribe_names_%28according_to_the_settlement_names%29.jpg


16/24


Artistic representation

The seven chieftains of the Hungarians, a detail of

theFeszty Panorama

The most famous perpetuation of the events is the Arrival of the

Hungarians or Feszty Panorama which is a large cyclorama (a

circular panoramic painting) by Hungarian painter rpd Feszty and

his assistants. It was completed in 1894 for the 1000th anniversary of

the event. Since the 1100th anniversary of the event in 1995, thepainting has been displayed in the pusztaszer National Heritage

Park, Hungary. Mihly Munkcsy also depicted the event under the

name of Conquest for the Hungarian Parliament Building in

1893.[citation needed]

Footnotes

[1] http:/ /en. wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Hungary& action=edit

[2][2] Kontler 1999, p. 42.

[3][3] Krist 1996a, p. 191.[4][4] Tth 1999, note 2 on p. 23.

[5][5] Roman 2003, p. 145.

[6][6] Engel 2003, p. 650.

[7][7] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 53.

[8][8] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 55.

[9] Rna-Tas 1999, pp. 5152.

[10][10] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 54.

[11][11] Engel 2003, p. 652.

[12][12] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 56.

[13][13] Engel 2003, p. 653.

[14][14] Engel 2003, p. 654.

[15][15] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 57.

[16][16] Krist 1996a, p. 176.

[17][17] Macartney 1953, p. 16.

[18][18] Madgearu 2005b, p. 91.

[19][19] Krist 1996a, p. 185.

[20][20] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 61.

[21][21] Krist 1996a, p. 193.

[22][22] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 62.

[23][23] Madgearu 2005b, p. 52.

[24][24] Macartney 1953, p. 1.

[25][25] Madgearu 2005b, p. 24.

[26][26] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 58.

[27][27] Szakcs 2006, p. 150.

[28] Buranbaeva & Mladineo 2011, p. 113.[29][29] Madgearu 2005b, p. 20.

[30][30] Curta 2006, p. 350.

[31][31] Macartney 1953, p. 59.

[32][32] Krist 1996a, p. 71.

[33] Rna-Tas 1999, pp. 117118., 134.

[34][34] Spinei 2003, p. 37.

[35][35] Engel 2001, p. 17.

[36][36] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 139.

[37][37] Engel 2001, p. 16.

[38][38] Spinei 2003, p. 39.

[39] Rna-Tas 1999, pp. 133134.

[40][40] Spinei 2003, p. 24.[41][41] Spinei 2003, pp. 55., 58.

[42] Spinei 2003, pp. 108109.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Hungary&action=edithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Parliament_Buildinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mih%C3%A1ly_Munk%C3%A1csyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%93pusztaszer_National_Heritage_Parkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%93pusztaszer_National_Heritage_Parkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%81rp%C3%A1d_Fesztyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Panoramic_paintinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cycloramahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arrival_of_the_Hungarianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arrival_of_the_Hungarianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AArpadfeszty.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seven_chieftains_of_the_Hungarians


17/24


[43][43] Curta 2006, p. 193.

[44][44] Barford 2001, p. 231.

[45][45] Spinei 2003, p. 57.

[46][46] Curta 2001, p. 151.

[47] Spinei 2003, pp. 5759.

[48][48] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 111.

[49][49] Krist 1996b, p. 95.

[50][50] Kiss 1983, pp. 187., 190., 233., 408., 481., 532., 599., 643.[51][51] Kiss 1983, pp. 80., 108., 661., 712.

[52][52] Makkai 2001.

[53][53] Krist 1996b, p. 96.

[54] Kiss 1983, pp. 166167., 331., 465., 697.

[55] Rna-Tas 1999, pp. 110111.

[56][56] Engel 2001, pp. 44, 57.

[57][57] Hajd 2001, p. 243.

[58][58] Krist 1996b, p. 98.

[59][59] Krist 1996b, p. 96., 98.

[60] Kiss 1983, pp. 9192.

[61][61] Kontler 1999, p. 39.

[62][62] Engel 2001, pp. 10.[63][63] Curta 2006, p. 123.

[64][64] Spinei 2003, p. 50.

[65] The Annals of St-Bertin (year 862), p. 102

[66][66] Bowlus 1994, p. 237.

[67][67] Bowlus 1994, p. 338.

[68][68] Krist 1996a, pp. 148., 156.

[69] Spinei 2003, pp. 4243.

[70][70] Porphyrogenitus 1967, (ch. 38), p. 173.

[71][71] Porphyrogenitus 1967, ch. 175.

[72][72] Krist 1996a, p. 156.

[73][73] Spinei 2003, p. 44.

[74][74] Curta 2006, p. 124.

[75][75] Makkai 1994, p. 10.

[76] Krist 1996a, pp. 116117.

[77][77] Anonymus, Notary of King Bla: The Deeds of the Hungarians 2010, (chapter 1), p. 11.

[78][78] Spinei 2003, p. 51.

[79][79] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 329.

[80] Bowlus 1994, pp. 237238.

[81][81] Madgearu 2005b, pp. 34., 37.

[82] Rna-Tas 1999, pp. 6972.

[83][83] Spinei 2003, p. 33.

[84] Krist 1996a, pp. 101104.

[85][85] Rna-Tas 1999, pp. 343., 347.

[86][86] Spinei 2003, p. 42.

[87][87] Rna-Tas 1999, pp. 343., 353.[88][88] Engel 2001, p. 15.

[89] Engel 2001, pp. 1516.

[90][90] Spinei 2003, p. 20.

[91] The Chronicle of Regino of Prm (year 889), p. 205.

[92][92] Spinei 2003, p. 19.

[93][93] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 358.

[94][94] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 136.

[95] The Taktika of Leo VI (18.4750), pp. 455457.

[96][96] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 262.

[97] Makkai 1994, pp. 67.

[98][98] Engel 2001, p. 2.

[99] Kontler 1999, pp. 3132.

[100][100] Curta 2006, p. 92.

[101][101] Spiesz et al. 2006, p. 19.


18/24


[102][102] Makkai 1994, p. 7.

[103][103] Szke 2003, p. 314.

[104] Bowlus 1994, pp. 5758.

[105][105] Bowlus 1994, p. 57.

[106][106] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 264.

[107][107] Pohl 1998, p. 19.

[108][108] Olajos 2001, p. 55.

[109][109] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 285-286.[110][110] Krist 1996b, p. 97-98.

[111][111] Engel 2001, p. 8.

[112] Macartney 1953, pp. 6465, 70.

[113][113] Anonymus, Notary of King Bla: The Deeds of the Hungarians 2010, (ch. 9.), p. 27.

[114][114] Madgearu 2005b, p. 45.

[115][115] Anonymus, Notary of King Bla: The Deeds of the Hungarians 2010, (ch. 11.), p. 33.

[116][116] Simon of Kza 2010, (chapter 23.), p. 73-75.

[117] Madgearu 2005b, pp. 4647.

[118][118] Macartney 1953, p. 103.

[119] Bowlus 1994, pp. 7273.

[120][120] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 243.

[121][121] Barford 2001, p. 95.[122][122] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 133.

[123][123] Szke 2003, p. 315.

[124][124] Bowlus 1994, p. 125.

[125][125] Bowlus 1994, p. 202.

[126] The Annals of Fulda (year 884), p. 110.

[127] Bowlus 1994, pp. 208213.

[128][128] Spiesz et al. 2006, p. 20.

[129] Spiesz et al. 2006, pp. 2122.

[130] Kontler 1999, pp. 3133.

[131] Spiesz et al. 2006, pp. 2425.

[132] Curta 2006, pp. 126127.

[133] Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (ch. 40), p. 177.

[134][134] Krist 1996a, p. 180.

[135] Krist 1996a, pp. 180181.

[136][136] Krist 1996a, p. 181.

[137][137] Curta 2006, p. 127.

[138][138] Curta 2006, p. 130.

[139][139] Engel 2001, p. 4.

[140][140] Curta 2006, p. 149.

[141] Royal Frankish Annals (year 824), p. 116.

[142] Curta 2006, pp. 157159.

[143] Royal Frankish Annals (year 827), p. 122.

[144][144] Fine 1991, p. 107.

[145][145] Curta 2006, p. 158.

[146][146] Curta 2006, p. 159.[147][147] Fine 1991, p. 118.

[148] Bowlus 1994, pp. 224225., 229.

[149][149] Bowlus 1994, p. 229.

[150] The Annals of Fulda (year 892), p. 124.

[151][151] Fine 2001, p. 11.



[154] Curta 2001, pp. 148149.

[155][155] Madgearu 2005b, p. 115.

[156][156] Curta 2001, pp. 148.

[157][157] Tth 1998, p. 169.

[158] Tth 1998, pp. 169., 230231.

[159][159] Tth 1998, p. 170.

[160][160] Tth 1998, pp. 170., 226., 234.


19/24


[161] Krist 1996a, pp. 181182.

[162] Tth 1998, pp. 169170.

[163][163] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 336.

[164][164] Krist 1996a, p. 175.

[165][165] Bowlus 1994, p. 241.

[166] Liudprand of Cremona: Retribution (1.13), p. 56.

[167][167] Krist 1996b, p. 107.

[168][168] Bowlus 1994, p. 240.[169] The Annals of Fulda (year 894), p. 129.

[170][170] Krist 1996a, p. 177.

[171][171] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 332.

[172] Tth 1998, pp. 149150.

[173][173] Tth 1998, p. 150.

[174] The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 28), p. 99.

[175] The History of al-Tabari (38:2138), p. 11.

[176][176] Tth 1998, p. 178.

[177][177] Krist 1996a, p. 182.

[178] Tth 1998, pp. 178179.

[179] Tth 1998, pp. 179180.

[180] Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (ch. 37), p. 167.[181][181] Fine 1991, p. 137.

[182][182] Curta 2006, p. 178.

[183][183] Fine 1991, p. 138.

[184][184] Krist 1996a, p. 183.

[185][185] Krist 1996a, p. 186.

[186][186] Fine 1994, p. 139.

[187][187] Engel 2001, p. 12.

[188][188] Krist 1996a, p. 188.

[189] The Chronicle of Regino of Prm (year 889), pp. 204205.


[191][191] Tth 1998, p. 189.

[192] Tth 1998, pp. 189190.

[193][193] Tth 1998, p. 191.

[194][194] Spinei 2003, p. 55.

[195] Spinei 2009, pp. 7172.

[196] Madgearu 2005b, pp. 2223.

[197][197] Madgearu 2005b, p. 22.

[198][198] Spinei 2003, p. 59.


[200][200] Spinei 2003, p. 31.


[202] Simon of Kza 2010, (chapters 2733.), p. 81-85.

[203][203] Tth 1998, p. 116., 121., 125.

[204] Krist 1996, pp. 191192.

[205] Bowlus 1994, pp. 214., 241242.[206][206] Krist 1996, p. 195.

[207][207] Bowlus 1994, p. 243.

[208][208] Bartl 2002, p. 23.

[209][209] Spiesz et al. 2006, p. 25.

[210][210] Krist 1996, p. 197.

[211] Krist 1996, pp. 197198.

[212][212] Krist 1996, p. 198.

[213][213] Engel 2003, p. 13.

[214][214] Spinei 2003, p. 68.

[215][215] Bowlus 1994, pp. 244, 246.

[216][216] Spinei 2003, p. 69.

[217] Liudprand of Cremona: Retribution (2.2), p. 75.

[218][218] Krist 1996a, p. 200.

[219][219] Bowlus 1994, p. 246.


20/24


[220][220] Krist 1996, p. 199.

[221][221] Bowlus 1994, p. 247.

[222] Bowlus 1994, pp. 247248.

[223][223] Krist 1996a, p. 199.

[224][224] Bowlus 1994, p. 248.

[225][225] Madgearu 2005b, p. 51.

[226] Russian Primary Chronicle (1953, note 29 on p. 235)

[227][227] Spinei 2009, p. 73.[228] The Russian Primary Chronicle (Introduction and years 888898), pp. 5253., 62.

[229] Bowlus 1994, pp. 248250.

[230][230] Krist 1996b, p. 142.

[231][231] Krist 1996b, p. 141.

[232] Barford 2001, pp. 109111.

[233] Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (ch. 41), p. 181.

[234][234] Bowlus 1994, p. 257.

[235][235] Madgearu 2005b, pp. 22., 33., 39.

[236][236] Spinei 2003, p. 62.

[237][237] Madgearu 2005b, p. 25.

[238][238] Macartney 1953, pp. 71., 79.

[239] Madgearu 2005b, pp. 35

36.[240][240] Anonymus, Notary of King Bla 2010, (ch. 44.), p. 97.

[241][241] Krist 1996, p. 201.

[242][242] Spinei 2003, p. 70.

[243][243] Bowlus 1994, p. 250.

[244][244] Krist 1996a, p. 203.

[245][245] Bowlus 1994, p. 251.

[246][246] Bowlus 1994, p. 254.

[247][247] Bowlus 1994, p. 258.

[248][248] Makkai 1994, p. 12.

[249][249] Spinei 2003, p. 72.

[250] Bowlus 1994, pp. 259265.

[251][251] Spiesz et al. 2006, p. 27.

[252][252] Kontler 1999, p. 45.

[253][253] Fine 1991, p. 139.

[254][254] Kontler 1999, p. 44.

[255][255] Horedt 1986, p. 111.

[256][256] Ngler 2005, p. 212.

[257] Madgearu 2005b, pp. 110111.

[258][258] Rna-Tas 1999, p. 118.

[259][259] Krist 1996b, p. 145.

[260] Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (ch. 8), p. 57

[261] Spinei 2003, pp. 7677.

[262][262] Spinei 2003, p. 77.

[263][263] Kontler 1999, p. 47.

[264][264] Spinei 2003, p. 84.

References

Primary sources

Anonymus, Notary of King Bla: The Deeds of the Hungarians (Edited, Translated and Annotated by Martyn

Rady and Lszl Veszprmy) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprmy, Lszl; Bak, Jnos M. (2010);Anonymus

and Master Roger; CEU Press; ISBN 978-9639776951.

Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (Greek text edited by Gyula Moravcsik, English

translation by Romillyi J. H. Jenkins) (1967). Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. ISBN

0-88402-021-5.


21/24


Liudprand of Cremona: Retribution (2007). In: The Complete Works of Liudprand of Cremona (Translated by

Paolo Squatriti); The Catholic University of Press; ISBN 978-0-8132-1506-8.

Royal Frankish Annals (1972). In: Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard's Histories

(Translated by Bernhard Walter Scholz with Barbara Rogers); The University of Michigan Press; ISBN

0-472-06186-0.

Simon of Kza: The Deeds of the Hungarians (Edited and translated by Lszl Veszprmy and Frank Schaer with

a study by Jen Szcs) (1999). CEU Press. ISBN 963-9116-31-9.

The Annals of Fulda (Ninth-Century Histories, Volume II) (Translated and annotated by Timothy Reuter) (1992).

Manchaster University Press. ISBN 0-7190-3458-2.

The Annals of St-Bertin (Ninth-Century Histories, Volume I) (Translated and annotated by Janet L. Nelson)

(1991). Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-3426-8.

The Chronicle of Regino of Prm (2009). In:History and Politics in Late Carolingian and Ottonian Europe: The

Chronicle of Regino of Prm and Adalbert of Magdeburg (Translated and annotated by Simon MacLean);

Manchester University Press; ISBN 978-0-7190-7135-5.

The History of al-Tabar, Volume XXXVIII: The Return of the Caliphate to Baghdad (Translated by Franz

Rosenthal) (1985). State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-876-4. The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle: Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezs Dercsnyi) (1970).

Corvina, Taplinger Publishing. ISBN 0-8008-4015-1.

The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text (Translated and edited by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P.

Sherbowitz-Wetzor) (1953). Medieval Academy of America. ISBN 978-0-915651-32-0.

The Taktika of Leo VI (Text, translation, and commentary by George T. Dennis) (2010). Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN

978-0-88402-359-3.

Secondary sources

Barford, P. M. (2001). The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe. Cornell

University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3977-9. Bartl, Jlius (2002). Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers.

ISBN 0-86516-444-4.

Bowlus, Charles R. (1994).Franks, Moravians and Magyars: The Struggle for the Middle Danube, 788907.

University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3276-3.

Buranbaeva, Oksana; Mladineo, Vanja (2011). Culture and Customs of Hungary. ABC-CLIO.

ISBN 978-0-313-38369-4.

Curta, Florin (2001). "Transylvania around A.D 1000". In Urbaczyk, Przemyslaw.Europe around the Year

1000. Wydawn. pp. 141165. ISBN 83-7181-211-6.

Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 5001250. Cambridge University Press.

ISBN 978-0-521-89452-4. Engel, Pl (2001). The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 8951526. I.B. Tauris Publishers.

ISBN 1-86064-061-3.

(Hungarian) Engel, Pl (2003). "A honfoglals s a Fehrl-monda "igaz trtnete" [The "True Story" of the

Hungarian Conquest and the Legend of the White Horse]". In Csukovits, Enik.Engel Pl: Honor, vr, ispnsg:

Vlogatott tanulmnyok [Engel, Pl: Honor, Castle, County: Selected Studies]. Osiris Kiad. pp. 649660.

ISBN 963-389-392-5.

Fine, John V. A (1991). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth

century. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7.

Hajd, Mihly (2004). "The Hungarian language". In Nanovfszky, Gyrgy; Rubovszky, va; Klima, Lszl et al.

The Finno-Ugric World. Teleki Lszl Foundation & Hungarian National Organisation of the World Congress ofFinno-Ugric Peoples. pp. 235246. ISBN 963-7081-01-1.
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/963-7081-01-1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-472-08149-7https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/963-389-392-5https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/1-86064-061-3https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89452-4https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/83-7181-211-6https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38369-4https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-8122-3276-3https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-86516-444-4https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-8014-3977-9https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Number


22/24


(German) Horedt, Kurt (1986). Siebenbrgen im Frhmittelalter [Transylvania in the Early Middle Ages].

Habelt. ISBN 3-7749-2195-4.

(Hungarian) Kiss, Lajos (1983).F

hungarian conquest of the carpathian basin

Documents