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How to Give an Academic Talk, v3.1 Paul N. Edwards School of Information University of Michigan www.si.umich.edu/~pne/ You may redistribute this document freely, for any purpose except private profit, so long as nothing is added or removed, and so long as this copyright notice remains attached. Quasi‐permanent URL: www.si.umich.edu/~pne/PDF/howtotalk.pdf COPYRIGHT 1998‐2008 PAUL N. EDWARDS. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

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Page 1: How to Give an Academic Talk, v3 - uni-regensburg.de · How to Give an Academic Talk, ... medium of communication, and they require a different set of skills ... Echo key phrases

HowtoGiveanAcademicTalk,v3.1

PaulN.EdwardsSchoolofInformationUniversityofMichigan

www.si.umich.edu/~pne/ 

You may redistribute this document freely, for any purpose except private profit,  so long as nothing is added or removed, and so long as this copyright notice remains attached.  

Quasi‐permanent URL: www.si.umich.edu/~pne/PDF/howtotalk.pdf 

COPYRIGHT1998‐2008PAULN.EDWARDS.ALLRIGHTSRESERVED.

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NB: I wrote this essay on behalf of bored audiences everywhere. It is widely circulated on the Internet. As a result, I receive large volumes of email requesting help with presentations. Unfortunately, my students here at the University of Michigan are about all I can handle, so please seek personal assistance elsewhere. The Awful Academic Talk You’veseenitahundredtimes.

Thespeakerapproachestheheadoftheroomandsitsdownatthetable.(You can’t see him/her through the heads in front of you.) S/hebeginstoreadfromapaper,speakinginasoftmonotone.(You can hardly hear. Soon you’re nodding off.) Sentencesarelong,complex,andfilledwithjargon.Thespeakeremphasizescomplicateddetails.(You rapidly lose the thread of the talk.) Withfiveminutesleftinthesession,thespeakersuddenlylooksathis/herwatch.S/heannounces—inapparentsurprise—thats/he’llhavetoomitthemostimportantpointsbecausetimeisrunningout.S/heshufflespapers,becomingflusteredandconfused.(So do you, if you’re still awake.)S/hedroneson.Fifteenminutesafterthescheduledendofthetalk,thehostremindsthespeakertofinishforthethirdtime.Thespeakertrailsoffinconclusivelyandasksforquestions.(Thin, polite applause finally rouses you from dreamland.)  

Whydootherwisebrilliantpeoplegivesuchsoporifictalks?Foronething,they’rescared.Thepatternisanunderstandable,ifdysfunctional,reactiontostagefright.It’seasiertohidebehindthearmorofawrittenpaper,whichyou’vehadplentyoftimetoworkthrough,thansimplytotalk.Butsecond,andmuchmoreimportant,it’spartofacademicculture—especiallyinthehumanities.It'sembeddedinourlanguage:wesaywe'regoingto"giveapaper."Asaeuphemismforatalk,that'sanoxymoron.Presentations are not journal articles.They'reacompletelydifferentmediumofcommunication,andtheyrequireadifferentsetofskills.Professorsoftenfailtorecognizethis.Evenmoreoften,theyfailtoteachittotheirgraduatestudents.Everybodyhastoconfrontstagefrightinhisorherownway.Butacademiccultureissomethingwecandeliberatelychange.Thispamphletattemptstojump‐startthatprocesswithsomepointersforeffectivepublicspeaking.Principles of Effective Talks Listeningishardwork.Especiallyatconferences,whereaudienceslistentomanytalksovermanyhours,people need the speaker’s helptomaintaintheirfocus.Therefore,anyeffectivetalkmustdothreethings:

(1)Communicateyourargumentsandevidence,(2)Persuadeyouraudiencethattheyaretrue,and(3)Beinterestingandentertaining.

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Inourobsessionwithpersuasiveargumentsandevidence,academicssometimesforgetaboutthethirditemonthislist.Sometimeswethinkitfollowsautomaticallyfromthefirsttwo.(Itdoesn’t.)Sometimesweevenscoffatthegoalitself.Perversely,someofusseemtobelievethatifatalkisentertainingoreasytofollow,it’sprobablynotverydeep.Theseattitudesareseriouslymistaken.It is impossible to communicate and persuade effectively without entertaining as well.Keepingpeopleinterestedandinvolved—entertainingthem—mattersbecauseinordertocommunicateyourworkanditsvalue,youneedtheirfullattention.Thisisthetruemeaningandsignificanceof“entertainment.”Inanacademictalk,entertainmentisn’taboutmakingyouraudiencelaughordistractingthemfromtheirtroubles,butsimplyaboutkeepingthemfocusedonandinterestedinwhatyouhavetosay.Some Rules of Thumb Noruleappliesalwaysandeverywhere.Butthefollowingprinciplesworkalmostallthetime.

USUALLY BETTER  USUALLY WORSE 

Talk Read

Stand Sit

Move Standstill

Varythepitchofyourvoice Speakinamonotone

Speakloudly,facingtheaudience Mumble,facingdownward

Makeeyecontact Stareatyourlaptop

Focusonmainpoints Getlostindetails

Useoutlines,images,andcharts Havenovisualaids

Finishwithinyourtimelimit Runovertime

Rehearse Don’tpracticebecauseyou’retoobusyworkingontheslides

Summarizeyourmainpointsatthebeginningandend

Startwithoutanoverview;trailoffwithoutaconclusion

Noticeyouraudienceandrespondtoitsneeds

Ignoreaudiencebehavior

Emulateexcellentspeakers Emulateyouradvisor,evenifs/hegiveslousytalks

Thislistreallysaysitall,buthere'salittlediscussionaboutwhytheseprinciplesaresoimportant.

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Talk,ratherthanread.Writtenacademiclanguageisusuallyquitecomplex—farmorecomplexthanordinaryspeech.Sentencestendtobelong,withmanyclausesandarcanevocabularythatbecomeimpossibletofollowwhenreadaloud.Sowhilegoodacademicstylecanmakebeautifulreading,thatdoesn'ttranslateintobeautifulspeaking.

Don't read. Just talk—you'llbeeasiertounderstand,andyou'llmakegenuinecontactwith

youraudience.Furthermore,ultimatelyyou'llthinkmoreclearly.Ifyoucan'tcommunicateyourpointsbytalking(withoutreading),howwelldoyoureallyknowwhatyouwanttosay?

Onethingmanynovicepresentersforgetisthatlisteningtosomeonereadbulletpointsoffa

slidecanbeevenmorestupefyingthanlisteningtothemreadapaper.Youraudiencewillusuallyreadtheentireslideinthefirst30secondsit'sonthescreen,farfasterthanyoucanreaditaloud.Don'tinsulttheirintelligencebyrecitingittothem.Instead,usethebulletpointsmainlyasmemoryjogs;speakaboutthemandfromthem,ratherthanreadingaloud.Ifyouabsolutelymustreadfromatext—andasabeginneryoumayfeelyouhavenootherchoice—keepyourtextseparatefromyourslides.

Standup.Ifpeoplearesittinginrows,standup,evenifthereareonlyafew.Thisletspeoplein

thebackrowsseeyourfaceandhearyoubetter.(Ruleofthumb:ifyoucan'tseetheirfaces,theycan'tseeyours.)Standingalsoputsyouinadominantposition.Thissoundspoliticallyincorrect,butit’snot.Remember,you’rethefocus.Theaudiencewantsyoutobeincharge,sogoaheadandtakethetop‐dogposition,physicallyabovetheirheads.

Exception:seminar‐stylepresentationsaroundatablewithonlyafewpeople(fewerthan

eightorten).Inthissituation,everyonecanseeyouandstandingupusuallyseemstooformal.

Movearound.It’seasiertokeepfocusedonsomeonewho’smovingthanonamotionless

talkinghead.Handgesturesaregood,too.Don'thesitatetoshowyourenthusiasmforyourtopic;it'sinfectious.

It’spossibletooverdothisone,though.Ifyouleaparoundlikearockstarorstabtheair

withraphands,you'lldistractpeoplefromthecontentofthetalk.Simplywalkingbackandforthfromonesideoftheroomtotheotherevery3‐4minutesisusuallyenough.

Varythepitchofyourvoice.Monotonesaresleep‐inducing.Manypeopledon’trealizetheydo

this.Getatrustedfriendorcolleaguetolistentoyourdeliveryandgiveyouhonestfeedback.(Thisisanimportantprincipleinitself!)Evenbetter,tapeorvideotapeyourselfandcheckouthowyousound.

Speakloudlyandclearly,facingtheaudience.Becareful,especiallywhenusingvisualaids,that

youcontinuetofacetheaudiencewhenyouspeak.Turningaroundtolookatyourownslidescanleadyoutospeaktothescreen.Thismutesyourvoiceandbreaksyourcontactwiththeaudience.Instead,trainyourselftolookatslidesonyourlaptopscreen(andbesureitisinfrontofyou,notofftoonesideorbehindyou.)Ifyouabsolutelymustlookatthemainscreen,trainyourselftoglanceatitbrieflyandthenturnbacktotheaudience.

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Thisisonereasonwhysimple,unclutteredslideswithminimal textarecrucial.Ifyouhavetoomuchtext,you'llhavetroublekeepingtrackofwhereyouareinthetalk.

About Vocal Technique Publicspeakingismuchlikesinging.Ittakesalotofair.You'regoingforvolume,range,andeffect.Youwanttofillthewholeroomwithyourvoice;peopleinthebackrowsmustbeabletohearyouclearly.Makearecordingofyourselfspeakinginalargeroom.Doyoutalkinamonotone?Doyoumumble?Doyouspeaktoofast?Doyouprojectconfidenceandauthority,ordoeseverystatementcomeoutsoundinglikeaquestion?Speakfromthegut,notthethroat.Learnabout,andpractice,diaphragmaticbreathing(breathingfromthebelly,ratherthanthechest).Nervousnesstendstomakebreathingshallowandrapid,butwhatyouneedisexactlytheopposite.Breathedeeply—it’snecessarytogeneratevolume,andwillalsohelpyoukeepyourmindclear.Ifyoudon't,youcanactuallypassoutfromlackofoxygen.Really.Usethebottomofyourvocalrange,itsdeepestpitch.Thisisalsoyourloudestandmostcommandingtone,andithelpsestablishyourlegitimacyandauthority.(Thiscanbeespeciallyimportantforwomen.)Mostpeopledon'trealizehowquietlytheyspeak.Whenyouhitanadequatevolume,youmayfeellikeyou'reshouting.It'sbettertobeabittooloudthantooquiet.Aimyourvoiceatthepeopleinthelastrow,notthoseinthefront.Thistakesconsiderablepractice,especiallytomaintainasufficientvolumethroughoutatalk.Ifsoundreinforcement(amicrophone)isavailable,itusuallymakessensetouseit.Silenceisacrucialelementofspeech.Acontinuousflowofspeechsoonbecomessoporific.Stoptheflowofsoundfrequentlybypausingbrieflyattheendsofsentences,orbetweenslides.Sometimespeopledroneonbecausetheyfearbeinginterrupted.Remember:you'reincontrolduringatalk,soyoudon'thavetoacceptinterruptionsiftheydohappen.Tip:usevocal“specialeffects."Forexample:(1)Echokeyphrases.Whenyouhitaphraseyouwantpeopletoremember,"echo"it:repeatit,once,thenmoveon.(2)Pauseforafewseconds—that'slongerthanyoumayrealize—atseveralpointsinyourtalk.Thisgivesyouachancetosipsomewater,whichwilllubricateyourthroat.Theselongpauseswillre‐awakenanyonewho'stunedout.

Makeeyecontactwithyouraudience.Ifthisisanxiety‐inducingforyou,atleastpretendto

makeeyecontactbycastingyourgazetowardthebackandsidesoftheroom.Peoplewillthinkyouarelookingatsomeone,evenifyouonlylookatthewalljustabovetheirheads.Anothertechniqueistolocateafewfriendlyindividuals,atdifferentplacesintheroom,andspeakdirectlytothem,switchingfrequentlyfromonetoanother.

Avoid "siding." Becarefulnottoignoreonesideoftheaudience.Manyspeakers“side”

unconsciously,lookingalwaystotheleftortotherighthalf,oronlytothefrontortheback,oftheroom.Becauseitforcesyoutostandfartoonesideortheother,usingaprojector

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tendstoamplifythiseffect.Movingbackandforthperiodically,fromonesideofthescreentotheother,canminimizethiseffect.

Speakersalsotendtoconcentrateonthosewhoseemtoberespondingwell(nodding,

smiling,etc.).This can be a trap.Inprofessionalsituations,it’softenthepeoplewhoarefrowning,fallingasleep,orseemingboredwhomyoumostneedtodrawin.Iflookingatthemdirectlymakesyouuneasy—anditcanbeextremelyflustering—usethetechniqueofcastingyourgazejustabovetheirheadstowardthebackoftheroom.

Focusonmainpoints.Especiallyinaconferencesituation,wheretalksareshortandyoursis

justoneofmany,youraudienceisnotgoingtorememberdetails.Insuchasituation,lessismore.Givethemshort,striking“punchlines”thatthey’llremember.Theycanalwaysreadyourwrittenworklater,butifyoudon’tgettheminterestedandshowthemwhyit’simportant,theywon'tlearnenoughtowanttoreadit.

Usevisualaids.Amongthemostimportantprinciplesofall.Ataminimum,haveanoutlineof

yourtalk.Somespeakersseemtothinkthey’regivingeverythingawaybyshowingpeoplewhatthey’regoingtosaybeforethey’vesaidit.Instead,theeffectofagoodtalkoutline,wellpresented,isexactlytheopposite:itmakesyouraudiencecurioustohearthedetails.Atthesametime,ithelpsthemfollowthestructureofyourthinking.

Slidesshouldbeextremelyconciseandvisuallyuncluttered.Slidesaremaps,notterritories;

theyaretrackingdevicesthatletbothyouandyouraudiencefollowtheflowofthetalk.Therefore,theymustnotbeoverfilled.6linesoftextperslideisgood;9linesisalot;12linesisprettymuchunreadable.Bulletpointsshouldbenomorethanafewwords—NOTcompletesentences.

Ifyouneedmorespace,usemoreslides.OneofthebeautiesofPowerPointisthatyoucan

haveasmanyslidesasyouwant.I'veseenextremelyeffectivepresentationswithonlyonewordonmostslides,onlyoneimageonmanyothers.

Alwayschoosewhiteorlight‐coloredslidebackgrounds.Why?Toseelighttextondark

slides,you’llhavetoturndownthelights,oreventurnthemoff.Thismakesithardtoseeyournotes,thepodium,etc.Worse,itwilltendtoputyouraudiencetosleep.Really.Darktextonlight‐coloredslidescanusuallybereadwithlightsonandshadesopen.Don'tletyourhost,oranyoneelse,managethelightingforyou—tellthemyouprefertoleavethelightson.Ifyoucanseeit,youraudiencecanprobablyseeittoo.Ifindoubt,walktothebackoftheroomandcheck.

Peoplearevisualcreatures,andtheoldadagethatapictureisworthathousandwordsis

especiallyaproposhere.Pictures,graphs,charts,cartoons,andotherimagescanbeextremelyhelpful.Aswithtext,keepthemsimpleanduncluttered.Also,avoiddarkimagesthatwon'tshowupwellonascreen.

Avoidthepitfallsofvideo.Inthecontextofa45‐minutetalk,evenone3‐minutevideoclip

canseeminterminable.Morethanonecanmakepeoplewanttoscream.Theyalsobreaktheflow,andeatuptimebettersavedforyourpresentation.Ifyoureallyneedvideoforyourtopic,editclipstoanabsoluteminimumlength.30‐40secondsisagoodgoal.

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About Powerpoint 

Powerpoint,Keynote,andotherpresentationsoftware—standardissueinmanysettings—canbeagreattool,notleastbecauseitsdefaultformatsencouragebrevity.Butbeware:PowerPoint’sfades,transitions,backgrounds,soundeffects,andsooncanbearealpitfall.Glitzingupyourpresentationscanturnintoaserioustimesink,detractingfromthefarmoreimportanttimeyouspendoncontent.Also,theycangiveyouraudiencetheimpressionthatyoucaremoreaboutsurfacethansubstance.Finally,theycancausebreakdownsduringthepresentationiftheydon'tworkasyouexpectthemto.Whichisoften.Andnothingirritatesanaudiencemorethanwatchingsomebodyfiddlefranticallywithacomputerinthemiddleofatalk.So—keepeverythingbasic,atleastuntilyou'vecompletelymasteredthesoftware..

  Talk to the audience, not the screen.Oneoftheworstpresentermistakesistofacethe

screenwhiletalking.Ifyoudothis,theaudiencewillbelookingatyourback,andtheywon'tbeabletohearyou.Instead,haveyourlaptop,orapaperversionofyournotes,infrontofyou.Speakfromthat,ratherthanfromtheslidesonthescreen. This takes practice, practice, and more practice. Everyoneelseisstaringatthescreen,soyoumayfindyourselfdrawntostareatittoo.

Plan for Disaster: Computers and Murphy's Law Computersintroducemanypossiblepointsoffailureintopresentations,soMurphy'sLaw—"whatevercangowrong,willgowrong"—appliesinspades.Somethingcan,andusuallydoes,gowrongwiththecomputer,theprojector,thesoftware,theconnectorcables,yourthumbdrive,oryourpresentationitself.NeverassumethatwhatworksonaPCwillworkonaMac,orviceversa.Youalsocan'tassumeyourhostwillhavethesameversionofPowerPointthatyoudo.Inquireinadvance.Bringbackup.Evenifyoubringyourowncomputer,badnesscanhappen.Myharddiskdriveoncecrashed—permanently—onslidenumber3ofaone‐hourtalk.Thiskindofthingnotonlycanhappentoyou,itwillhappentoyou.Thequestionisn'twhether,butwhen.So:ifyouuseacomputer,alwaysbringbackup.That'sbackup,backup,backup.Beginmakingbackupsseveraldaysbeforethetalk.UseaUSBthumbdrive,aCD‐ROM,orsomeothercommonmedium;networkbackupisn'treliable,sinceyoucan'tbesureyou'llhaveaconnection.Youcankeepthumbdrivesinapocketorhangthemaroundyourneck.Thatway,evenifsomebodystealsyourbagoryourlaptop,you’vestillgotthebackup.Planfordisaster.Bringprintednotesoroutlines.Ifthecomputerortheprojectorcommitssuicideinthemiddleofyourtalk,you'llhavenotimeatalltofixit.None.So:alwaysbepreparedtodeliveryourtalkwithouttheslides,asalastresort.Thisiswhereyouwillreallybegladyoubroughtprintednotes.Speakingwithoutslidesisonething,butspeakingwithoutANYnotesisaskillonlythegreatestpresentersevermaster.

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Summarizeyourtalkatthebeginningandagainattheend.“Tell‘emwhatyou’regonnatell‘em;tell‘em;andtell‘emwhatyoutold‘em”:thisancientprinciplestillholds.Followingthisrulehelpsyouraudiencegetyourmainpoints.Evenmoreimportant,ithelpsthemrememberwhatyousaid.Whichis,afterall,whyyou’rethere.Youcanbecreativeabouthowyougivesuchanoutline;afewphrasescandothewholejob,posingapuzzleoraproblemyou'reabouttosolveandshowingthewaytothesolution.

Noticeyouraudienceandrespondtoneeds.Ifpeopleseemtobefallingasleep,orgetting

restlessordistracted,theproblemmaynotbeyouoryourtalk.Istheroomtoohotortoocold?Isittoodark,ortoonoisy?Canpeopleseeyou?Isthemicrophoneon?Issomethingoutsidetheroomdistractingpeople?Don’thesitatetostoptalkinginordertosolvetheseproblems.

Alternatively,youmayhavegoneontoolong,oryoumayneedtospeaklouder.Whatever

thecase,noticewhat’shappeninganduseitasfeedback.Ifyoucan’tfigureoutwhyyouraudienceisrespondingpoorly,asksomebodylaterandfixtheproblemnexttime.

Ifyou’renotsurewhetherpeoplecanseeorhear,asksomeoneinthebackrowdirectly.

(Thisisalsoagoodtechniqueforsettingupinitialcommunicationwithyouraudience.Itmakeslistenersfeelincluded,andputsyouintouchwiththemashumanbeings.)

Tip:Takingchargeofthetalkenvironmentispartofyourjobasaspeaker.Neverletothers

controlroomconditions.Many"helpful"audiencemembersreacttotheuseofaprojectorbyjumpinguptoturnofflightsandclosewindowshades.Unlessthisistrulynecessary,avoiditatallcosts,especiallyatconferences,whichoftentakeplaceinexceedinglydimhotelmeetingrooms.

Finishwithinyourtimelimit.Don'tdissyouraudiencebyrunningovertime.Nevergolonger

than45minutes—mostpeople’smaximumattentionspan.Ifyouexceedthislimit,you’lllosethematthecrucialpoint,namelyyourconclusion.Whateverthetimelimit,respectit.

Inconferencesettings,exceedingyourtimelimitisalsoincrediblyrude,sinceitcutsinto

otherspeakers’allottedtimeand/orthediscussionperiod.Ifanineffectivepanelchairfailstorestrainaspeakerwhorunsover,waitacoupleofminutes,theninterrupt(politely)andsaysomethinglike"I'msorry,butI'dliketobesurewehaveenoughtimeformytalkaswell."Noonewillholdthatagainstyou.

Ifyoudorunshortontime,trytoavoidsayinganythingaboutit.Talkingaboutyourown

timingwasteswordsanddrawsunwantedattentiontoyourapparentlackofpreparation.Justpause,makesomeadjustmentssoyoucanfinishontime:skipslides,saylessabouteachone,jumptotheconclusion.

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About timing Timingatalkwellisamongthemostcrucialofpresentationskills.Nothing'smoreembarrassingthangettingonlyhalfwaythroughyourtalkbeforehittingthetimelimit.Practice,practice,practice.Theonlywaytobesureyoutimethingsrightistorehearseyourtalk:everywordofit,exactlyasyouplantodeliverit.Timingisacomplicated,learnedskillthatrequiresalotofpractice—sopracticewhereit'seasyandcomfortable,i.e.athome,orwithotherstudents.Haveatimingdevice.Youare(oryou'rebecoming)aprofessionalpresenter.Soinvestinawatchespeciallyforthispurpose.Somedigitalwatcheshavecountdowntimers,betterthanordinarywatchesbecauseyoudon'thavetoperformmentalmathtoknowhowmuchtimeremains.Buttheseonlyworkif(a)youremembertousethetimer,(b)thenumbersarelargeenoughtoreadeasilywhileyou'retalking,and(c)you'repayingattention,soyoucanturnoffthetimerbeforeitbeginstobeep.Ananalogwatchwithlarge,easy‐to‐readhandscanbebetter,butstillrequiresmentalmath.PowerPoint’s“PresenterTools”hasastopwatch.Thisisagreatwaytokeepclosetrackofyourtime.Theproblem,onceagain,isrememberingtostartthestopwatchatthebeginningofyourtalk.Personally,Ifinditeasiesttouseananalogwatch.Youcandevelopyoursenseoftimingbyalwaysusingthesameslideformat.Afteryou’vegivenafewtalkswiththesameformat,alittlequickmathwilltellyouhowmanyminutesitusuallytakesyoutotalkthroughoneslide.Fromthere,youcanestimatethelengthofanewtalkfromthenumberofslides.Decideinadvancewhatyoucanskip.Makeasmallmarkondispensableslides,ifyouneedto.Ifyoudorunshortontime,ALWAYSskipslidesinthemiddleandjumptotheconclusionsoyoucanspendenoughtimeonthat.NEVERjustplowahead,talkingfasterandfasterandtryingtocramitallin.You'llonlysucceedinirritatingyouraudienceandforcingyourhosttocutyoushort;thiscanonlyendbadly.Tip:Sayyouhave20minutestotalk.Whenyou'rerehearsing,markyournotesorslideswhenyouhitthe5,10,and15minutepoints,maybealsothe18‐minutepoint.Thatwayyouwon'tbecaughtbysurpriseifyoustarttorunovertime.Anothertip:untilyou'vereallymasteredpresenting,never, evertrytoimproviseduringatalk.Thisdoesn'tmeanyoucan'tinterruptyourselftotellajokeorastory,ordigressabitfromthemainthread—thosecanbeimportanttechniquesforentertainingyouraudience,keepingtheirattention,andshowingyourhumanside.Whatitdoesmeanisthatyou must rehearse those things as well, because they take time.Ifyouhaven'tpracticedthem,youwon'thaveanyideahowlongtheytake(usuallyalotlongerthanyouthink).Likeaprofessionalcomedianoractor,youneedtopracticeeverythingyouplantodo—includingthingsyouwantyouraudiencetothinkyou’reimprovising.

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Keepcontrolofthetalksituation.Sometimespeoplewillinterruptyouduringyourtalk.Ifit’sjustaclarifyingquestionandit’sshort,fine.Justansweritandmoveon.Butmuchmoretime‐consumingandflusteringsituationscanoccur—forexample,somebodykeepsburstinginwithlong,loudcomments,orbeginstoarguewithyouinthemiddleofyourtalk.Thiskindofthingcanbeextremelydisturbing,especiallyearlyinyourcareerasagradstudentorprofessor.

Unlikesoccergames,talkperiodsdon’tgetextendedtomakeupfortime‐outscausedby

theaudience.Soyoucan'taffordtoletsomebodyupstageyouforfiveortenminutes,becauseyouwon'tgetthattimeback.Thetrickistoplanforthistohappenanddevelopastrategyformaintainingcontrol.

ThebesttechniquesI'vefoundarethefollowing.First,castaglanceatwhomeverischairing

theconferencesession,oryoursponsoratajobtalk.Ifyou’relucky,thatpersonwillintervene.Second,youcanwaitpolitelyforabreakintheoutburst,thensayascalmlyaspossiblesomethinglike:“Thankyouforyourcomment.I’dliketorespond,butifyoudon’tmindI’llholdthatforthequestionperiod.”

Yourlastalternativetakessteelnerves,butsometimesthere’snootherchoice.For

example,yourtormentorwon'tquit.S/heseemsdeterminedtodroneonfortenminutesandnobodyseemswillingtostophim/her.Thisiswhenyouneedtosayloudlybutfirmly,asauthoritativelyasyoucan:“Sir(ormadam),pleaseallowmetofinishmytalk.”Thenimmediately,withoutwaitingforananswer,proceedandignorefurtherinterruptionsfromthatperson.Remember,everyoneintheaudienceisprobablyfeelingyourpainandwishingsomebodywouldshutthispersonup.Ifyoucanmusterthecouragetoclosethehecklerdown,otherswillpileon,andyou'llbesaved.

Emulateexcellentspeakers.Theverybestwaytobecomeanexcellentspeakeryourselfisto

watchreallygood,experiencedspeakersandmodelyourtalksontheirs.I'msureyouradvisorisagreatthinkerorscientist,butthisdoesnotnecessarilytranslateautomaticallyintogreatpublicspeaking.Academiaisfulloflousyspeakers,soyoumayhavetolookhardtofindatrulygreatrolemodel.

Whenyoudofindrolemodels,noticenotjustwhattheysay,butwhattheydo:howthey

move,howtheyusetheirvoices,howtheylookattheaudience,howtheyhandletimingandquestions.(Caution:it'simportanttofindsomeoneinyourfieldtoemulate.Greatpoliticalspeakingstyles,television‐personalitystyles,etc.don'tusuallyworkwellinacademicsettings.Respectthespeakingconventionsofyourownsocialworld.)

Ifyoufindanexcellentmodelandworkhardtoemulatethatperson,youcan'tgowrong.

Yourownstylewillcomeintime.

Last words: Practiceeverything.Testeverything.Planfordisaster.Showupatthetalksiteatleast15

minutesearly—30minutesifpossible—tocheckequipment,mountandtestyourslides,scopeouttheroom,andgetcomfortableinthesetting.