how it works - amazing answers to curious questions 20122

7/22/2019 How It Works - Amazing Answers to Curious Questions 20122

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ENVIRONMENT TECHNOLOGY TRANSPORT

to

HOW ITWQ

BOOK OF.


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W o r l d M a g s . n e t W o r l d M a g s . n e t
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Hungry for knowledge? Then The How ItWorks Book OfAmazing Answers To Curious Quesions is here o hepyou feed your mind full of fascinaing facs and figures

and indspensable informaon. No subjec is too small or oo big from whas inside a iny mosquio o how the universe began.

Wih answers o quesions from six all-encompassingsubjec areas including science he environment, hisoryechnology, ranspor and space, Te How I Works Book OfAmazing Answers o Curious Quesions is a fun accessible

companion for inquisiive minds wih each secion feauringinricae cuaway diagams ha detail the worings of

everyday iems and massive mechanisms. From how imeworks o wha's inside a black hole inside are the amazing

answers o al he curious quesions you could ever ask abouhe word in which we live.

Eno the book


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A

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AMG ANSWRS TO COUS QSTIONS

*sce How does me work?Is no qe as consan asyo ay hnk

16 Can anythng stop the body clo


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Ermt50 Wich are the wold's fastest

anmals?The cheetah the peegine falcon an thesaiish all feaue

5 How does a volcano erupt?Devastating emines that the Eath's sufaceis activel evolving

55 Why are geysers so rare?These founans nee a ae comnaon oconiions o fom

56 How do blue whales live?All ou nee o know aout the giants othe oceananfinouhowthesuvive

58 What causes earthqual


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AMG ANSWST CUOS QU TIO

ehng__108 What is nuclear power?Ecological saviour or looming catastrophe?

1 How do theymal


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C u l165

56 Howdopany?How plane remain airorne for hour on en

58 WhamkhBombro ahy?The tech ehin the extraorinar B-2

59 How do biir kphip lvl?The et wa to keep hip upright

60 How do a hovrcraf hovr?Fin outhowtheeunuual machine work

62 Howcomplxann?It can't e impler than a car engine can it?

64 Wha h ound barrir?An how to reak it!

65 How do combn wo?There more thanut overgrown lawn mower

65 How do ubmariniv?What enale thee vee to ecen?

66 Bi Q&AHanrake, hri an hot air alloon

!72 Wha happnd a h Big Bang?An elegant explanation of our origin

76 Howaarbo?t a rather rawn-out proce

78 Whail


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AMG ANSWSTCOS QUSTIONS

How does

timeorl


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S i n*-What is special relativity?How Einstein changed our perception of time

Enstens they fspecaI elatvy eles n

ne key fact the speed f lght s the same

n matte hwyu lk at t T put ths nt

pactce, magneyuae tavellng na caat

32km/h 2mph, and yu dve past a fend

wh s standng stll .

As yu pass them, yu thw a ball ut n fnt

f the ca at 16km/h 10mph. T yu fend, the

ball's speed cmbnes wth that f the ca, and

s appeas t betavellngat 8km/h 3mph

elatve t yu, weve, the ball tavels at ny

.ere yo're raelig i aaceca a almot theee o lgt. Yo ie aligt beam p into a ror.

16km/h 0m ph, as yu ae aleady tavellng at

32km/h 2mph.

Nw magne the same scena but ths tme

yu pass yu statnay fend whle tavellng

at half the speed f lght !teetcally, f

cuse Thugh sme magnay cntaptn,

yu fend can bseve yu as yu tavel past

Ths tme yu shnea beam fghtut ftheca

wndsceen. Pevusly we added tgethe the

speed f the bal and the cat fnd utwhat

yu fend saw, s n ths nstance, des yu

4. Flybyor yor rien, yo aretraelli ng ieway atalo e ae peea the light, o he lightake a agonal a

ne secnd t the next wth n

dffeence between the length f any

tw secnds. Ths s smethng thatyu pbably thnk t be tue. Evey day

has ughly 24 hus; yu dn't have

ne daywth26and anthe wth 23.

dffeng masses and velctes, and

theefe ne secnd n Eath was

fend see the beam f lght tavelng at ne and

a half tmes the speed f lght? Accdng t

Ensten, the answe s n. The speed f lght

always emans cnstant and nthng can

tavel faste than t. Theefe, n ths

ccasn, bth yu and yu fend bseve the

speed f lght tavellng at ts unvesally

ageed value c, ughy299,7928 metes pe

secnd. Ths s the they f specal elatvty,

but why s t mptantwhen talkng abut

tme? ead belw. .

lt appear o yo ienta te ight bea ha

taen l onger to copleteit p an ow oion

tan it i or yo

7. DistanceYor e ee heligt trael a geaer

iace, bt er thetheoy o peareatiiy te pee othe ligh eam i heae o oth o yo

G. ongeri iagonal path iloger than e erticalpath yo obere theligt bea o trael

Hweve, n 190, Ensten asseted

that the speed f lght desn't vay, but

athe t was a cnstant !ughy

299,7928 metes pe secnd. He

pstulated that tme was me lke a

ve, ebbng and flwng dependng n

the effects f gavty and spacetme.

Tme wud speed up and slw dwn

aund csmlgcal bdes wth

nt the same length f tmeeveywhee n the unvese hs psed

a pblem I f the speed f lght was

eally a cnstant then thee had t be

sme vaable tha t alteed ve lage

dstances n the unvese. Wth the

unvese expand ng and planets and

galaxes mvng n a galactcally

humngus scale, smethng had t

gve t allw f small fluctuatns. And

ths vaabe had t be tme.

109 - 7 - S 4 2 0 +1 2 +5 +6 + 90+11

t was ult mately Enstens they

that was nt nly beleved t b e the

Time ones are separated by a distance ofJloitude extendingfrom ple to pole,butfor plitcal reasons some countries and provces have chosen to belong to aderent tme zone than the one in which they aregeographical located

How It Jrks 13


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AMG ANSWS T COS QUSTIONS

truth, but al prved t be entirely accurate. n

Octber191, tw phyic named Hael e and

Keating et abu prving it validity. T d thi,

they lew fur caeium amic clck n plane

arund he wrld, eatward and hen

pecicaly with hi thery time dilatin

and that ime did indeed uctuate thrughut

the univere.

Newn and Eintein did agree n ne hing,

thugh hat time mve rward. S ar there

want t mve frm w t high entrpy, r frm

unirmity t dirder, beginning with

implicity at the Big Bang and mving t he

am randm arrangemen f galaxie and

heir inhabiant in he preen day. Th

wetward Accrding tEintein thery, when

cmpared with grundbaed

atmic clck in thi intance

a he US Naval Obevary in

Wahingn DC, Hafele and

Keating' airbrne cl ck

I the universe were to contractthen time would reverse, a paradoxfor scientists and tronomers

knwn a the arrw f time,cined by Briih atrnmer

Arthur Eddingtn in 1927. He

uggeed that time wa n

ymmerical, ating " f a we

flw the arrw we fnd mre and

mre f he randm elemen in he

wuld be abu40 nanecnd lwer ater

their eatward trip and abut 27 nanecnd

ater aer travelling wet, due the

gravitatinal efec the Earh n the velcity

the pane. ncredibly, he cck did indeed

regiter a difference when ravelling eat and

wet arund the wrld, abut 59 nanecnd

lwer and 273 nanecnd ater repectively

when cmpared the US Naval Obervatry.

Thi prved that Einein wa crrect,

Gty Pe B wsble iecly oberee wpg of

pceie o eEt ue t s gity.

14 How It +r

n evidence anyhing n the univere that i

able t ddge tim e and mve rward and

backwad at will. Everything ulimately mve

rward in ime, b e it at a regular pace lighly

warped if appraching the peed f ligh. Can

we anwer why tme tick rward, thugh? Nt

quite, althugh there are everal herie a

why it de. One f hee brng in the law f

thermdynamic, pecicaly he ecnd law.

Thi tae that everything in the univere

tae the wrld, hen the arrw i pinting

ward the fuure; if the randm element

decreae, the arrw pint tward the pat.

F example, i yu were t berve a tar i n

amt unifrmity, but laer aw it explde a a

upernva and becme a cattered nebula, yu

wuld knw that time had mved frward frm

equalty t cha

Anther thery ugge that the paage f

ime i due t the expann the univere. A

Giy Pbe B e esesetis y itig istt st IM Pegsi wle

i p or o e r, ne ces i s


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S i n*-he unvese expands it pull s ime with it as

space and time are linked as ne (see belw

bu this wuld mean that if the universe were

reach a theretical limi t f expansin and

begin t cnact hen time wuld evese, a

slight paadx scientists and astnm esWuld time eally mve ba ckwads with

everyting cming back t an era f simplicity

and ending with a Bg Crunch as ppsed t

he Big Bang? Its unlikely well be arund t

find u but we can pst uate n what we

hink might happen.

ts incredible t hink f the pgess we

have made in u understanding time

ver the past century Frm ancient sundias

mdern atmic clcks we can even tack

he passing f a secnd me clsely han

eve befe

ime emains a cmplex tpic but hanks

scientific visinaies we a re getting clse

unlcking he secrets f hs ns

cnstant univesal cnsantH d rntl oim.7=Age ofthe universe

4 5BIWON YE ARS

Age ofthe Earth

65NTime since extinction ofdinosaurs

365242 DAYSEarth's orbit around the Sun

1 SECONDAveage length ofa heartbeat

ONE HUNDREDTH OF ASECOND (CENTISECOND)Eyes blinking

ONE TENTH OF ASECOND (DECSECOND)Lightni strike

ONE TRIWONH OF ASECOND (PICOSECOND)Shortest measurable length oftime

i t wm accT mo cct clock in thiee wol obably e a otatingt lik (lthogh ti eatable), bt o a i tomic clocht oie cct tck of ime

ti GP yem i oit aonthe Eath e atomic cloc tocctly tc hi oition n l y

ata to te at, while etie cietific

HeatedAtom ae oileot of cium byeating it an aebqutlyet thoug tub wit a highcuum

ct t o clcul t h motaccate meaue of time ally bymig nitio within cimtom Whil mot atomic cloc ely onmgtic fiel mo cloc uigle to mo cctly tc antec engy anition witi caeimtom k mo fii muof tme

Magnet Microwaves Fequency

Altoug cium clock clyue o ke time aon the wolotim cloc (tonium tom inia lae g) omie twice a mucccucy, while eximntl ignb on cg mcuy tom couleuce icacie een fte to let o co lo o gin i 400

million y

Separationom atom wil

chang tei engytt t ti xc

fequecy, a aeco magetic fie

e the ot

A magetic fiel i ableo ic btwnatom of ayig e egyt n ick th ohat e t e igt lel

Te electe atom a ogh

micowae fel of ighinnity tht flcting fequcy

A cya ocillao allow temcow fi to cctly

eac 919,631770 etz eonnt cy of cim tom

CountA eteco mea the nume

of tom chgig thi t ti feqecy a o nce t etect9192610 of t tiion

con i i to he ae

How It Jrks 15


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anatebo

0900 1000NOON

ghe eerne gh lere1200

ere

08.30Bwel veen lkey

0730Mel ere end

0645Seep e ldere Her ke re lkely u he rg yher e de e n bld prere

06.00

04.30 nerve enegy durngeep dy epeuedrp I lwe juee wn g

C cadan hythm ae bologcalchange that occu at oughly 24-hounteval whethe wee awae of thetme on ou watch o not Thee change

whch ae contoled by ntena bologcal

tme-keepng ytem affect u phycallymentally and behavoually.

ocated behnd the eye n the

hypothalamu a egon of the ban called

the upachamatc nucleu o lage than

a gan of ce the SC a k nd of mate

body clock that contol all ou othe ntenal

clock whch n tun contol ou ccadan

hythm o daly wake-eep cycle

C ad an hythm epond man y to ght

and dak cue but even f the body wa

montoed unde condton devod of day o

nght gnal ou ccadan hythm tll

16 How It +r

02.00Deepe leep 00.00MNIGH

cycle n a peod of aound 24 hou The etna n

the eye ene lght level n omaton whch

elayed to the SC whch end a gnal to the

pnea gland Th pea-zed gland located

beneath the thalamu eponbe fo the

eceton of melatonn a homone that tel the

body to leep and o at nght when lght level

faII the poducton of melatonn nceaetellng u to head to bed

How the crcadiance afects our lves

14.30Be rdn

22.30

Bwel veeppreed

tgteTe v he u

el ereed by he bdy ree dly ry rg d lg hrne

leve Thee re lg w heNC, e pee bdy eperure

d l ele

2100

10Fe ren e

100ge rdvulr eenynd le eg

1800

18.30ghe bdpree

19.00Bdy eperre ghe dugerly eveng

Wh e dng ulgh nhe evenng, el ereegn - d ree ed- kg u eepy


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S i n * -How do boats stay aoat?Dispacement enabes huge ships to stay above the wate

A t rst dsplacement appears to be farfrom fascnatng. Smply put thevolume o an obect when submerged nwater pushes asde the same volume of water.

Ths smple process alows anyone to measure

the precse volume of any obect by then

measurng the am ount of flud tha eher splls

ou of the top othe contaner or rses by sad

amount n a m easurng cylnder. ts all very

scence textbook.

becomes a ltle more nerestng when you

consder that ts ths effect that enables

enormous supertankers weghng up to 400000

UnladenThe shp s1k s untl the water1

dislaces eqals 1 ts own weght

tons to float. or example when a supertanker s

launched no the sea t wll snk f the waer

dsplaces s equal to or exceeds the weght of the

shp t sef. However f when launched ts weght

s less than that ofthe water t dsplaces and ts

shape allows t to dsplace the weght faster than

the water wll reach the tankers submergng

pont no matter how large or ull of cargo hen

wll oa

Of course f you were to drop a sod ron bar

nto a swmmng pool t would snk sragh

away because: rstly ts weght far outweghed

that o f he waer was dsplacng and secondly

Fully loadedIt wl cotue todsplace more ad

more water as t's loaded wh cargo

even f ts weght was ess than that of the water

ts shape would no alow t to dsplace the

weght fas enough. Ths s why shps hulls ar e

shaped how they are

So whle the scentfc prncple mght lack

wow actor t does enable fantasc feas of

engneerng ke the TI class superankers the

largest ocean gong-shps n the world. They're

an ncredble 379 meres long 68 metres wde

and have a deadweght of some 8 metrc

ons and float thanks o the law of dsplacement

dscovered by Archmedes n the orgnal

ureka moment How do fsh breathe

underwater?

Wterfows vergils, hn ou

They don't beathe' the wate-it's much cooe than that

Fshl

T he process of absorbng oxygen and therelease of carbon doxde s called gasexchange Fsh need oxygen n the sameway humans do the yust go about gettng t n a

dfferen way.

A sh has glls behnd ts mouh on the sde o

the head unless youre a bottom dweller k e a

stngray then your glls are on he top of yourhead ach gll begns wh a g ll arch whch

then splts nto two filaments much lke a

wshbone. Those flaments are lned wth

lamellae whch are le dscs that are filled

wh capllar es hose caplla res have

oxygenated blood runnng through them whch

s why he nsde of glls ar e red h e more actve

a sh s the more oxygen t needs and the more

lamellae t has

As a fsh swms he waer moves nto the

mouth and flows hrough the glls. When a fish s

staonary t can stl push water through the

Werfows nhrgh mouh

glls by openng and closng ts mouth When

waer passes over the lamellae he oxygen n the

waer dffuses nto the capllares oxygenatng

he blood

sh have a countercurren system o f ow

whch means that the blood flows n the opposte

drecon o the water. They need hs clever lle

rck because the dfuson only works f there s

less oxygen n the blood han here s n h e

water. So he blood wth the least amoun of

oxygen s meetng the oxygen depleed water

firs takng whats left and then movng on to

fresher more oxygenated water

Lke humans sh must get rd of the carbon

doxde created by absorbnga nd usng oxygen.

Gl s are multtaskers they dffuse the carbon

doxde out of he body and no the waer. sh

are then free to focus on swmmng

How It Jrks 1 7


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How do you perform CPR?The proper way sn't exactly the Holywood method, but t's no ess dramac0 n televson, cadopumonayesusctaton CPR is like

the Fonz hitting the jukebox on HappyDay whack a dying peson in the ight spot andhis o he heat wll stat beatng agan.

Howeve, th s hadly eve woks n eal le,

and it snt actually the point o adm nisteing

CPR. he eal goa hee is to buy some valuable

time untl ts possble to evve a nomal

heatbeat, typcally by usng an electc jolt

om a debillato.

he cells n you body need oxygen to convet

ood nto usable enegy. You heat delves the

goods. t pumps oxygenated blood om the

lungs out to the body, and pumps deoxygenated

blood back to the lungs. you heat isnt

pumpng sucent blood a condition called

cadac aest you bodys cells will al. Most

1. Cea he aiway . Pepae3 Begin chescompessions

signcantly, you ban cells neuons wl l stat

dyng ou to sx minutesa te cadiac aest

begns. en mnutes wthout esuscitaton

eots and the chances o evval ae almost nil .

he idea oCPR is to hod o death by ocing

the lungs and heat to povde oxygenated blood

to the bain. Exhaling ai into the victims lungs

povdes the oxygen, and egulaly compessng

the chest oces the heat to pump blood.

Celly oll e v on

h bk Gely pe

oeed o l ed

bk we lg h

Th wll le he wy

Wh he ovee

d len o o

behg I he v

behg nolly, do o

de CPR I youe ue whee he

v begnolly ue he no.

fo compessionsBeoe begnng epoe you u k

oeoe o ll nule. I youe lone

ll one youel Keel

bede he v nd pe

oe hd ove e oe,

elokng yo ge.

Ple e ee o you lowe

hnd e ene o e

v' e, b obove e b

Wh you g,pe dow 4 o he

e nd e eleeCoue openg d

eleg e o lle

le wo ll

opeon evey

eod e o 1

opeon pe ne)

Oddly enogh gopeon o he be

o e Bee Gee' Stayi'Alve wok peely.

4. Adminiseescue beahse opeoneope e v wy

nd p oe loed

ke be pe yo

lp od he v'

oh d blow no he

v o. Wh o

e o e, heeove yo o

llown g o epe

g epe he poe

o eond e, e

dne 30 oe e

opeon Connee ye ul help ve

ow doe

execise

worl


19/212


S i n*-What is

'brain freeze?Tecnica caed spenopaanegangioneuaga ice ceam eadaces aeeaed o miganes

Ophhamic Mandibuar Optl r

ry g

r t yll, tr glnd

ppr , ppr yl,

, lp.

Mdl r r rr

ry g r t k ,

nd gu lwr w,

gu , lw lp n

tpl rg.

The pain of a bain feeze also

know as an ice ceam headachecomes om you bodys natual

eaction to cold. When you body senses

cold it wants to conseve heat. One o

the steps it takes to accompish this is

consticting the blood vessels nea you

skin. With less blood lowing nea you

skin Jess heat is caied away fom you

coe keeping you wam

The same thng happens when

somet hing eally cold hits the back of

you mouth The bloo d vesses in you

paate constict apidly. When the cold

T Mxlry

r r

ry g

r t k

g d t

t ppr jw

k ppr lplw n d

lw yld

goes away (because you swallowed the

ce ceam o cold beveage they apidydilate back to thei nomal state.

This is haml ess but a mao facial

neve called the tigeminal lies close to

you palate and this neve intepets

the constiction/dilation pocess as

pain. The location of the tgeminal

neve can cause the pain to seem like its

coming fom you foehead. Doctos

believe that this same mi sintepetaton

of blood vessel constiction/dilation is

the cause of the intense pain of a

migaine headache

How safe

arex-rays?With a mall doe of x-ray energy,your dotor an examine yourbone or irulatory ytem toohigh of a doe and you're doomedto a ainful death from aner

A

nayisa fomof

enegywithina

cetain ange o

wavelengths. ny adiation

between 3 x 16 Hz to 3 x 119

Hz 3 petahetz to 3

eahetz is consideed ay

adiation. These ae vey

shot wavelengths ust beow the ultaviolet egion of the

spectum. The actual wavelength is about 1oooo times

smalle than the wavelength ofvisible light. Shot

wavelength ays have high enegy which is why -ays pass

though most things The high enegylevel of an ay

photon doesnt it with othes atoms electon obits

making it diicult fo atoms to absob ays unless the atom

is lage enough to accommodate the ay photons enegy

The ay machine at you doctos office geneates ays

by canking a bunch of electons up to a vey high speed

using a highly chaged cathode These electons ae thendawn to an anode made of tungsten Thee the electons

stike tungsten atoms and ae eithe defected o knock

othe electons out o obit. The collisions em t photons at

the wavelength of -ays which ae channelled using a smal

window and lots of lead shielding.

Fom thee the ays ae passed though some potion o

you anatomy. Many of the them go ight though but you

bones ae made fom lage atoms (calcium mostly than

you othe bits and these atoms have a geate chance of

absobing some ays On the othe side ofyou the ays

stike a photosensitive plate The moe ays that stike the

plate the dake that potion of the plate Thats why the

esulting image is a negative with you bones the bightest

they absobed the mostays. Doctos can ay image you

blood vessels o othe soft tissue by inecting o making youdink a specia contast dye that absobs -ays

The ays that ae absobed by you body aent entiey

hamless. he -ay photons can knock electons away fom

the atoms ceating ions and stating a mino chain

eaction. Ricocheting ions alte substances in you body at

the atomic eve destoying o alteing the D ofyou cells.

This ionisi ng adiation is what did the damage sufeed by

those who endued unshielded vey long o fequent -ay

eposues in the days befoe the danges of -ays wee

undestood. Todays medical ays ae vey safe when used

popely and vastly supeio to being cut open evey time a

docto needs a look inside you.

How It Tr 19


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How do l


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S i n * -Nephrons - he flraionu z k PoximalubueN

epo e te unt w lte ll blood tt pe toug te dey ee e oud m! on n e kdn ey ed n the enl medul

pymd ute A w ell leg wte, ephon egulte wte nd

mnel lt by eiulng wh eeded nd eeng te e

Lk Bowmn

pue nd e loop

o Henle nd wll

eletvely ebob

mnel om te

lte poded byBowm' ple

h tey upple te

dey wt blood he

blood vel o

nto teole

you tvel nto tedey tl te blood

ee te glomelu

Renal venh emove blood

tht h been leed

om e kdey.

Loop of Henlehe loop o Hel e oto te mel d

we onentton level wthn the k dney

to d ltton o ld neey t lo

otol ne onetton

de p o tee pt te poml

ble the loop o Henle d e dtl

onvoted ble. ey emove wted ebob mnel om e ltte

ped on om Bowmn ple

Collingdu sysemAog ot

elly p o the

nepon th ollet

ll wte podutlteed by e

nepon nd

ltte t emovl

om e kdey.

GomeuusHg pee n e

glomeulu ued

by t dng o

eole ned o

venle oe

ld nd olble

me ou o the

plly nd nto

Bowmn ple.

Bowman'sapsueAo kown e

glomeul pule,

lte te d

been

expeled om te

glomeulu eultng

lte ped

long te neo

nd wll evelly

mke p ne

Disalonvoluedubuety epoble o

he egulto o

mne n te blood

lnkng to e

olletng d

ytem Uwted

m nel e exeed

om e epon

What is urine andwhat is it made of?U

ne mde p o nge o

og ompound

poten nd homoneogn l nd meoumebolte ee bypodu

e oten toge ndneed o be emoved om te

blood tem toug uton

e pHlevel o une typlly

ond neu (pH7 bt ve

dependng on det, hydto

evel nd pyl tne. he

olou o ne lo detemned

by tee to wth

dk-yellow ne ndtng

dehydon nd geen uebeng ndtve o eeve

pg onumpton

94%wate

6% othe rganicompounds

How It Tr 21


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What s th iv The human liver is the utimate mutitasker -it performs manydiferent functions al at the same time wihout you even asking

The lver s the larges nternal organ n

he human body and has over 500

functons In fact, t s he second most

comple organ after the bran and s nvolved n

almost every aspect of the body's metabolc

processes Its man functons are energy

producton, removal of harmful substances and

the producton of proens These tasks are carred

out wthn lver cells called hepatocytes whch s

n comple arrangements o ma m se effcency

The lver s the bodys man powerhouse,

producng and storng glucose as a key energy

source t s also responsble for breakng down

comple fat molecules and buldng them up no

choleserol and tglycerdes whch the body

needs bu n ecess are bad

The lver a kes manycomple protens,

ncludng clottng factors whch are vtal n

arrestng bleedng Ble, whch helps dgest fat n

the ntestnes, s produced n the lver and stored

n he adacent gallbladder

The lver aso plays a key role n deofyng

the blood. Waste producs, tons and drugs are

processed here nto forms whch are easer fort wo halveshe lve mlly pl n

w hve: le d gh Tee

e lbe d e be

e lge

he gallbaddeThe gllblde d lve

e nmely eled Ble wh

help dge pded e

lve nd ed n e g llbldde.

he commonbie ductTh d mll vl n

he hm dy. e ble

m e lve nd gllbldde

n he dden wee

help dge

Feel you lverke dee beh n d eelju nde he gh lwe

edge yu b me

pele e lwe edge e

lve be el

22 How It r

he biggestorganTe ve he

lge he enl

g g he

g pe dn

he bdme junde he b ge

n hed endede he

dg

the rest of the body to use or ecrete The lver

also breaks down old blood cells produces

antbodes to fght nfecton and recycles

hormones such as adrenalne Numerous

essenal vtamns and mnerals are stored n the

lver vamns A, , E and K, ron and copper

Such a comple organ s also unfortunately

prone to dseases Cancers !most often metastac

from other sources nfectons !hepats and

crrhos s a form of fibross often caused by

ecess alcohol consumpton are us some of

those whch can affect the lver 0

Eght segmentsnlly hee e egh

egmen he lve whh e

bed n he b

ve ng hee egmen

The pota tadThe mm ble du

ep ey d

ep pl ve mhe pl whh

e e vl w d

DigestonOe nuen m d

hve bee bbed

e ml nene, hey

e nped he lve

v e he pl ven

n wn ee)

eegy pdun


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S i n 3. SinusoidsT bld-ld

ld by

yt d pvd

t t

mlu btw

bld d lv ll

4 Kue cels pld l

wt ud

d dy y

bt w

tm bld

9 Cenra veinBld m d,

w t ll

w mll

lw t tl

v w lw

t pt

v d

t v

v v

8 e poa iad

1 The lobuleT mt

bd v b

dt d yt

m t tl

t v

2 hehepaocyteT ly tv

l ll v' y

mtb

T pt ty, ptl v d bl d w

t t td t t t d v lbld m y d xt ut t lv

Why i the

ier a 'highdemandrgan?

The lve deals wth a massve amount of

bood t s unque because t has two blood

supples. 75 pe cent of hs comes dectly

fom the ntestnes !va the hepac poal ven

whch caes nutents fom dgeston, whch the

lve pocesses and tuns nto enegy The est

comes fom the hea va he hepatc atey

whch banches fom the aoa) c ayng oygen

tha the lve needs to poduce th s enegy The

blood flows n tny passages n between he lve

cells whee the many metabolc uncons occu

The blood then leaves the lve va the hepatc

vens o flow nto he bggest ven n the body the

nfeovena cava 0

Lv lobulsThe funcona un haperforms he l ver's asks

The lve s consdeed a c hemcal acto

as t oms lage complex molecules om

smalle ones bought to t fom the gut va

the blood steam. h e unctonal unt of the lves the lobule these ae hexagonalshaped

stucues compsng o blood vessels and

snusods Snusods ae the specalsed ae as

whee blood comes nto contact wth the

hepatocyes, whee the lves boogcal

pocesses ake place. 0

5. Hepaicaery banchBld m ppl

xy t pty d

mtb wtw t v xtt.

6. Bile duct w lp d md

ptyt d d bl

d t lw t t

lbldd t b b

d t t dudum

7. Poa vein v ut

bld dtly m ttt w lw t

d v ty wt ptyt.

How It Tr 23


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How do we

ge drunl


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S i n What exactyis a l


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How does thebrai thil


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S i n*-Cosists o wo ererl

sphs t ono oto

ivy, e pl in oovnts, o-ordnion, d

ohe body ntons Th seon

o h bin ws bo 200

rs (oprd to ,300 rs

or the in ortex

Lmbic sysemThe rt o the bri n t ontols

iitive thinkin, eotionl

rspos, ss o sll nd tst.

Cerebral corexThe rey ter o e bri onrols onitio,otor tivity sestion nd other hier level

nions Inluds th ssoition rs whh hlpproess inotion Thse ssoition res r e wt

disti ishes te un bin ro ohe bins.

Thi combination oneuron might help you

compoe a ymphonyor pedal a bike

Fntal obePimaily controls

senses suc as tase,heaig, and smell

Associaion aeasmight lp usdtmi laga g

an th o o

soon's oic

Tallal says anthe way t thin k

abut the ba in is by lwe and

uppe aeas The spinal cd

mves infmatin up t the

bain stem, then p int the

ceebal ctex which cntls

thghts and memies

nteestingly, the ban

eally des wk like a

pweful cmpute in

detemining nt nly

mvements but egisteing

memies that can be

qickly ecalled

Accding t

Rbet Melill, a nelgist

and the funde f the Bain

Balance Centes www

bainbalanceentesm, the

ban actually pedeteminesactins and calculates the esults

abut a hal fsecnd bee pefming

them even faste in sme cases

This means, wh en yu each ut t

pen a d, yu bain has aleady

pedetemned hw t

mve yu elbw and clasp yu hand

maybe even simulated this

mvement me than nce bee yu

even pefm the actin

Anthe inteesting aspect t the

bain is that t hee ae sm e vluntay

mvements and sme ivlntay

Sme sectins the ban might

cntl a vluntay mvement such

as patting yu knee t a beat Anthe

sectin cntls invlntay

mvements, such as the gait f yu

walk which is passed dwn fm

yu paents Reflexes, lngtem

memies the pain eflex they ae allcntlled by sectins in the bain 0

r d t cProblemolvi

Hearing

Prefrontal cortexExcui ucios sc as compx

paning mmoisig, social ad balsklls and aytig that rquis

avaced tinig and nteractions. Iauts, elps us deermie whete aacio maes sese o is angeous

Skltal movmn Parietal obeWhee the ai

snss touc ad

anything at iacts

wt t surac o sk, maes u s awaeof he eeligs ofourbody an where we

ae in space

Tuch and s kn

sensa

Lauage

Reeessgnalsfrom

eyes

Analyss sgalfromeyes

Temporal obeWha disingss uma

bain- h abiiy o pocssand itpt w othr pas

o te bai are heagsensig, o tasng addetermie a espose

How It Tr 27


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AMG ANSWST COS QUSTIONS

A hin synapse n ynpe (e ew nnee) beween e

Neuon nen neve ell e bn

be ved ully by

le e w e

ne nd f bd

Neuroansmie eune e

eleel

e e nl f e en

ne l e x

What's a

neuron?Neons e ike eecicactN

euons ae a kind of cell in the bain humans

have many cells in the body including fat cells,

kidney cels, and gland cel ls. A neuon is essentally

like a hub that woks with neaby neuons to geneate an

elecical and chemi cal chage ikosky of the Swedish

Medical nstitute says anohe way of thinking about

neuons is tha they ae like a baskeball and the

connecions (called axons) ae like electi cal wies that

connect to othe neuons. This ceates a kind of cicuit

in the human body.

Paua alla l explained that input fom he ve

senses in the body causes neuons to fie: he moe

ofen a collecion of neuons ae stimulated

ogethe in time the moe likely they ae to bind

ogehe and the easie and easie it becomes fo

hat paten o f neuons o fie in synchony as

well as sequentially

How iportie sp cordI's actually pat of the bain and plays a majo oe in how yo body woks

Scientiss have known fo the past100 yeas o so that he spinal cod

is actually pat of he bain.

Accoding to Melillo while the bain

has gey matte on the outside (poected

by he skull) and potected white

matte on the inside, the spinal

cod is the evese the gey

matte is inside he spinal cod

and the white matte is outside.

Grey mae cellsGey e ell e pnl

d n eenee w

wy peple w eu

pnl d juy n

eve ve e We eell eenee

Whe mae cesWe e ell e pnl d

y e eleel ple

p e bn F exle wen

yu e ked n e n y feel

e pn n e nd y bn

e ell yu ve yu nd

ve e

Neuopasicy

Nerve oot

I e nl d e bn, ell n

ejvene ve e wen yu exee nd bee

enened pe lle neply

28 How It r

Spna cord coreIn e e e pnl d ey e ke e knd e e lye f e b

pen neve ell ,

p nd vee

Spinal nere

Neuogenesis l, by epen bn ve

en d en e yu

w ew el e pl d


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S i n-How do patches

hep smol


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Why do boomerangs come bacl


31/212


It lile sCreaes mre elaborae burss

. FuseThe irst fuse sets eveyhg i

moion. After the shll is in he

mortar, t fus is lt and th fa

makes ts way o e lifig charge

3. Time-delayedfsWl th sell soas p ito th ar

he ie-delayed fse coties to

br byig nog i m to gt e

shll a its highs t point bfor

eacg te bsting carge

4 Bursting chargeThe bstig charge is ore blac

powdr, sord gh up t sll.

Onc h ti-dlayd fus

eaces he busig cage, e

combstion ss of t sars

5. Stashe stars begin heir heat-duced

chmical reactions he shll ca

o logr contain h powr of tcombstion, ad th sars ae set

flying, creatig he traditional

fiworks shaps

2. Lifing chageBlack powdr (also cald

gpowder) is ig ited by te fse,

ad th xplosio can sd a shel

p o 1000 ft ito h a

O-sProduces spherical bursts

How do frewor


32/212



33/212


T rna is a

transpare layer

rng th ppl is

ad aqueus hr It

lps rra the ight

twads the eta s

at light is reeed i

te rre area


34/212


35/212


S i n*-How doesdiabetesworl


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What's insideyour nervoussystem?Lovey as you may be, you ould be onsideed anoganisaon of not espeally taented ells

Lke any rgansatn yur success

epens n cmmuncatn between

yur nvual members. n a sense

yu acually are hs cmmuncan snce s

the magc tha makes yu a sngle clever

creature. Yur bultn cmmuncatns

newrk knwn as the nervus system

perceves the utse wrl keeps all by

pars wrkng n harmny an frms the

thughts an memres tha make yu unque.

The nervus system cmprses hunres

f bllns f specalse cells calle neurns.

A ypcal neurn cnssts f a cmpac cell

by prtrung flamens calle enrtes

an a lng sngle bre calle an axn. The

axn can transmt sgnals ther neurnsan muscle cells whle the enrte can

receve sgnals frm her neurns an

sensry cells A neurns axn may exten

acrss the bran r by an branch ff

hunres f tme s

When smehng exctes a neurn the c ell

by wll sen an elecrcal charge wn he

lengt h f an axn trggerng an termnals

t release chemcals calle

neurtransmtters. These neurtransmtters

can travel t receptrs n enrtes f an

anng neurn acrss a small gap calle a

synapse. Depenng n the type f

neurransmtter an recepr the sgnal

may excte he ajnng neurn re an

electr ca charge wn s wn axn r the

sgnal may nhbt the neurn frm rng.

The cmplex cnnectns an sgnal paterns

amng the hunres f bl lns f neurns n

yur bran frm thughts memres an all

her mental actves.

Smla rly axns hat exen u frm yur

bran an spnal clumn n yurbyc an

release neurransmers t trgger muscle

mvement an rgan actvty. Ths s hw

yur bran cntrls the res fy urby.

Neurns als carry sgnals frm the byback t he bran. Yu perceve sghts

suns smells an taste when sensry

cells n yur eyes muth nse an ears

excte nearby neurns The neurns

sen an elecrcal sgnal up t the bran

whch nterprets them. Sensry

neurns near yur skn an ther

parts f he by fre an eectrc

sgnal n respnse t pressure

whch yur bran perceves as

the sense f tuch.

Lk y , yu ucc

cuc yu u

. Cerebelumi fo "i bi, h

cbu co-oins

n fis ski

os bs on

inoi oy

nfoion Is soino i iinn

n po

2. Faca nerveni oy fib

o s bs

h fo of h o,

whi oo s

onn o yo iy u fo

fi sions

3 Vagus neveA ciic n ni

fo bi o k

ho h on ,

h s i ky oconoi n yo

swowin iion

piion

A n cis

u oo on

h o you bow,

wi fis

7. Una neveA ky io ibi yo fi

wis

e auoar nevos system(N) woksbehnd the Cnes to keep you body unnng

smoothly The ANS s a of yo pPi a

nevous system made up of scns0y neve

fbes t onst;y eay nfoon about

he state o you body and he moto neves tJ

Piay omans fom the ban . spa od

o vos gl"ds, he otay smooth

aeeao rn you a he moto ons

exe you body by neasq you et ae

and podug 5tes o mnes among othe

thngs he pJasympathc dvon s kc he

b


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S i n*-Wa danl

Nerve ascicleA bun f as.

Perineuriumah f nti

iss that ptsah fasi

AxonTh na fib that ais

ia sinas psi t

as a ssy fati

Myelin sheah

Fatty nsai tha ksans f s-iuitin

Bl vesselsSupy f b that is

nus with ny

EpineuriumOt nti tissu

that tts th n

. Commonperoneal nerveCnts t uss iyu w whih if t

yu ft

0. Sciaic nerveYu st nwih ais t

sias t ss that

bn y

9 emoral neeA ky n wth any

sa n banhs

tha ay tans t

uss, as w assnsy infain f

th thi a w

i hefunn aj1nM

st f th a ns in y by ainsa by us, bns a tss

h b pti is th na wih ns

w yu a, by way f yu bw

n as t ans t yu in an

pnk fis a ays snsy inati

ba t th ta ns sys I f yu ba

y bw us bn bs thn jan th ans ins wi yu bain

intpts as a iin snsat

W v ?You neurons ae fagile ces, and for the most

par can't be repaced if they get damaged So,

instead of bare axons unning through your

body, we have neves

A nerve is ke an electrica cabe housing

thousands (or mions) of axons n a potectve

sheath of tissue Neves extend out fom ur

bain and spna coumn, known as the centra

nervous system to the rest of you body

There areUpairs of nerves extending rom

the brain and 31 pairs extending om the

spina cod e neves banch of n youbody, forming a networ called the pephera

nervous system.

The aerent dison of the peripheral

nervous system reays signas from

sensory neurons back to the cental nevous

system whie the eferent division relays

instuctons rom the centra neous system

to musces and gands. Most nerves cary

both tys of signas

How It Mr 37


38/212



Supero and nero vena cavah ag in ay b bak t t

hat f gan ab an bw th at

ptiy Thi b a aay b

stip f its xygn spy a thu s is a

ak bui u

What's inside

B f t a

aa nt thi

hab f t

ha w i

ts pasiy

Ticuspd vaveWhn th gt ati tats, tpuss b tug th tisi

a, a way a ag wn

int t igt nt

Right venricle nt th ig nt un u h ati tai,

giig it a bst ik t tubag in a ighpfa a h

i at an u gh t pay a int

puay ay an twa t ng.

8 How It r

the heart?Your heart s a turbocharged double

pumpng muscle that beats more than 40mllon tmes every year

Pumonary veinsft th b txygn f t ngs, it

tn t th at iat punay i

Le arumB biing wit

xygn an

nutints ts

W t aiutats th b

pa thug th

ita a an

t t ft ti

Le ventriceT ft nti ust sn

b n a g jny

than t ight t s t

a thik wa an u

abut th tis as uh

ngy Lkiy th f

atis ntain gis

th ft nt uput a

20 p b

No only does your heart do

amazing things, it does so

tirelessly every minue of every

day from the moment you're born (actually,

even a bit before then o the instant that

you die t weighs somewhere beween

eight and1 ounces slightly more if you're

male, less f youre female s sole purpose

is to push blood through your circulatory

system, providing crucial oxygen and

other nutriens to all your organs

The heart is considered a double pump

because the right half sends used blood

to your lungs here, he blood drops off a

load of carbon dioide and picks up some

fresh oxygen, which you have helpfully

provided by breathing Then he

oxygenated blood returns to te left halfof the heart T his heartoungstoheart

again' trip is known as pulmonary

circulaton The eft side of the hea r then

pumps his oxygenated blood to every

organ in your body other than your lungs

Your brain, your skin, he muscles in your

thigh, your spleen hey all ge blood

(and herefore oxygen) by virtue of your

beating hea rt

Even he heart itself gets blood, via a

special set ofveins and arteries known as

the coronary system he myocardiaI

muscle wihin the wal of he heart needs

oxygen and other nutrients o keep

beaing Unfortunatey, he coronaryareries that do this job are very narrow,

beween 17 and 22 millimeres in

diameer If they become clogged with

choleserol or other fatty deposits, he

hear stops workng This is bad for you

Of course he relatvely simple concept

of the double pump is fairly complex in

practice A series of valves control blood

ow to the heart's four chambers, alow

for the buildup of enough blood pressure

to get the job done, and direct the blood to

the correct veins and areries


39/212


S i n * -What mal


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What's in our ears?The er performs a range of ncons,senng messages to the bran whena sound s made whle aso prodngyour body a sense of baance

The thing to remember

when learning about the

human ear is that sound is

all about movement.

When someone speaks or bangs

a drum or maes any kind o

movement the air around them is

disturbed, ceating a sound wave

oalternating high and low

requency. These waves are

detected by the ear and then

interpreted by the brain as words

tunes or sounds

Consisting o ar-illed cavities,

labyrinthine uid-illed channels

and hghly sensitive cells, the ear

has external middle and internal

parts. The outerearconsists o a

sin-covered exible cartilage lap

called the auricle, or pinna. This

eature is shaped to gather sound

waves and ampliy them beorethey enter the ear or processing

and transmission to the brain. The

irst thing a sound wave entering

the ear encounters is the sheet o

tightly puled tissue separating the

outer and middle ear. Ths tissue is

the eardrum, or tympanic

membrane, and it vbrates as sound

waves hit it.

Beyond the eardrum, in the

airilled cavity o the middle ear

are three tiny bones called the

ossicles. These are the smallest

bones in your entire body Sound

vibratons hittng the eardrum pass

to the irst ossicle, the malleus

(hammer). Next the waves proceed

along the incus (anvil and then on

to the (stapes stirrup. he stirrup

presses against a thin ayer o tissue

caled the oval window', and this

membrane enables sound waves to

enter the luidilled nner ear.

The inner ear s home to the

cochlea, which consists owatery

ducts that channel the vibrations

as ripples along the cochleas

spiralling tubes. Running through

the middle o the cochlea s theorgan o Corti, whch is lined with

minute sensory hair cells that pick

up on the vibrations and generate

nerve impulses that are sent to the

brain as electrica signals. he

brain can interpret these signals

as sounds. tvr ?Ini in hvtibu iin wi ft ny

. iiu

n u inftin

b whi wy ivi i p pt

whi ii th

nv ipu

MacuaA y

v i

tiy i

CiaA f h iiu

n tiny i-fi

ny p i

40 How It r

Semiciular canalTh th piti t i n t

t u f ui th tpt

un vibti t th it

Vestibuar neveS ii b

uib f h

ii i

Vestibuleni th

fifi

vtib tw

hb (th

ui n u)

bt f wi

in t

u

whh i v i

ny hi


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S i n -URmblingi lder thelessfd present in the smallintestine whih is partl whpeple assiate rmblingtmmies with hnger

Oesophagushis sua i nsth at t stah

Stomach is a i

ith asic jcs t

ak .

Smal intestineH iqi b1n

ith a asss an

ak f s

baassin iss.

arge intesti;e F asss f t

sa itstin t t

a intsti h it is

tun int fas

What mal


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42 How It Jr


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S i n Q,

How I lrks 4


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AMG ANSWSTCOS QUSTIONSW iradzation sodangerous?here ae any different types o

adiaton; o exaple, visible light s a

or o radiation Soe are ore harul

than others, howeve, as there ae on

average 5000 radioactve partcles

travelling though your body every second!

Wth all ths radiaton exposre, why aent

we all dying o cancer? Wel it is not the

aont of radaton whch yo coe into

contact wth, as every sng le one of these

patices has the potential to cause cancer

ts jst the pobability of that occrng is

abot one n 30 quadilion!

Only appoxiately one per cent o fata

han cancer s cased by these 30 tllio n

radioactve partices whch pass throgh or

bodies in a typical ifetie. Ionsing radiaton

has the enegy to detach eectrons fro ther

associated atos, thereore causing the ato

to becoe positivey charged These chaged

particles are eerred to as adicals and ae

highly reactive due to thei unstable nate.

Radical s ae vey ipotant for certain

pocesses in the body sch as the kllng o

bactea. However, any unwanted effects

sch as tation of cels can be a poble.

Scentsts have fond ots o evdence to

sggest that these adcals cause utationsn cells which can give rise to cance.

44 How I r

How dopainkillers cureeadachese al eel pain differently dependingon the severity of the njury o acheas wel as or health and ou pa in threshod

When yo are in pain, nerve endings

tanst the pain signal to the bain va the

spnal cord. he bran then inteprets the

level of painhee are two key types o pa nkle rs that

are coony used. he fst nclude

ibpoen and paracetaol, which block the

bodys prostaglandins (cheicas that

produce sweling and pain) at the souce o

the pan, redcng sweing in the area and

edcing the intensty o pain hese asprin

edicines are sed freqently fo ld to

oderate pain, bt they can ony wo up to

a cetain intensity o pai n. Thee are d iferent

types of pankiles wthin this gop, sch as

ant-inlaatoy edicnes, le ibpofen,

which ae coony sed to treat arthritis,

sprains and stains. Aspirn is used to hep

lowe the sk o blood cots when sed in alow dosage as they thin the blood.

Paacetao is whats nown as an

analgesic which is sed or reducng pan

and lowering a tepeature.

he second type of pankles inclde

orphine and codeine (nacotic edicnes),

which bloc the pan essages n the spina

cod and the bran Ths is for ch ore

severe pan As both types o panklers use

slightly different ethods to treat pan, they

can be cobine d, such as n co-coda o,

which blends codeine and paracetaol.

Wy does icehave the enerto burst pes?ate is different to ost othersbstances as pon tuning nto icets vole expands by oughy nine per cent

causing it to becoe ess dense. This s de

to natre o the bon ds between the

olecles and the shape o those olecles.

pon changing state a substance needs to

absob or release a certain aount o energy

to undego the phase transiton Fo a sold

trning i nto a liq d this enegy is needed to

break the bonds in the solid theefoe needs

to be absobed by the syste. For a liquid

trning into a solid, this energy s reeased as

the bonds or

For kg of water at reezing point to

change nto ice, it ust give o 333.55kJ to

the soundngs jst to undergo the phase

transition his lage aont o energy is

noally gven o as heat, which eans it

gives the oeces n the atosphere oe

kinetic energy Howeve, i wate is

contaned in a stee pipe at reeng point,

the enegy gven o wil be passed on to the

olecles and bonds in the ppe, causing the

pipe to bust.

Wy does minttaste cold'?ere sue yo have all experienced thecoo sensation induced by eating aint and the reason why this happens is due

to the active ingredient caled enthol. When

we perceive soethng to be hot or cold, ths

is due to eectrcal signals o the nerves

which coe nto contact with the hot o cod

thing Our bain then nterpets these

eectrica signals as instrctions such as

that is hot, dont touch! o that s codMints usaly contain enthol. Menthol

has the abi ity to aect the pores on our

nerve cells which changes the electrcal

actvty o the cel This change in electrcal

actvty corresponds to the sae change that

woud tae pace i soething cod cae nto

contact wth the cell The cell intepets the

change in activity due to enthol as a

change in teperatue and sends that

inoraton to the bra in. This accounts or

the codness which we experience when

eatng a int.


45/212


Science* _QCan glass be made from lightning hitting sand?

his is indeed possibe as gass and sandare both made om the same chemca,

silicon dioxide. Silicon dioxide has an

extremely hgh melting point so rst the

sand has to be heated past ths o it to

become a iqid. n sand the siicon and

oxygen atoms ae aanged n a very ordely

way. When the sand is heated to vey high

tempeatues, this arrangement breaks down

and the position o the atoms becomes

dsordely and random I the sand is cooled

quick enough then the atoms o oxygen and

silicone dont have enogh time to revert

back to ther nce oderly arrangement sothey om the sbstance we know as glass.

When ightnng occrs, the strike pont can

reach temperatres o p to 30,000C which

is mch hotter than the sace o the Sun.

Provdng the sand is o the ight ind then it

is possibe that gass w orm ulgurite s the

tem gven to what is let ove which is a

hollow gass tbe and can sometimes

penetrate up to 15 metes below the sace

o the sand

he type o sand the ightning stries is a

majo actor as to whether t wll trn into

gass or not. Meteorte impacts have alsobeen known to reease a large enough

amont o energy to convert sand nto gass

De to the npredctable natue o lightning

stkes and given that they can be hi ghy

dangeous t mght be a sky business

opportunity in moe than just the nanca

sense On aveage thee can be moe than

00 lightning sties happenng every second

acoss the globe but the chances o these

being over the right type o sand at exacty

the right moment ae very ow so dont get

yor hopes up

How It Tr 45


46/212



At whattemperaturei water at itsdensest?D esit y s a easre of how uch assa ateria has a specifc voe ofspace Theefore the ore atos pe ut

voe a aterial has ad the oe ass

those atos have the higher the desity will

be Whe yo heat soethg p it takes up

ore space ad therefoe becoes less

dese. Most ateials wil be at ther desest

whe they are a solid ie whe ther atos

are closest together. Wate does ot folow

this e as we al kow that ice foats o

water theefoe ice s less dese tha water!

So whe s water at ts desest Wel, it

turs out this happes to be arod 4C. This

s whe the water oeces ae closest

togethe Coolg water fthe tha 4C

causes the desity to decrease p to the

pot whee it becoes a solid which is less

dese tha the lquid This happes de to

the sual way that the water olecules

arrage theseves whe trg ito a

solid, it s kow as a crystalie strcture

ad it s sch a arageet that the

olecles are futher apat fo each othe

as a sold tha whe they were a iqid

-

How doesde-icer work?D e-cers work by lowerg the freeigpoit of wate casg it to t backfro ice to lqid wate. Usally this is de

to the addito of a cheical copod su ch

as sod chloide (ofte caled rock salt) o

calc iu choride Most deicers ae't

desged to et evey piece of ice they coe

to cotact with they break the bod

betwee the ice a d the su face alowig for

easier aa eoval of the ice.

46 How I r

How are ball bearings made?here are few diffeet parts that ake

p a ball beaig icldig aces a

cage, ad the the coverig to potect the

beaig he first stage the process is a

cod o hot forig opeatio; a thic k piece of

wie is fed to a achie where t is ct

dow by slcig sectios off each side

The ache the sas two heisphere

cavtes (a bit ike a old) ito the piece of

wire to ake a ball shape. As a esult of this

process the ball wi have a rig of excess

etal arod it caled a fash, which eeds

to be reoved The ball also eeds fther

poishig to ake t pefectly oud ad

sooth. The ball with the fash is the fed

ito aother achie which ols the ball

aoud betwee two ll plates. Ril pates are

two had pates of steel which wear away the

flash ad sooths the srface of the ball. he

ball is the heated to hade it after which it

degoes a gidig pocess siiar to that

of the ll plates til it is grod dow to its

fia, very accurate easureets which

ofte reqie toeraces as sal as a

iloth of a ch.

The last process is called appi g, which

requies a sia ache that exerts less

pessure cobied with a polishg paste to

gve the balls their perfect shiy fiish

without frthe edcig thei size

It gound down to i nal, ve accuratemeasuremen which oen require tolerancas small as a millionth of an inch

Ho mucctrc do tbran produc?he bai reqires a reatively low powe

to operate aod 2 0 watts which

woud be eogh to powe a weak ight bub

20 watts correspods to 20 jo les of eegy

per secod The geeratio of electcity

the brai esults fro the oveet of os

(charged atos) though the bai as

opposed to electros ovg throgh a wire.


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Science _Qw he hlesge Swiss heeseo ak chs you nd th h p o

bactria. Diffrt typs of bactria in

difrnt cobinatons gv rs to th distinct

varity o flavours i ay chss. hr ar

various dirnt typs o bactra usd or

akig Swiss chs th on rsposib for

th hols is calld Propionibactriu

shrai. Onc this bactria s hatd slghtly

t racts, foring bubbs of carbon dioid

that bco th a h ols i th product

h tchical tr for ths hols is ys'

h s o ths ys ca b controlld by th

chsakrs by altring th acdity,

tpratur and curig ti of th itur.

Gnrally in ost foods which rquir

frntation bubbs of carbon dioid wl b

ford but ost of th t thy scap Th

procdur which gos nto akig Swss

chs ans thos bubbls rain trappdisid which as thr will b ys i th

fna product.

o dobooratay arbo?o wv covrd why thy co back buthow do boorags stay up i th frstplac? Th two ars of th boorang arlik th wigs o a plan n that th fastr

thy ov through th ar th or lift thy

grat. lik pa wings thy spin as thy

ov through th ar ad this cobinatio of

spin and ovnt ans that so parts

of th boorang ar oving quckr

Bcaus th boorag s spng th

arodynaic lit occurs at dfrnt rats on

difrnt parts o th boorag, as th

wigs o th boorang ar thrown at a

angl th nt lt s towards th ctr o th

crcl that th boorang ovs o.

Wy do we hiccup?hr ar ovr 100 physologica rasos

as to what sts hiccups o, th ost

coon bing panson o th stoach and

ovt of stoach acid into th

osophagus. Aftr this thn it could b an

irritatio of th thora or th phric nrv

(th nrv to th daphrag).

Th chans of a hccup usually

involvs a strong contractio o th

daphrag th ck uscs a d so othr

surrounding uscs. J ust atr th

contraction bgis w start to nha at which

poit th gottis (a kid o lshy trap door

whch sparats th ood ad ar tubs in your

throat) shuts o th widpip ad th is

producs th hi nois.

Scntists ar trying to find th purpos of

hiccups. O thory s that thy ay hav

bn usful for a ancstor of ours. Standing

o two gs givs us th advatag of usig

gravty to hp dgst our ood, but our-lggd

craturs hav to digst horizotally which

as it's asir or ood to gt stuck. So

scitists thik th lodgd food coud hav ht

a rv rsponsibl or trggring th hicc up

alowng th ood to b swalowd. I f this is th

cas th hiccups coud hav bn highy

usful rathr than just aki g you o ok dat

One theo that hiccups may have beenusel for an ancestor of ours

.

Wy use saltto melt ice onthe roa? alt lowrs th frzing/lting point owatr/ic. h tg pot o ic undrora codtios is ro dgrs Clsius.

Sa watr howvr rs/ts at -2.2

dgrs Csus du to its high saity

As to why sat lowrs th tig/

fring pont o watr this is a bit or

difcult to pan wthout going ito so

cop chistry. Basicaly watr s adfro Hp, ad aythg ls whch gts nthr, such as sodiu th cas o sat, gts

in th way ad aks it hardr or th p tobond as c.

pon sprnkling salt onto ic th sat rst

dssovs to th iqud watr surroundng

th ic causg th ic to t. h salt can

oy lowr th ltig/ring point of

watr up to aroun d 16 dgrs f th

tpratur is bow this point th salt is

inctiv and t would b bttr to pour

sad ovr th ic to hlp cras tracton.

Wy do wesometimesremember ourdreams?his is a vry good quston ad t s on

or which thr is no satisactory

aswr basd on our currt undrstandg

of th brain On thig studis hav told us,

though, is that dras s to happn or

vvidly ad frqunty during th REM (Rapid

Ey Movnt) stag of th sl p cyc,which tds to occur roughly our to iv

tis in a noral ghts slp.

t has b rportd by svral studs

that you ar uch or lky to rbr

th dra you wr having f you ar

wokn i th iddl of this REM cycl. So f

you would ik to rbr your dras

or rqutly, you could try stting your

aar cock to go o in th idd o your

REM sp cycl (liky to b nar th d

of your ights slp) and writ down what

you rbr.

How It Tr 4 7


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49/212



50/212



Pawse pws e bt spt

epse cws h pvespe gp, esg thew hs f ech ste

50 How I r

Egge gs stsw f fst eep tke Mtg hgh eve fyge s ctc whe theheeth s hse s sbeth-e ceses thee-f

The cheets g t cts teweght,mg bce gshp ts hgh spee

he spe s cebyfebe hs evve s

The ceeths eyes e pve we-ge vef ts suugs Thspves them w ecee

vs whe stkg chsg pey the vehbtt f pe ps.

The het s egecmpe t he msf ts sze, pmpg ss mt f b

Te vege weght f eeth s 57 kg (125b) ts b s see It hs sm he, ftee ge g, egs th

mmse esste


51/212


Environment _Q0 esCheck ot te tree stages a cheetah undertakes to reach 40mph i jst tree strides

1. Brce 2 Snp 3 KickTe eea eys s har re fasan n, nn-rraa aws axsran wh he rn Is sne ures,-k an ha s a fra

Te sne ns an snas srah rn e ns h arh a sh h ha frwar Thne sener uses exa njun aar asy a r frwar hrs.

Te bne sne a e ses e e eea an nreby braswn an an 6 s (25 f) r h a n a ssabn. A e unan f e u ne f s reane n he earan rss s a T ha s hr srs a s

Th sash's na b ssar a sws's anarns an n ary fsh

With a top speed on pa with that of a

cheetah the sai lfish is lightning fast

and one o the most difficult-to-catch

fish in the wold.

Thanks to its stifened tapeed body and

scissoshaped caudal in the sail fsh is built fo

spee d a speed that comes coutesy of a apid

and feocous icking of its tail ndeed duing a

Cpble o swimming or lon eriods o tme tover 40mh, nd witf recoredtop speed o over70mp te silsh s the ocen's stest nimlchase to consume ish custaceans o

cephalopods the saifish will flick ts tail back

and foth hundeds o times utiising the

poweful muscles which un down its

compessed body

As with a peegine falcon the sail fish's speed

is also aided by its ability to etact pats

o its body in this instance its vaious fns

(notably the lage dosa fin that adds ove a foot

on to its oveall heght his featue helps it

educe the efects of dag and minimise

esistance to its movements

Its spine is also vey fexible and as wth the

cheetah allows it to geneate inceased thust

though the apid cuves it bends its toso into

while swimming

How It Tr 51


52/212


vu V TION Ill

he eegne falconis incedby quick

fou thought the cheetah was fast, been finel honed to maxmse speed ,

then think again The peregrine

falcon blows its top speed out of

the water b over 130mph Capable of

hitting a monumenta 2oomph during astoop (dive, the falcon has the highest

top speed of an animal on Earth

The peregrines speed is caused b a

combination of factors irstl it makes

use of gravit, diving upon its pre from

great height, evenwhen the

themselves are airborne Secondl, its

anatom as with the cheetah's has

52 How I r

evolving over mill ions o ears into the

swift and eficient killer it is toda For

example, the peregrine's keel which

s ocated at its breastbone issignicantl larger than average birds',

allowing for bigger muscles and a

greater number to attach its wings to its

bod This all ows it to generate far more

power per thrust when building speed

urther, the peregrine's wings have

evolved to be incredibl pointed, with

slim, stiff and unslotted feathers,

which helps streamlining and reducing

air resistance signifcantl.

Unlike the cheetah, however,

arguabl the peregrine handles its

awesome speed much better irst l,

while having the same enlarged heart

and lungs, the peregrine does not suferdamage from oxgen deprivation at the

close o its stoop This is partl due to

gravit's beneficial aid in generating its

killer speed but also due to the

peregrine's abili t to absorb oxgen

through its red muscle bres, o which

it has man. This allows it to keep a

stead oxgen low a t all times and

means that, consequential l, it does

not need to rest postkill, reducing its

vulnerabilit to scavengers

SightPey pe le ag a he hepeegne beg a ng y. a ea al a ck fee y

StremlineThe g ae ug g e fal ea, ak e pe lm, ff a uefeae, begn aply ee a eae

Velitypee ceae a he ac mb hllee ag, eag pee up 200m p I g keel hep maa ucualy ug e e a eye ae ep clea byang memae, a e a eyel

CntPey b uck acape mai. epeegne ke i pey a clece fhch e e mmenepee ehe n kll, befe hen pgu ach lage cla Pey alaycnume n e gun

Iyou thought the cheetahwas fast, then think again


53/212


EnvironmentQPhysique

Un BThe fastest human aive, Usain Boltrecently broke the word 100-metrerecord with a st geringly quicktime of 9.58 seconds0

ne of te most successul species of anima on e

planet, Homo sapiens ave evolved over e las120,000 years nto creatures wit formidable

pysical abilities. Currenly, te fastest um an is sa in

Bolt, a amaican-born spriner wo as won te world 100

and oomere gold medas.

Bolt epitomises e ideal uman anatomy needed to

produce suc ig speeds: a all eig (19m) balanced

weigt (939kg) a nd long, powerful muscles wit an

excelent metabolism muscles canno uilise energy-ric

fuels' suc as glucose, instead tey must convert i into

ATP (adenosine tripospate wit te amount of ATP a

muscle produces directly correlating to te amount of

power it can generate

i mocMuscle power is common o all ese creaures, so eres an expanaon ofow muscles provde e power ta n turn provdes e speed

2 Power strokeT myos had n

plls flan bypo backwads ad

da no acompssd poso.

Cross bdge

deaches

4. Energy elesenal ly P ass

ny o conv hyosn ad fo s bn

lowy poson back os al y

confuao ady fo h cycl

1 Attchmentsly a yosn hadak o a oachoo) aacs sl oa posd bdn so h sclflamns, ppn a coss bd.

Atin filament

is puled

3 Detchment olcl of Padnos pospa)n bnds o yos,las s p o hflan so ha h cossbd dacs

Energised yosin

headThe fest nim 1on Eah are. . .Here's a list of the mostsuperfast critters on the planetASEST ISHSalfs 68mp (okp

Marlin 0mp (8okpWaoo 48mp (78kp)

Tunny 46mp (74kp)

Bluefs tuna 44mp (7 okp)

ASEST LAND INS TTiger beete .6mp (84kp)

Cockroac 34mp (4kp)

ASEST REPILESSpnytailed iguana

Black mamba

1mp (34kp)

mp (okp

eregrne falcon

Spine-tailed swftrigaebirdSpur-wnged gooseRedbreasedmerganser 8omp (129


54/212


AMG ANSWS T COS QUSTIONSHow does a volcano erupt?Breathtalng and oen devastang reminders thatthe Earth's sace is actively evolving

!anoes are rare loations on the

Earth's rust where molten rok

magma spews to the surfae as

lava often aompaned by superheated

gas and debrs

his fresh magma, whih is lighter than

solid rok, perolates upward through

issures in the rust, eventually exploding

to the surfae when trapped gasses in the

magma rush to esape.

W t df Geologists see volanoes as otward

evidene of the inner workings of plate

tetonis, the theory that the rust is

fragmented into 15 oeani and

ontinental plates that diverge, onverge

and slide beneath one another over time.

Approximately400 of Earth's 500 known

ative volanoes lie atop subdution zones,

plaes where an oeani plate slips

beneath another oeani or ontinental

plate. he Ring of re' traes a irle of

highly ative subdution zones around the

Pai Oean

n a subdution volano, magma is

formed 100 to ookm beneath the surfae

when water and arbon dioxide seep from

the sinking oeani shel lowering the

melting pont of the surrounding rok.

3 CraterCraers onain sevea hineys

ha ei lava and debis In rare

ases a eendous eupion

auses he volano o ollapse on

iself reang a adera a gian

raer kiloeres in diaeer

Rift volanoes form along the great

seams of two separating plates. he

midAtlanti ridge, whih separates the

North Amerian and Afrian plates, is one

of these seams. As the plates pull apart,

magma bubbles p through hundreds,

even thousands of small volanoes to ill

the raks, reating new oean loor

ive per ent of volanoes are loated far

from the seams of teton plates

Soalled hot spot volanoes are fuelled by

deep soures of magma pumped to the

surfae through powerful onvetion

urrents in the molten mante Sine the

deep fuel soure remains fxed while the

plate slides above, the result is often a

string of volanoes, muh ike the

awaiian slands

4. Cinders, blks andmbs.. oh my!Dung erupions, volanoes an ei

louds of ash, red-ho ndes bloks

of disodged rok and even volani

bobs gobs of airborne lava ha

soidfy beore hiing he gound.

ShieldWe, sspe esfm by y f

M L H)

Composite seepspe es mefm y f ebs ke sh bmb M j Jp)

Over enuries a oose voano wil lay

down alernaing ayers of ooled ava and

opaed ash and debis Ohe voanoes ae

bui enely of lava ayes o ounds o indersA oun of aga rses u

hrough he ain ven. Ove

illennia eosion an expose

he ain ven of a long

donan volano as a h

54 How I r

CinderSm, see esmp f p f h

s Pu Me)

FissureF fe s f h emee fm k ' fzes Ls Ps in N)


55/212


EnvironmentQWy are geers rae?Wa drves hese founans ofsuperheaed waer, and whyaren here more of hem?

Water trcklesundergundSw i iv wk u f y ik uh fuk ph f w h kims

6.Silca sealSii iv f hyi vi k n wy bui p h pip ws usi bnk

8. Sky-hgh waterTh w bv hsup w is hw up i i s j Th pssu sui uph w s.

7. A sudden rushW psu w b u i n vm hwih f vyi w sh h sf.

;': . 4 :

.

3 Superheated water 4. Plumbng system 5 Hghpressure aea 2. Hot rksT w i vy hips bu i ' bib f h ps u f vyin w k. hs is ph

T h w ius pwsvi p u sys fu pips ps s is, h vy pss sss pn n i

ys f, s b i sp i h nupip y Thi s ik inpss k

Th w i wih hks sni piy

y ny fw bw hE's suf

Geysers form when waer is superheaed by

volcanic aciviyunderground, bu can'

move freely as i circulaes owards he

surface. nsead, pressure builds up unil he

waer explodes upwards in a gian gush.

Since waer needs o encouner ho rock, some

geyser fields are found above upwellings of ho

rock from deep wihin he Earh. Ohers are

found near crusal plae boundarieswhere here

is volcanic aciviy and broken, fracured rock.

Rivers snow or rainwaer rick ing hrough he

Earh can provde a consan source of waer.

Mos geysers form where here's a silicarich

rock known as rhyolie. Risng ho waer dissolves

he silica in he rhyolie and carries upwards

hrough naural pipes in he rock where i's hen

deposied as a rock caled geyserie. The silica

seals he pipe agains waer pressure and

narrows is walls.

Every geyser has a differen plumbing and

reservoir sysem, bu here are wo main ypes.

Cone' or column' geysers like Old aihful erup

in a seady column from a beehiveshaped nozzle

of geyserie. They end o have one reservoir of

wae wih a single pipe leading from i o he

surface. ounain' or pool' geysers erup from a

large pool of waer in a series of powerul burss.

They are hough o have a reservoir fed by wo

waer sources descending shallow cold waer

and ho waer rising from below.

As geysers need a rare combinaion of

geological condiions o form, hey're found in

jus a handful of paces. There are around 0

geyser fields worldwide and mos have jus a few

geysers. he biggesYelowsone USA has

almos hal f he worlds geysers.

How It Tr 55


56/212



56 How I r


57/212


EnvironmentQHow It Tr 57


58/212


AMG ANSWSTCOS QUSTIONSNoal fault Reverse or

thrust faultMountains Split river

T rock sl ab lyig abovte slopig falt lie sides

dowwards as t plas

spara. Yo g t sam

effec removing e

booknd fom a slf of

slopig books

Slabs lyig aove he

slopig falt lie lft p

alog a vrs faul Plat

collisions ps a rock slab

p ad ovr anor along

a trust fal

Trs faults a commo i

ge motain ranges like e

Himalayas, wh two

continal plats a collidig.

is ivr asi as n slit

wo by te roc slabs o

ith sid o h alt,

movig in oosite d ectios

Basins and rangesS moutai rangs ad avaly basi ns form wr rocblocks are lited ad lowered by

orma faultg Dat Vally,

Califoria i e western UitedSats is a goo xamp

Plates moving apa Plates collidingCrsal plats ar movig aart

fracturig e Earhs bitle

cst along falt lins cracs

where sabs of roke ock gindpast ac othe

Crustal lats ar colliding utg

pressre on te Eart's cust As e

plas slowly crc togr, t

crst bends folds ad factues lie a

car bont in a crash

What causesearthqual


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Environment _Qmoe poweful than a magnitude two Quie anunimaginale thought.

t's inteesting o note that eathquake damage

isn't diectly eated to magnitude. Deep, distant

eathquakes shake the gound less han close,

shalow eathquakes ecause the enegy eleased

a the focus has had a chance to dispese. Big

eathquakes often cause longe temos Fo

than uan aeas ui on loose deis andsediments. Watesatuated sedimens can

ehave like quicksand when shaken, whee loose

gains move apat and ow like a liquid. n

Niigata, apan, 1964, eathquake-esisant

uildings tumled onto hei sdes when he

gound undeneah liqueed. he populaion

faces additional hazads once he shaking stops.

it sAn earthqake's size can be calclated on the familiar

Richter scale which makes use of logarithms for

comparing the scae of one eahquake to another, or

the more scientifc Moment Magnitude scae which

uses sophistcated seismology equipment to measuean eathquake's actual enegy.

CSTROPHICRichr magniude: >8Moment mnideN/A

Affects areas housans ofmi lesacross. Complete devastao

VERY DIUSRichr magnide8Moment manideN/A

Damage oeundes omles Masny esroye, iges downlarge cracks apear te go

DISASTROUSRichtr mniude:-8Moment mnideN/A

Majoraage oldngs ased(asory a rames destroye)

Grond susidence ras et pesrken, andsdes possbe.

VERY DESTRUCERichr magniude:7Moment mgnide 0

Seos amage ossibe oer ageareas rcres ad grod se

DESTRUCnERichr magnitude:6Moment mnide69

MetrdamageoingsHevfmtreoao

VERY STRONGRichr magnide56Moment magni6.0Possibe srctua damage obildgs i ppulated areas Nticedby eole g

STRONGERRichter magnitu5Moment magnide59

Fel beeyoe Mio o modeadamage case

STRONGRichter magnitude4Moment mnitude 5.0

Fel by most eoe ossbedamage urs Wnws ancrocke e o rea a treedsted

MODERERichter magnituN/AMoment mnitude9

Teseare oftefelt idoos

eslg n crockery bengdsturbed Cracs ay aear walls

SIGHTRichter manitude3Moment manitude:.0

Noceabe raios noos

EGIGBLERichter magnitude2Moment magniude:3.

Can e el o pper oos ta buidgs

INSTRUMENTALRichter maniude2Moment mnitude:103.0

Amicoearquakedeee sumeaio Bael etbmas

dops ove ime. oweve hey can happenmonths, yeas o decades afte the quake.

Undesea eathquakes can e as devasating as

those on land, if not moe. Fault movements can

dsplace hugevolumes of wae, which cash to

shoe as kille waves called tsunamis. An undesea

eathquake nea nothen Indonesia iggeed the

Indian Ocean tsunami in 24 he wold's iggest

example, an eathquake in

949, which had a magntude

of 7.1, shook the gound fo 3

seconds, while a magnitude

8.3 eahquake in 964lasted

Unstoppable and terring, big quakesstrike with little or no warning

fo at leasoyeas. At eas

2, people in ndonesia

alone wee killed y he gian

waves Rescue teams cleaed

up odies fo weeks

five minutes.

he majoity of he shuddeing duing an

eahquake is caused y Rayleigh waves hesesuface waves oll along, convulsing he Eath's

how it works - amazing answers to curious questions 20122

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