How to write a scientific articleHow to write a scientific article

Saleem Saaed QaderMBChB, MD, MSc, MPH, PhD, SBGSConsultant General Surgeon, Lecturer

General Director, Medical Research Centre, Hawler Medical UniversityDepartment of Surgery, Rizgary Teaching Hospital Department of Surgery, Medical College, Hawler Medical University

TMC Oct 2014

How to write a scientific text?How to write a scientific text?

Logical in such way that others can repeat it Find out what is already known in the field Find relevant published litteraturs (References) Figures and tables should be clear Language – simple and clear sentences Understandable and comprehensive

Before starting to write the paperBefore starting to write the paper

Record your results

Make tables and draw graphs

Open a file to record summaries of results

Date the files

Revise your readings (repeat an experiment)

Write ideas whenever they come to you

IMRAD FormatIMRAD Format

I = Introduction (what problem was studied)

M = Methods (how was the problem studied)

R = Results (what are the findings)

A = and

D = Discussion (what do these findings mean or what is learned from these findings)

Essential parts of a scientific paperEssential parts of a scientific paper

Title: Describe the core contents of the paper Abstract: Summarize the major elements Introduction: Provide context/rationale for study Materials: Describe the design (reproducible) Methods: Describe the experimental procedures Results: Summarize the finding (not interpret) Discussion: Interpret the findings of the study Conclusions: What does your results mean!! Acknowledgement: Give credit to those helped References: papers, books& websites (you cited) Legends for tables and figures

Key Wards: for indexingKey Wards: for indexing

Running TitleRunning Title

Correspondence: the one who submit it and to be Correspondence: the one who submit it and to be responsible for contact in the futureresponsible for contact in the future

TitleTitle

List of the Authors and their affiliationsList of the Authors and their affiliations

Those who have actively contributed to the paper,Those who have actively contributed to the paper,

First author is the senior authorFirst author is the senior author

Title pageTitle page

AuthorshipAuthorship

Getting funds, collection of data, or general supervision of the research group, alone does not justify authorship

Each author should have sufficiently participated in the work

The corresponding author should ensure that all appropriate co-authors are included on the paper

People who have helped but not authors should be acknowledged

The TitleThe Title

A good title is defined as the fewest possible A good title is defined as the fewest possible words that adequately describe the contentswords that adequately describe the contents

It is extremely important and must be chosen with It is extremely important and must be chosen with great care as it will be read by thousands, whereas great care as it will be read by thousands, whereas few will read the entire paperfew will read the entire paper

Indexing and abstracting of the paper depends on Indexing and abstracting of the paper depends on the accuracy of the titlethe accuracy of the titleAn improperly titled paper will get lost and will An improperly titled paper will get lost and will never be readnever be read

Titles should neither be too short nor too longTitles should neither be too short nor too long

Waste words (studies on, investigations on, a, an, Waste words (studies on, investigations on, a, an, the etc) should not be usedthe etc) should not be used

It should contain the keywordsIt should contain the keywords

It should be meaningful and not generalIt should be meaningful and not general

It should be concise, specific and informativeIt should be concise, specific and informative

It should capture the fundamental nature of the It should capture the fundamental nature of the experiments and findingsexperiments and findings

How to prepare the titleHow to prepare the title

Make a list of the most important keywordsMake a list of the most important keywords

Think of a title that contains these wordsThink of a title that contains these words

The title could state the conclusion of the paperThe title could state the conclusion of the paper

The title The title NEVERNEVER contains abbreviations, chemical contains abbreviations, chemical formulasformulas

Think, rethink of the title before submitting Think, rethink of the title before submitting

Be very careful of the grammatical errors Be very careful of the grammatical errors

The AbstractThe Abstract A summary of the informationA summary of the information

It is written clearly/simply, as it is the first and It is written clearly/simply, as it is the first and sometimes the only part of the study readsometimes the only part of the study read

It should provide a brief summary of each section It should provide a brief summary of each section

State the principal objective/scope of the studyState the principal objective/scope of the study

Describe the methods, results & the conclusionsDescribe the methods, results & the conclusions It is written after completion of the paperIt is written after completion of the paper

““readable, well-organized, brief and self-containedreadable, well-organized, brief and self-contained “ “

Criteria of the AbstractCriteria of the Abstract It should not exceed 250 wordsIt should not exceed 250 words

It should be written in one paragraphIt should be written in one paragraph

It should be written in the past tense It should be written in the past tense

Long words followed by their abbreviations which Long words followed by their abbreviations which will be used throughout the paperwill be used throughout the paper

It should not cite any referencesIt should not cite any references

It should not give information that is not in a paperIt should not give information that is not in a paper

Must be accurate with respect to figuresMust be accurate with respect to figures

The IntroductionThe Introduction

It should answer the following questions:It should answer the following questions:1.1. What was the study?What was the study?

2.2. Why was this an important question?Why was this an important question?

3.3. What did I know about this topic before (study)?What did I know about this topic before (study)?

4.4. What model was I testing? What model was I testing?

5.5. What approach did I take in this study?What approach did I take in this study?

Objective/ Hypothesis Objective/ Hypothesis at the end of introductionat the end of introduction

““short, concise, comprehensive”short, concise, comprehensive”

General rulesGeneral rules Use the present tense when referring to othersUse the present tense when referring to others

Use the active voice as much as possibleUse the active voice as much as possible

Avoid lengthy/unfocused reviews of literatures Avoid lengthy/unfocused reviews of literatures

Cite peer-reviewed literature or reviewsCite peer-reviewed literature or reviews

Avoid general reference (textbooks)Avoid general reference (textbooks)

Define any specialized terms or abbreviations Define any specialized terms or abbreviations

Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods Provide full details (can be repeated)Provide full details (can be repeated)

If the peer reviewer has doubts that the experiments could be repeated, If the peer reviewer has doubts that the experiments could be repeated, the manuscript will be rejectedthe manuscript will be rejected

Organize the methods under subheadings, with related methods Organize the methods under subheadings, with related methods described together (e.g. subjects, experimental design, measurement described together (e.g. subjects, experimental design, measurement of…, hormonal assays etc…)of…, hormonal assays etc…)

Describe the experimental design in detailDescribe the experimental design in detail

Do Do not not mix mix the results in this sectionthe results in this section

Write in the past tenseWrite in the past tense

MaterialsMaterials

Must identify accurately animals, plants, and Must identify accurately animals, plants, and microorganisms used by genus, species and strainmicroorganisms used by genus, species and strain

The source of subjects studied, number of individuals The source of subjects studied, number of individuals in each group used, sex, age & weight must be definedin each group used, sex, age & weight must be defined

If human subjects are used, the criteria for selection If human subjects are used, the criteria for selection should be described: should be described: Inclusion/ Exclusion criteriaInclusion/ Exclusion criteria

For chemicals: include exact technical specifications, For chemicals: include exact technical specifications, source or method of preparationsource or method of preparation

Avoid use of trade names of chemicals, generic or Avoid use of trade names of chemicals, generic or chemical names are preferredchemical names are preferred

MethodsMethods

It must be clear, precise/concise (reproducible)It must be clear, precise/concise (reproducible)

If the method is new, If the method is new, all all details must be provideddetails must be provided

If the method has been previously published in a If the method has been previously published in a scientific journal, only the reference should be scientific journal, only the reference should be given with some identificationgiven with some identification

Questions: “Questions: “how/ how muchhow/ how much” must be answered” must be answered

Statistics must be mentionedStatistics must be mentioned

Ethics consideration Ethics consideration

Ethics consideration Ethics consideration & consent (verbal or written)& consent (verbal or written) Research subjects rights to withdraw from the Research subjects rights to withdraw from the

study at any stagestudy at any stage How the research was explained to the research How the research was explained to the research

subjectssubjects REC: Research Ethics Committee approval, when REC: Research Ethics Committee approval, when

and whereand where

ResultsResults It is written in the past tenseIt is written in the past tense

It is the core or heart of the paperIt is the core or heart of the paper

Clear/ simple since it constitutes the new science Clear/ simple since it constitutes the new science

The purpose is to summarize/ illustrate the findings in The purpose is to summarize/ illustrate the findings in an orderly/ logical sequence, without interpretationan orderly/ logical sequence, without interpretation

The text should guide the reader through the The text should guide the reader through the findings, stressing the major pointsfindings, stressing the major points

Do not describe methods that have already been Do not describe methods that have already been described in the M&M sectiondescribed in the M&M section

Methods of presenting the dataMethods of presenting the data

1.1. In the textIn the text2.2. In a tableIn a table3.3. In a figureIn a figure

All figures/tables All figures/tables mustmust be accompanied by a be accompanied by a textual presentation of the key findingstextual presentation of the key findings

Never have a table or figure that is not Never have a table or figure that is not mentioned in the textmentioned in the text

Tables and figuresTables and figures Tables are appropriate for large or complicated data Tables are appropriate for large or complicated data

sets that would be difficult to explain in a textsets that would be difficult to explain in a text

Figures are appropriate for data sets that exhibit Figures are appropriate for data sets that exhibit trends, patterns, or relationships that are best trends, patterns, or relationships that are best conveyed visuallyconveyed visually

Any table or figure must be sufficiently described Any table or figure must be sufficiently described by its title or legend, to be understandable without by its title or legend, to be understandable without reading the main text of resultsreading the main text of results

Do not include both a table and a figure showing the Do not include both a table and a figure showing the same informationsame information

Give your own idea and try to show your conceptual Give your own idea and try to show your conceptual ability that you have digested the subjectability that you have digested the subject

Analyse, Asses, Classify and InterpretAnalyse, Asses, Classify and Interpret

What do your findings mean? What do your findings mean? Summarize the most important findingsSummarize the most important findings

DiscussionDiscussion

How to write the discussionHow to write the discussion

It is the hardest section to writeIt is the hardest section to write

Its primary purpose is to show the Its primary purpose is to show the relationships among observed factsrelationships among observed facts

It should end with a short summary It should end with a short summary (conclusion) regarding the significance of (conclusion) regarding the significance of the workthe work

Components of the discussionComponents of the discussion Try to present the principles, relationships, and generalizations shown Try to present the principles, relationships, and generalizations shown

by the resultsby the results

Point out any exceptions or any lack of correlation and define Point out any exceptions or any lack of correlation and define unsettled pointsunsettled points

Show how your results agree or contrast with previously published Show how your results agree or contrast with previously published workwork

Discuss the theoretical implications, and any possible practical Discuss the theoretical implications, and any possible practical applicationsapplications

State your conclusions as clearly as possibleState your conclusions as clearly as possible

What can you logically conclude through the What can you logically conclude through the analysis of your data?  analysis of your data? 

ConclusionsConclusions

Introduce your conclusions by using a strong verb Introduce your conclusions by using a strong verb such as ”such as ”showshow” or ”” or ”indicateindicate””Identify speculations by using ”Identify speculations by using ”mightmight” with the ” with the verbverb

AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgments

You should acknowledge: Any significant technical help from any one in your

lab/ elsewhere The source of equipment, cultures, or any other

material Any financial assistance e.g. grants, contracts or

fellowships Your university (HMU) for sponsoring …

Do not use the word “wish”, simply write “I thank …..” and not “I wish to thank…”

Acknowledgement is to the person whose help is acknowledging

The supervisor (everything is his/her fault, but he/ she The supervisor (everything is his/her fault, but he/ she deserves a thank!)deserves a thank!)

Co-advisors and colleagues who have helped you with Co-advisors and colleagues who have helped you with various aspects of the research work, including collection of various aspects of the research work, including collection of field datafield data

Colleagues who read and commented the manuscript(s) Colleagues who read and commented the manuscript(s) prior to submission for publication and journal’s refereesprior to submission for publication and journal’s referees

Relatives (wife/husband, girl/boyfriend, children, parants, Relatives (wife/husband, girl/boyfriend, children, parants, grand parants, etc) and friendsgrand parants, etc) and friends

Include people who gave you key ideasInclude people who gave you key ideas

Acknowledgments; ThesisAcknowledgments; Thesis

ReferencesReferences

What is referencing? What is referencing? It is a standardized way of acknowledging theIt is a standardized way of acknowledging thesources of information/ ideas used in your papersources of information/ ideas used in your paper

A list of ALL the references used in the text must A list of ALL the references used in the text must be writtenbe written

Reference format varies widely: Reference format varies widely: Harvard formatHarvard format (name/ year system): most (name/ year system): most

widely usedwidely used Alphabet-Number systemAlphabet-Number system is a modification of is a modification of

name and year systemname and year system Citation order systemCitation order system

In-text citations In-text citations In name and year system:In name and year system: Citation in the text is followed by the author’s last Citation in the text is followed by the author’s last

name/year of publication between parentheses name/year of publication between parentheses

If they were two authors (both last names are If they were two authors (both last names are writtenwritten

If more than two then the only first author’s If more than two then the only first author’s name is written followed by: abbreviation name is written followed by: abbreviation et alet al

If a single statement requires If a single statement requires more than one more than one citationcitation then arrange them chronologically from then arrange them chronologically from oldest to more recent, separated by semicolonsoldest to more recent, separated by semicolons

If If more than one referencemore than one reference share the same year share the same year then arrange them alphabetically within the yearthen arrange them alphabetically within the year

In name and year system:In name and year system: The reference list is arranged alphabetically by authorThe reference list is arranged alphabetically by author If an item has no author, it is cited by title, and included in If an item has no author, it is cited by title, and included in

the list using the first significant word of the title the list using the first significant word of the title If more than one item has the same author, list the items If more than one item has the same author, list the items

chronologically, starting with the earliest publicationchronologically, starting with the earliest publication Each reference appears on a new lineEach reference appears on a new line There is no indentation of the referencesThere is no indentation of the references There is no numbering of the referencesThere is no numbering of the references

In alphabet-number system:In alphabet-number system:It the same as above but each reference is given a numberIt the same as above but each reference is given a number

(Citation by number from an alphabetically arranged numbered reference (Citation by number from an alphabetically arranged numbered reference list )list )

In Citation order system:In Citation order system:The reference list is arranged by the number given to the citation by the The reference list is arranged by the number given to the citation by the

order that it were mentioned in the textorder that it were mentioned in the text

Reference ListReference List

Any papers not cited in the text should not be Any papers not cited in the text should not be includedincluded

Reference lists allow readers to investigate the Reference lists allow readers to investigate the subject in greater depth subject in greater depth

A reference list contains only the articles that are A reference list contains only the articles that are cited in the text of the documentcited in the text of the document

BookBook1.  Okuda M, Okuda D. 1.  Okuda M, Okuda D. Star Trek Chronology: The History ofStar Trek Chronology: The History ofthe Future.the Future.  New York: Pocket Books; 1993.  New York: Pocket Books; 1993.

Journal or Magazine Article (with volume numbers)Journal or Magazine Article (with volume numbers)2.  Wilcox RV. Shifting roles and synthetic women in Star 2.  Wilcox RV. Shifting roles and synthetic women in Star

trek: the next generation. trek: the next generation. Stud Pop Culture.Stud Pop Culture. 1991;13:53-65. 1991;13:53-65.

Newspaper, Magazine (without volume numbers)Newspaper, Magazine (without volume numbers)3.  Di Rado A. Trekking through college: classes explore3.  Di Rado A. Trekking through college: classes exploremodern society using the world of Star trek. modern society using the world of Star trek. Los AngelesLos AngelesTimesTimes. March 15, 1995:A3.      . March 15, 1995:A3.      

Encyclopedia ArticleEncyclopedia Article4.  Sturgeon T. Science fiction. In: Lorimer LT, editorial4.  Sturgeon T. Science fiction. In: Lorimer LT, editorialdirector; Cummings C, ed-in-chief; Leish KW, managing ed.director; Cummings C, ed-in-chief; Leish KW, managing ed.The Encyclopedia AmericanaThe Encyclopedia Americana. Vol 24. International ed.. Vol 24. International ed.Danbury, Conn: Grolier Incorporated; 1995:390-392. Danbury, Conn: Grolier Incorporated; 1995:390-392.

Book Article or ChapterBook Article or Chapter5.  James NE. Two sides of paradise: the Eden myth according to Kirk5.  James NE. Two sides of paradise: the Eden myth according to Kirkand Spock. In: Palumbo D, ed. and Spock. In: Palumbo D, ed. Spectrum of the Fantastic.Spectrum of the Fantastic. Westport, Westport,Conn: Greenwood; 1988:219-223. Conn: Greenwood; 1988:219-223.

ERIC DocumentERIC Document6.  Fuss-Reineck M. 6.  Fuss-Reineck M. Sibling Communication in Star Trek: The NextSibling Communication in Star Trek: The NextGeneration: Conflicts Between Brothers.Generation: Conflicts Between Brothers. Miami, Fla: Annual Meeting of Miami, Fla: Annual Meeting ofthe Speech Communication Association; 1993. ERIC Documentthe Speech Communication Association; 1993. ERIC DocumentReproduction Service ED364932. Reproduction Service ED364932.

WebsiteWebsite7.  Lynch T. DSN trials and tribble-ations review. Psi Phi: Bradley's7.  Lynch T. DSN trials and tribble-ations review. Psi Phi: Bradley'sScience Fiction Club Web site. 1996. Available at:Science Fiction Club Web site. 1996. Available at:http://www.bradley.edu/campusorg/psiphi/DS9/ep/503r.htm. /503r.htm. Accessed OctoberAccessed October 8, 1997. 8, 1997.

Journal Article on the InternetJournal Article on the Internet8.  McCoy LH. Respiratory changes in Vulcans during pon farr. 8.  McCoy LH. Respiratory changes in Vulcans during pon farr. J ExtrJ ExtrMedMed [serial online]. 1999;47:237-247. Available at: [serial online]. 1999;47:237-247. Available at:http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/nysl_li_liu. http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/nysl_li_liu. Accessed AprilAccessed April 7, 1999. 7, 1999.

How to Write – and RewriteHow to Write – and Rewrite

Writing is a Writing is a LonelyLonely but social, business but social, businessGood Writing is Good Writing is RewritingRewriting (editing) (editing)Get in the (daily) habit Get in the (daily) habit An outline helps lotsAn outline helps lotsThe three stages of writingThe three stages of writing

Roughing itRoughing it Shaping itShaping it Polishing it – including some basic rulesPolishing it – including some basic rules

HeadsHeads

Main ideas: centered, bold first level head Main ideas: centered, bold first level head

Second level head: left flush/bold (on its own line)Second level head: left flush/bold (on its own line)

Third level head: Italic, BoldThird level head: Italic, Bold: not on its own line, : not on its own line, starts a paragraphstarts a paragraph

Final Polishing for Style:Final Polishing for Style:Rules to aid comprehensionRules to aid comprehension

1. Minimize words > 2 syllables (shorter words)

2. All sentences should be 3 lines or less

3. Avoid using the passive voice“It has been found…”. “It has been shown…” 4. Put Subject-Object Near Each OtherExample “You can climb up the few steps and see what is really ‘no man’s land’ filled with weeds, rubbish and buildings about to fall down, to tryseeing the Turkish side.” [Barbara Kingstone,European Reporter, September 21, 2006: 10.www.europeanreporter.com]Fix: To see the Turkish side, you can climb up the few steps

5. Do not use many commasInterrupts the reader’s flow of attention

Example: It was found, however, that social support, especially emotional support is affected by gender.Fix: Gender affects social support, especially emotional support.

6. Only 1-2 thoughts per sentence (more causes confusion)

7. Keep sentences in logical order

8. Keep Clauses and Phrases Parallel Original: They may be reacting to distress or may attempt to make the unit do better.

Fix: They may be reacting to distress or attempting to make the unit do better

9. Use Short ParagraphEasier to read always lead your paragraph with a strong point – don’t bury it

10. Use Bulleted or Number PointsOtherwise readers get lost in a long list

11. Use Plurals

To avoid sexist language

Example: He/she needs to learn to write.

Fix: They need to learn to write

ReferencesReferences

Robert Day (1995): How to write and publish a scientific paper. 4th Edition, Cambridge University Press

University of Queensland (2009) References/Bibliography Harvard Style

http://www.library.uq.edu.au/training/citation/harvard_6.pdf