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Classification of Musical Instruments: Translated from the Original German by AnthonyBaines and Klaus P. WachsmannAuthor(s): Erich M. von Hornbostel and Curt SachsSource: The Galpin Society Journal, Vol. 14 (Mar., 1961), pp. 3-29Published by: Galpin SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/842168 .

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ERICH M. VON HORNBOSTEL AND CURT SACHS

lassification o u s i c a l

nstruments

TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL GERMAN*

BY ANTHONY BAINES AND KLAUS P. WACHSMANN

TRANSLATORS PREFACE

The revivalof a learnedtreatiseabout half a centuryafter its firstappearances

an unusual event, and there must be cogent reasonsfor taking such a step.In the presentcase the reasonsare not hardto state.No other systemof classi-

fication is more frequentlyquoted, nor hasany latersystembeen able to sup-

plant it. On these grounds alone it would be difficultto write it off as beingout-of-date.

Apart from the arguments of the system itself, the biting comments on

curatorsand collectors, and on the waywardnessof their cataloguing, are as

relevanttoday as they were fifty years ago. Reed instrumentsarestill apt to be

labelled astrumpets

f the bell is flared-there is a dismal case of this in one of

our greatmuseumsat present-and the terminology is stillat times asmuddledas it was in the many instancesof which Hornbostel and Sachscomplained;while as for anthropologists,their publicationsdo not invariably give proofthat all have readtheir ZeitschriftfiirEthnologie.

It is true that criticismshave been made, and modifications demanded here

and there;even the authorsdid not subsequently eel themselvesrigidlybound

to what they had first statedin 1914, when they also tried to anticipatethose

pointsover which need for revisionwas most likely to arise.A good accountof

these criticisms hasbeen given in JaapKunst sEthnomusicology3rdedn., TheHague, 1959). None of the critics,however, could persuade he presenttrans-

latorsthat a returnto the originaltext might involve the undesirable esurrec-

tion of some best-forgotten error. On the contrary, the discussionsof the

system smeritsor demeritshave convinced them thatit is necessary or studentsto have easy access to the source itself. This is not meant to imply that the

Hornbostel-Sachs ables are in all circumstanceseasily applied;one need butthink of some of the many varieties of stamping tubes, e.g. of the slender

stampingtubes of the Shambalaof EastAfrica,who makeslits [in the tubes]

and wave them backwardsand forwardswhile dancing, so that the tonguesare causedto vibrateby atmosphericpressure (Hornbostel, 1933, p. 296), or

* ErichM. von Hornbostelund Curt Sachs, Systematik er Musikinstru-mente.EinVersuch ,Zeitschriftjiirthnologie,ahrg. 914.Heft4 u. 5. (Berlin,1914.)The translatorsregratefulo ProfessorGeorgEckert,Editorof the

Zeitschrift,or hisassento thework srepublication.

3







of the bamboo tubeswhich they strikeagainstthe ground or drum upon with

twigs; or of the stampingtubes of their next-door neighbours,the Pare,who

cover the end of the tube that hits the ground with a membrane.Are these

cases of Kontaminationsee below, paragraph14) of a basic type stamping

tube , or is the first a type of free aerophone (41 in the tables), the second aplosive aerophone (413), the third a percussionidiophone (111.2), and the

fourth a membranophone(zI) of sorts?

The originaltext did not reacha largemusicalpublicsinceit appeared n the

comparativeobscurityof an ethnologicaljournal, while also, being written in

German, t did not become aswidely known in the English-speakingworld as

it might have done otherwise. Thus there is a clearcase for now offering an

Englishtranslation.To do so atthismoment will servealso as afittingmemorial

to ProfessorCurt Sachs,who died in 1959.Posteritycan pay no higher tribute

to a scholar hanto returnto his andhis collaborator swork and put it into thehandsof a wider publicthanknew it before. It is in this spiritthat the Englishtranslation s published.

The text paragraphswere not numberedin the original. Words in squarebracketsare the authors f German,andthe translators f otherwise.The trans-

lators terminology in the tables takes due account of English terms used bythe authors n their various aterpublications--asHornbostel n TheEthnologyof African Sound-Instruments ,Africa, vol. VI (London, 1933), glossary,

pp. 303-II;and Sachs n The

HistoryofMusical nstruments

NewYork,

1940),Terminology , pp. 454-67. Many of theirEnglishterms have come into wide

use, and have been kept save in a few caseswhere a change (even in one case

to French) seemed to the translatorsunavoidableor greatly preferable.Most

of the more obscureinstrumentscited in the tablesare describedby Sachsin

his Real-Lexikon Berlin, 1913). Footnotes are original unlessstated.

Classificationf Musical nstrumentsREATISES onsystems f classificationreby andlargeof uncertainvalue. The material to be classified, whatever it may be, came into

existence without any such system, and grows and changes without

reference to any conceptual scheme. The objects to be classified are

aliveanddynamic,ndifferento sharp emarcationndsetform,while

systemsare staticanddependuponsharply-drawnemarcationsnd

categories.2. These considerationsbring specialdifficultieso the classifier,

thoughalsoan attractivechallenge: is aimmust be to developandrefinehisconcepts o thattheybetterandbetter it the realityof his

material, harpenhis perception, ndenablehim to placea specificcase n the schemequicklyandsecurely.

3. A systematicrrangementor musicalnstrumentsoncernsirts

of all musicologists,thnologists,nd curators f ethnologicalollec-

4







tionsand hoseof culturalhistory.Systematic rrangementnd ermin-

ology are urgentlyneeded,however, not only for collectionsofmaterial, ut also ortheirstudyand nitsinterpretation.e whorefersto a musicalnstrument

byanynameor

descriptione

pleases, eingunaware f thepointswhichmatter,willcausemoreconfusion han fhe had eft it altogether nnoticed.n commonspeech echnicalermsare greatlymuddled,as when the same instrumentmay be indis-

criminatelyalleda lute,guitar,mandoline, rbanjo.Nicknames nd

popularetymologyalsomislead he uninitiated:he GermanMaul-trommels not a drum,nor the EnglishJew s(properlyaw s) harpa

harp,northe Swedishmungiga Geige fiddle],northe Flemishrompatrumpet; nlytheRussiansrecorrectwhen

theycall hissamenstru-

ment, a pluckedlamella,by the uncommittederm vargan fromGreekopycvov,instrument ). omonymsare no lessdangeroushan

synonyms:hewordmarimba,or instance, enotesn the Congotheset of lamellaeusuallycalledsansa,but elsewhere t denotesa xylo-phone. Ethnologicaliterature eamswith ambiguous r misleadingterms for instruments,nd in museums,where the field-collector s

reporthasthe lastsay,the mostsenselessermsmaybeperpetuatednthe labels.Correctdescriptionndnomenclature

dependuponknow-

ledgeof themostessentialriteria or the varioustypes,-a conditionwhich,as avisitto a museumwill show,is hardly vermet.Onewillfind,for instance,hatoboes,evenwhen stillin thepossessionf thedoublereedwhichunmistakablyroclaimshem for what they are,arenotedasflutes,or at bestasclarinets;ndshould he oboe haveabrassbell onemaybe certain f the label trumpet

4. A systemof classificationastheoreticaladvantagess well as

practical ses.Objectswhichotherwiseappearo be quiteunrelated

to eachothermaynow becomeassociated,evealing ew geneticandculturalinks.Herein will alwaysbe found the leadingtest of the

validityof thecriteriauponwhich thesystems based.

5. The difficulties hichanacceptableystemof classification ustsurmount revery great, ince hatwhichsuitsone eraor nationmaybe unsuitable s a foundation or the instrumentalarmouryof allnationsandall times.ThustheAncientChinesebased heirclassifica-

tion on material,distinguishingetween nstrumentsmade of stone,metal,wood, gourd,bamboo,hideandsilk;consequently,o them,trumpets ndgongs,stoneharmonicasndmarble lutes, hawms nd

clappers,achbelongedogether.6. Ourown present-dayracticedoesnot amount o much more.

Sound-instrumentsredivided nto threemajorcategories:tringedinstruments,wind instruments, nd percussionnstruments.This

5







cannot be defended even on the grounds that it satisfiesday-to-day

requirements.A largenumber of instrumentscannotbe fittedinto anyof the threegroupswithout placingthemin an unnaturalposition,like

the celesta, which, as a percussioninstrument,is brought into close

proximity to drums and so on. As a remedy one introduces a fourth

group under the disconcerting heading miscellaneous -in any

systematic grouping an admission of defeat. Moreover, the current

classification s not only inadequate,but also illogical. The first re-

quirement of a classificatorysystem is surely that the principle of

demarcationremains the same throughout for the main categories.Our customary divisions, however, follow two differentprinciples,

stringed nstrumentsbeing distinguishedby the nature of thevibratingsubstancebut wind and percussionby the mode of sound-excitation-

ignoring the fact that therearestringed nstrumentswhich areblown,like the Aeolian harp, or struck,like the pianoforte. The customarysubdivisionsare no better. Wind instrumentsare divided into wood-

wind and brass,thus giving a subordinatecriterion of differentiation,

namely, material, an unjustifiablepredominanceand flagrantlydis-

regarding the fact that many brass instrumentsare or were once

made of wood, like cornetts,serpentsand basshorns, and that in anycasemany woodwind instruments areoptionally or invariablymadeof metal, as flutes, clarinets,saxophones, sarrusophones, ritonicons,

etc.

7. The objections which can be raised against the crudity of the

customary divisions are now familiar to organology [Instrumenten-

kunde],and in recent decades scholars have made more than one

attemptto attainsomethingmore satisfactory.Leavingasideclassifica-

tions which have owed their structure to the peculiaritiesof this or

that collection, catalogueshave latterly in general adopted a systemwhich Victor Mahillon has used since 1888 for his comprehensive

catalogueof the Museumof the BrusselsConservatoire.

8. Mahillon takes the nature of the vibratingbody as his firstprin-

ciple of division,and thusdistinguishesbetweeninstruments[i] whose

materialis sufficientlyrigid and at the same time sufficientlyelasticto

undergo periodicvibration, and named by him self-soundinginstru-

ments (instrumentsutophones*);2] in which sound-wavesareexcited

through the agency of tightly-stretched membranes; [3] in which

stringsvibrate;and lastly [4] in which a column of air vibrates.Thus

he distinguishes our categories:self-sounders,membrane nstruments,

stringed,and wind instruments.Besides the uniformityof its principle* For reasonswhichSachshasexplainedn hisReallexikonterMusikinstru-

mnenteBerlin,1913,p. I95a),we preferheterm diophones.

6







of division, the system has the great advantage n that it is capableof

absorbingalmost the whole range of ancient and modem, Europeanand extra-Europeannstruments.

9. Mahillon ssystem

of four classesdeservesthehighestpraise;

not

only does it meet the demandsof logic, but also it providesthosewhouse it with a tool which is simple and proof against subjectivepre-ferences. Moreover, it is not so far removed from previously-useddivisions as to offendwell-establishedcustom.

Io. It hasseemed to us, however, that the four-classsystemstands n

pressingneed of developmentin fresh directions.Mahillon startedon

the basisof the instrumentsof the modernorchestra,with which, asan

instrumentmanufacturerand musician,he was in closest contact, andit was these which gave him the initial challenge to work out his

system. Then, as the collections of the Brusselsmuseum grew under

his direction, he explored over years of relentless effort the limitless

field of Europeanand exotic organology. Inevitablya newly-acquired

specimenwould now and then fail to fit into the system,while certainsubdivisionswhich figure importantlyamong European nstruments-

e.g. those of keyboard and mechanical instruments-assumed an un-

warrantablyprominent place.Mahillon had indeed been led for the

sake of the Europeaninstruments,to juxtapose categorieswhich didnot logically build a uniform concept. Thus he divided the windinstrumentsinto four branches, (i) reed instruments [instrumentsa

anche], (2) mouth-hole [instruments bouche],(3) polyphone instru-ments with air reservoir,and (4) cup-mouthpieceinstruments[instru-mentsa embouchure]. onsider too the drums, which he grouped as

frame drums, vessel drums, and double-skindrums;he consequentlydivided the skin drums

correspondingto our side-and kettledrums-

and likewise the autophones-into instruments of untuned pitch(instrumentsruyants)nd those of tunedpitch (aintonationditerminees).This is an awkward distinction, since a wide range of transitionalsounds occurs between pure noises and noise-free tones; indeed, savefor a few laboratoryinstruments,there are no sound-producers hatcan truly be said to yield eitherpurenoise or pure tones, the sounds ofall the usualmusicalinstrumentsbeing more or lesswrappedin noise.

Mahillon later seems to have sensed this when he contrastednoise-

instruments with those a intonationnettement or intentionellement

determine e;ut the criterion is subjectiveand as a rule incapableof

proof.i 1. In general,Mahillonwas right to subdividethe four mainclasses

into branchesdifferentiatedby playingaction.Yet for stringed nstru-ments it was a dubiousprocedure;a violin remainsa violin whether

7







onebowsit withabow,plays t pizzicatowiththefingers,orstrikestcollegno.Perhapshis seemsa lopsidedargument, incethe violinis,afterall, designed o be bowed. But thereare other instances.Onecouldciteinstruments hoseplayingactionhaschangedn thecourse

of timebut whoseformhasremained naltered. hiswasthecase, orexample,with theancientCelticcrowd,whichcanbeproved o havebeenpluckedn the earliestimes,butwhichcame o be bowedin the

High MiddleAges:shouldthe historyof instrumentshereforedealwith it halfin a chapteron plucked tringednstrumentsndhalfinone on bowed,although he instrumenttselfremainsjust the

same.henthere s thepsaltery,which s turnednto a dulcimer Hackbrett]whentheplayerusesbeaters;houldone,in a collection, eparatehe

psalteries,otherwiseindistinguishablerom each other, into twogroupson thegroundshat n onecountryof origin t wascustomaryto pluck t but in anothero beat teShould place he clavichord ndthepianoforteideby sidebuthousetheharpsichordith theguitarsbecausets stringsareplucked?

12. All theseconsiderationsavepersuaded s to undertakefreshthe attemptto classifymusical nstruments.We were fortunaten

havingat ourdisposal sa ready-madeasethelargeandextensively

describedollections f theBrusselsmuseumout of whichMahillon ssystemhadgrown.At the same imewe areaware hatwithincreasingknowledge,especially f extra-Europeanorms,new difficultiesn the

way of a consistent lassification ill constantly rise. t would thusseem impossible o plan a system today which would not requirefuturedevelopment ndamendment.

13. LikeMahillon,we accept hephysical haracteristicsf sound-

productionsthemostimportant rinciple f division;but evenat this

pointconsiderableifficultiesre met sinceacousticphysicshasso farcoveredbut the smallest ractionof the preliminarynvestigations.Thus inadequate esearchhas yet been undertaken n the sound-

productionof the bull-roarer,he vibratorymanner n north-westAmericanribbon-reeds ,he vibration vents n bells,gongs,kettle-

drums,pluckeddrums,and wind instrumentswith free reedsand

fingerholes.To suchdifficultiesmustbeaddedothersarisingromthe

morphologyof instruments.heproblemof defininghe term frame

drum (tamburin)or example,s scarcely apable f satisfactoryolu-tion;undoubtedlyhetypical ramedrumrepresentsconciseconceptnot to be disregardedn anyclassificatoryystem,but the transitionbetweenthis and the pronouncedlyubulardrumoccurswithouta

break,often makingit impossible o decide on the basis of shapewhethera specimen elongs o theone kindorto the other.

8







14. Other obstacles in the path of the classifierare instruments

showing adulterationsbetween types [Kontaminationen].he fact of

adulterationshould be accountedfor by placing such instruments n

two (or more) groups. In museums and cataloguesthese cases will be

arrangedaccordingto the dominantcharacteristic, ut cross-references

to other characteristicshould not be omitted. Thus, among instru-

ments of every class one may find rattlingdeviceswhich belong to the

inventoryof idiophones-a featurewhich cannotbe taken into account

when placing the instrument n the classification.But where the adul-

teration has led to an enduringmorphologicalentity-as when kettle-

drum and musical bow combine in a spike lute-it must have a placeof its own within the system.

15. We must refrain from arguing our subdivisions in detail.Whosoever will check these critically, or test them in practice,willdoubtlessrepeatthe lines of thought which are not set out here, with

minor variations of his own.

16. In classifications t is often customary to indicate the rankingof divisions within the systemby means of specific headings,asespeci-

ally in zoology and botany with expressions ike class,order, family,

genus, species,variant.In the study of instruments,Mahillon himself

felt this need and met it by introducing the terms classe,branche,

section,sous-section;n Gevaert s advice he refrained from using the

term family on account of its widely-known use for instrumentsof

like designbut of differentsizes andpitches.17. We consider it inadvisable to maintain consistent headings

throughout all rubricsfor the following reasons.The number of sub-

divisionsis too big to managewithout bringing in a petty superfluityof headings.Moreover, in any systemone must leave room for further

division to meet specialcases,with the result that the number of sub-divisions could for ever increase.We have purposelynot divided the

differentmain groups accordingto one uniformprinciple,but have let

the principleof division be dictatedby the nature of the group con-

cerned,so thatranksof agiven positionwithin agroupmay not alwayscorrespondbetween one group and another.Thus termslike speciesmay refer in one case to a very general concept but in another to a

highly specializedone. We thereforepropose that the general typo-logical headingsbe restricted o the topmost main groups, though onecould, like Mahillon, speakof the four main groups as classes,of thenext divisions (with a two-unit symbol [zweiziffrig])as sub-classes,the next (three-unit)asorders,and the next (four-unit)assub-orders.*

* Translatorsote:It snotclearwhether heauthorsererefero Mahillon s

letter-symbolsr to theirownnumericalcodingdescribedurther n.

9







18. We have refrained rom providing a subdivisioncontainingno

known existing representative,save in cases where a composite type

may be assumed o have had aprecursorn a simplertype now extinct.

Thus it can be assumedfromanalogy

with numeroustypes

that Man

rubbeda solid, smooth block of wood with the moist hand before he

ever carved a seriesof differently-pitched ongues by cutting notches

into the block, as in the friction block of New Ireland.Again, where

the wealth of forms is exceptionallyvast, aswith rattles,only the more

general aspectsof their classificationcan be outlined in the scheme,and thesewill certainlyrequirefurther elaboration.

19. In generalwe have tried to baseour subdivisionsonly on those

featureswhich can be identified from the visible form of the instru-

ment, avoiding subjective preferencesand leaving the instrument

itself unmeddled with. Here one has had to consider the needs not

only of museum curators but also of field workers and ethnologists.We have carriedthe subdivisions as far as seemed important for the

observationof culturalhistory anddetail,though theplan of the whole

classificationmakespossibleits applicationto the materialeithersum-

marilyor in greatdetailasdesired;generaltreatisesand smallercollec-

tionsmay

notrequire

o follow our classificationo its lastterms,while

specialistmonographsandcataloguesof largemuseumsmay well wish

to extend it in further detail.

20. The applicationof our findingsin describingand cataloguingis

substantiallyfacilitatedby use of the Dewey numerical system.* If

those in chargeof large collectionswho issue cataloguesin the future

decide to accept our numericalarrangement, t will become possibleto find out at firstglancewhether a given type of instrument s repre-sented in the collection.

21. The ingenuity of Dewey s idea lies in the exclusive use of

figures, replacingthe more usual conglomerationof numbers,letters

and double lettersby decimal fractions.These are so used that everyfurthersubdivision is indicatedby adding a new figure to the right-hand end of the row; the zero before the decimalpoint being alwaysomitted. Thus it becomes possiblenot only to pursuespecificationto

whateverlimits one desiresand with never any troublein the manipu-lation of the numbers,but also directlyto recognizefrom the positionof its last figure the rankingof a given term with the system.

It is also feasible n a row of numbers to divide off any set of figures

by points. Say, for example,that it is a bell chime [Glockenspiel] hich

* Since the numericalarrangement or the BibliographieInternationaleof

Musical Instrumentsappliesonly to Europeaninstruments,and is anyhow as

inadequateascanbe, we have plannedour own numericalorderindependently.

IO0







is to be coded andplacedin the system.In the context of the systemwearedealingwith anidiophone, the classto which the initialcode-figure

I is allotted. Since the instrument s struck it belongs to the first sub-

class, and so anotherI

is added(struck idiophones=II).

Furtheraddition of relevantcode-figuresproducesthe ranking III since it is

struckdirectly; and then, as a struck-upon [percussion] diophone, it

earns a fourth figure, in this case 2 (1112=percussion idiophones).Furtherspecificationeads to 11124 (percussion essels),111242 (bells),1112422 (setsof bells),11124222 (setsof hangingbells),and 111242222

(ditto with internal strikers)--obviously, everyone must decide forhimself how far to go in a given case. Insteadof the unmanageablenumber now arrivedat, we write 111.242.222. The first clustershows

that we aredealingwith an idiophone that is struckdirectly,while the

second and third together imply that we are dealing with bells.

22. Common considerationsamong all instrumentsof a class-e.g.with membranophoneshe methodof fixing the skin,andwith chordo-

phones the playing method-may be noted with the aid of figures

appended to the essentialcode-numberby a hyphen: the pianofortewould be entered as 314.122-4-8 and the harpsichord314.122-6-8,because 8

representshe

keyboard,4 the hammer

playing-action,and

6 the plectrumplaying-action,both instrumentshaving the same main

numberindicatingboardzitherswith resonatorbox.

23. Any of the subordinate criteria of division may, if desired,

easily be elevatedand treatedas a higher rankin the classification,by

switchingthe positionsof figures.Thus, for abagpipein which chanter

and drone areboth of the clarinettype, the code-number would read

422.22-62, i.e. a set of clarinetswith flexibleairreservoir.But if, forinstance in a

monographon

bagpipes,one wished to

especiallydis-

tinguishthese [chanteranddrone]features,one could write 422-62:22,i.e. reed instrument with flexible air reservoirwhose pipes are exclu-

sively clarinets.

24. Conversely,in orderto bring closertogether groupswhich are

separatedn the system,it is possibleto turn a main criterionof divisioninto a subordinate one without destroying the system: one simplyreplacesthe first relevantfigure by a point (.) and then addsit aftera

squarebracket ] at the end of the number. Thus in the

example

of

bagpipes,it might be importantto specify theseinstrumentsas alwayspolyorganic*but with componentswhich are sometimesclarinetsandsometimes oboes; insteadof 422-62:22=reed instrument[Schalmeien-instrument],with flexible air reservoir, polyorganic, composed of

clarinets, t might be preferableto write422-62 : . 2=set of reedpipes*

Polyorganic meanscomposed of severalsingle instrumentalunits.

II







[Schalmeienspiel]with flexible air reservoir=bagpipe, and then to

differentiate urtherby writing 422-62:. 2]1I=bagpipe of oboes, or

422--62 : .2]2=bagpipe of clarinets.*

25. Otherspecificationsapplying

to a subordinategroup

aresuffixed

to the code-figures of the latter, e.g. 422-62:. 2]212=a bagpipe of

clarinetswith cylindricalbore and fingerholes.26. These innumerablecases n which an instrument s composed of

parts which in themselvesbelong to differentgroups of the systemcould be indicatedby linking appropriate igures by a plus sign. One

thenavoidsrepetitionof a numbercommon to both suchparts,writingthis number once and following it with a point: a modem trombone

with slide and valve would thenappear

not as 423.22+423.23, but as

4232.2+3, and similarly bagpipes composed partly of clarinetsand

partly of oboes as cited above, would become 422.62 : .2]I +2.

27. In certain circumstances t may be necessarynot only to re-

arrangethe rankingsof the conceptsand createnew subdivisions,but

also to incorporate into the higher ranks of the classification ome

criterionwhich has purposelynot so far been used. There is nothingto preventthisbeing done,and we should like to illustrate t by a final

example,at the sametime

showinghow we

envisage

the

developmentof our systemfor special purposes.Let us imagine the case of a mono-

graph on the xylophone. The system divides struck idiophones

(I11.2) by the shapeof the struckbodies, thus: struck sticks(III.21),

struck plaques (111.22), struck tubes (111.23), and struck vessels

(111.24). Xylophones could fall into any of the first three, but the

shapeof the sounding bodies is hereof little relevance-the transition

from sticks to plaquesbeing quitefluid-and so the fifth figure may be

removed, and, if desired,added as ]2 at the end. For the sixth figurewe insert 2, if the descriptionis to concern only multi-tone instru-

ments, giving 1112. .2=sets of struck idiophones [Aufschlagspiele].We must, however, exclude sounding bodies of metal, stone, glass,

etc., and must therefore create a subdivision according to material

which the system does not alreadyprovide, thus:

11I2..21=xylophone .. .. soundingbodies of wood

1112. .22=metallophone .. .. ,, ,, metal

* Thisuseof thesymbols : ] isslightlydifferentrom hatof the Classifica-tionBibliographiqueecimale,butis neverthelessithin ts spirit.Therules

are: the hyphen s employedonly in connectionwith the appendedigureslisted n thetables attheend of eachof thefourmainsections];ubdivisions

beyond these are preceded by a colon (thus 422-62=reed instrumentwith

flexible air reservoir,but 422-6 : 2=422.2-6=oboe with air reservoir);sub-

division nsweringo theomission f afiguresprecededy a square racket.

12







1112. .23=lithophone ... ,, ,, stone

1112. .24=crystallophone .. .. ,, ,, glass.28. Furtherstages n this classification f thexylophone would make

use of morphological criteriasignificantfrom an ethnological pointof view:

Classification1112. .21.1 Bedded xylophone Thesounding odiesreston anelastic

foundation

1112. .21.I Log xylophone The foundation onsists f separateogs.NEThere s generally shallowpitin thegroundbeneaththe soundingbodies Oceania,ndonesia,. andW.Africa

1112. .21.12 Framexylophone The bearers rejoinedby cross odsor

bars1112. .21.121* Rail xylophone The frame hangs from the player s neck

on a slingand is keptclearof his body by a curvedrail

S.E.,E. andW.Africa1112. .21.122* Tablexylophone The framesborneonatrestle

Senegambia1112. .21.13 Sledge xylophone The soundingbodieslie acrossthe

edges of two boards C.Africa1112. .21.14

(Bedded) trough xylophoneThe

soundingbodieslie

across heedgesof a trough-orbox-shapedessel JapanIII12. .21.2 Suspension xylophone The soundingbodies lie on two

cordswithoutanyother oundation

1112. .21.21 (Free)suspensionxylophone WithoutcaseCochin hina

1112. .21.22 (Suspension) trough xylophone With trough-shapedbox Burma,Java

* To be further ubdividedhus:

I Withoutresonators2 Withresonators21 Withresonatorssuspendedingly22 Withresonatorstuck nto acommonplatform.

NE Theresonators,n mostcases ourds,oftenhaveholessealedby amem-brane, howingadulteration ith 242 (vesselkazoos).Possibly he methodof mounting he membranes(directly,or over a cone-shapedrame)willdemand notherubdivision. necan,however,dispense ithadding nother

number ince ramexylophoneswithoutresonatorsreunknown.

29. The systematicsurveyof musical nstrumentswhich now followsin tabular orm is meantequallyto servethe purposesof identification.Hence the descriptionsof characteristics rehere and thereexpandedtoinclude warnings against likely misunderstandingsand confusion.

13







Explanationsandexamplesarekept to a minimum;the formerare not

intended as descriptions,nor the latter as notes on the history of cul-tures.Also, visual study of specimensfar outvalues pages of written

description.The expert will know what we are driving at, while the

layman will be able to find his bearingswith the aid of a visit to amuseum.

Classification

I IDIOPHONES The substancef the instrumenttself,owing to its

solidityandelasticity, ields hesounds,withoutrequiringstretchedmembranesr strings

II Struckidiophones The instruments made o vibrateby beingstruckupon

III Idiophonesstruckdirectly The playerhimselfexecutes he move-ment of striking;whetherby mechanicalntermediate

devices,beaters,keyboards, r by pullingropes,etc., is

immaterial;t isdefinitivehat heplayer anapplyclearlydefined ndividualtrokes ndthat the instrumenttself s

equippedorthiskindof percussion

I II.I Concussion diophonesor clappers Twoor morecomplementarysonorousparts re truckagainstachother

III. II Concussionsticks or stick clappers Annam,ndia,Marshalls.

III.12 Concussionplaques or plaque clappers China,ndia

111.13 Concussion roughsor trough clappers Burma

111I.4 Concussionvesselsor vesselclappers Evenaslighthollowinthe

surfacef a board ountsasa vessel

111.141 Castanets Vesselclappers,ithernatural, r artificiallyollowedout

11.142 CymbalsVessel

lapperswith everted im

111.2 Percussion diophones The instruments struck itherwitha non-sonorousobject (hand,stick,striker)or againsta non-

sonorousobject human ody,theground)111.21 Percussion sticks

111.211 (Individual)percussionsticks

Japan,Annam, alkans;lso hetriangle

III.212 Sets of percussionsticks Severalpercussionticksof different

pitcharecombinedo formasinglenstrument

Allxylophones,slongastheiroundingomponentsrenot ntwodifferentlanes nicht iplan]111.22 Percussionplaques

111.221 (Individual)percussionplaques Intheoriental hristianhurch

111.222 Setsof percussionplaquesLithophoneChina), ndmostmetallophones

111.23 Percussion tubes

14







111.231 (Individual)percussion ubes Slitdrum,ubularell

II111.232 Sets of percussion ubes Tubaphon,ubularylophoneIII.24 Percussion vessels

111.241 Gongs The vibration s strongestnearthe vertex

III.241.I (Individual)gongsS. andE. Asia;

includin•gheso-calledmetaldrums,rrather

kettle-gongs

II111.241.2 Sets of gongs [gong himes] S.E.Asia

111.242 Bells The vibrations weakestnear he vertex

111.242.1 (Individual)Bells

11II.242.II Resting bells The cupis placedon the palmof the hand or on

a cushion; its mouth facesupwardsChina,Indo-China,apan

II 1.242.12 Suspended bells The bell is suspended rom the apex111.242.121 Suspended bells struck from the outside. No striker is

attachednside hebell,therebeinga separateeater

111.242.122 Clapperbells A striker(clapper)sattachednside he bell

111.242.2 Sets of bells [chimes]subdivideds 111.242.1)

112 Indirectlystruckidiophones Theplayer imself oesnotgo throughthe movementof striking;percussionesults ndirectlythrough ome othermovementby theplayer.Theinten-tion of the instruments

to yieldclustersof soundsor

noises,andnot to let individualtrokes e perceived112.2 Shakenidiophonesor rattles Theplayer xecutes shakingmotion112.11 Suspensionrattles Perforatedidiophones re mounted ogether,

andshaken o strikeagainstachother

112.111 Strungrattles Rattling bjects restrungn rowson acordNecklaces ithrowsof shells

112.112 Stickrattles Rattlingobjects re trung n a bar(orring)Sistrum ith ings

112.12 Frame rattles Rattlingobjectsare attachedo a carrieragainstwhichtheystrike

112.121 Pendantrattles Rattlingobjectsarehungfroma frame

Dancinghieldwithrattlingings112.122 Slidingrattles Non-sonorousbjects lide o andfroin the slots

of the sonorousobject o that helattersmade o vibrate;or sonorousobjects lideto andfro in the slotsof a non-sonorousobject, o be set nvibration y theimpacts

Anklung,istrum ithrods(recent)z112.13 Vessel rattles Rattlingobjectsenclosedn a vesselstrikeagainst

each other or against he wallsof the vessel,or usuallyagainstboth.NBThe Benuegourdrattleswithhandle,nwhich the rattlingobjects,nsteadof beingenclosed,areknotted nto anetslipped ver the outersurface,ountasa varietyof vesselrattle

15







Fruit hellswithseeds,pelletbells nclosingoosepercussionpellets

112.2 Scraped idiophones The player causesa scrapingmovement

directly r indirectly: non-sonorousbjectmovesalong

thenotched urface f a sonorous bject, o be alternatelyliftedoff the teeth andflickedagainsthem;or an elasticsonorousobjectmovesalong hesurface f anotched on-sonorousobject o causea seriesof impacts.Thisgroupmustnot beconfusedwiththatof frictiondiophones

112.21 Scrapedsticks A notched tick sscrapedwith a littlestick

112.211 Scrapedstickswithout resonatorS. America.ndia(notchedusicalbow),Congo

112.212

Scrapedstickswith resonator

Usumbara,. Asia

(tiger)II2.22 Scraped ubes S. India

112.23 Scrapedvessels Thecorrugatedurface f avessel s scrapedS. America,ongoegion

112.24 Scrapedwheels or cog rattles A cog wheel,whoseaxle serves sthehandle, nda tongue ixed n a framewhich s freetoturn on thehandle;whenwhirled, hetonguestrikes heteethof the wheel oneafteranother Europe,ndia

112.3 Split idiophones Instrumentsn theshape f twospringy rms on-

nectedat oneend andtouchingat the other: he armsareforcedapart yalittlestick, ojingleor vibrate nrecoil

Chinahuan u),Malacca,ersia(qalsik),alkans12 Pluckedidiophones Lamellae,.e. elasticplaques,ixedatoneend,are

flexedand henreleasedo return o theirposition f rest121 In the form of a frame The lamella ibrateswithinaframeorhoop121.1 Clackidiophones (cricri) Thelamellas carvedn thesurface f a

fruitshell,which servesasresonator Melanesia121.2 Guimbardes(Jews harps) The lamella s mounted n a rod- or

plaque-shapedrameanddepends n the player smouthcavity or resonance

I21.21 Idioglot guimbardes Thelamellas carvedn the frametself, tsbaseremainingoinedto the frame

India, ndonesia, elanesia

121.22 Heteroglot guimbardes A lamellasattachedo aframe

I21.221 (Single)heteroglot guimbardes Europe,ndia,China121.222 Sets of heteroglot guimbardes Severalheteroglotguimbardes

ofdifferentpitchesare combined

oform

asingle

nstru-ment Aura

122 In board- or comb-form The lamellae retied to aboardorcut outfroma boardikethe teethof acomb

122.1 With laced-on lamellae

122.11 Without resonator All sansas naplainboard122.12 With resonator All sansaswithaboxorbowlbelowheboard

16







122.2 With cut-out lamellae(musicaloxes) Pinsonacylinder luck helamellae Europe

13 FrictionIdiophones Theinstrumentsmade o vibrateby friction131 Friction sticks

131.1 (Individual)riction sticks Unknown131.2 Setsof friction sticks

131.21 With directfriction The sticks hemselvesrerubbed

Nail iddle,nailpiano,Stockspiele131.22 With indirect friction The sticks reconnectedwithotherswhich

arerubbedand,by transmittingheirlongitudinal ibra-tion,stimulateransverseibrationn theformer

Chladni suphon

132Friction

plaques132.1 (Individual)rictionplaques Unknown

132.2 Setsof frictionplaques[livika] NewIreland

133 Frictionvessels

133.1 (Individual) riction vessels Brazil(tortoisehell)133.2 Sets of friction vessels Verillon(glass armonica)14 Blown idiophones Theinstrumentsmade o vibrateby beingblown

upon141 Blown sticks

141.1 (Individual)blown sticks Unknown141.2 Sets of blown sticks Aeolsklavier142 Blown plaques142.1 (Individual)blown plaques Unknown142.2 Sets of blown plaques Piano hanteur

Suffixesorusewithanydivision f thisclass(idiophones):-8 with keyboard-9

mechanicallydriven

2 MEMBRANOPHONES Thesound s excitedby tightly-stretchedmembranes

21 Struckdrums Themembranesrestruck211 Drumsstruckdirectly Theplayerhimself xecutes hemovement f

striking;his ncludes

striking yanyntermediate

evices,suchasbeaters, eyboards,tc.;drumshatareshaken reexcluded

211.1 Kettle drums (timpani) Thebody sbowl-or dish-shaped21I.II (Separate) ettledrums Europeanimpani211.12 Sets of kettle drums W.Asianpermanentlyoined airs fkettle rums

2II.2 Tubulardrums Thebodyis tubular

17







211.21 Cylindricaldrums The diameters the sameat the middleandtheends;whether r nottheendstaperor haveprojectingdisks, s immaterial

211.211 Single-skin cylindrical drums The drumhasonly one usable

membrane. n some Africandrumsa secondskinformspartof the lacingdeviceand s not usedforbeating,andhencedoesnotcountasamembranen thepresentense

zlI.zlI.I Open cylindrical drums The endoppositefromthe membrane

is open Malacca

zII.zII.2 Closed cylindricaldrums The endopposite rom the mem-brane s closed West ndies

211.212 Double-skin cylindrical drums The drum has two usablemembranes

2II.212.I (Individual)cylindrical drums Europeside rum)211.212.2 Sets of cylindricaldrums211.22* Barrel-shapeddrums Thediameters largeratthemiddle han

attheends; hebodyis curvilinear

Asia,Africa, ncientMexico

211.23 Double-conical drums The diameters larger t the middle hanattheends; hebodyisrectilinear ithangular rofile

India(mrdanga,anya,akhavaja)211.24*

Hourglass-shapeddrum The

diameters

smallert the

middlethanattheends Asia,Melanesia,. Africa211.25* Conical drums The diameters t the endsdifferconsiderably;

minordeparturesromconicity, nevitablymet, aredis-

regarded ere India211.26* Goblet-shapeddrums Thebodyconsists fa main ectionwhich

is eithercup-shaped r cylindrical, nd a slender tem;borderlineasesof thisbasicdesign ike thoseoccurringnotably n Indonesia, o not affect he identification,o

longas acylindricalorm snotin factreached Darabuka211.3 Frame drums Thedepthof thebodydoesnot exceed heradius f

the membrane.NBThe Europeanide-drum,venin itsmostshallow orm, s a developmentromthelongcylin-dricaldrumandhence snotincluded mong ramedrums

211.31 Framedrums (withouthandle)211.311 Single-skinframe drums Tambourine

211.312 Double-skinframe drums N. Africa211.32 Framedrum with handle A stick s attachedo theframe n line

with itsdiameter211.321 Single-skinframedrums with handle Eskimo

211.322 Double-skinframe drums with handle Tibet212 Rattle drums (sub-divisionss for drums truckdirectly,21I) The

drumis shaken;percussions by impactof pendantor

* To be sub-dividedlike 211.21.

18







enclosedpellets,or similarobjects India,Tibet22 Plucked drums A stringsknottedbelowthecentre f the membrane;

whenthestringsplucked,ts vibrationsre ransmittedothe membrane Indiagopi antra,nandalahari)

23 Frictiondrums Themembranesmade o vibrate y friction231 Friction drumswith stick A stick n contactwith the membranes

eithertselfrubbed, r is employedo rubthemembrane231.1 With inserted stick The stickpasses hrougha holein the mem-

brane

231.11 Friction drumswith fixedstick Thestickcannotbemoved; hestickalone s subjectedo frictionby rubbing Africa

231.I2 Frictiondrums with semi-fixed stick Thestick smovable o asufficient xtent to rubthe membranewhen it is itselfrubbedby the hand Africa

231.13 Frictiondrums with free stick The stickcan be movedfreely;it isnot itself ubbed, ut semployedo rub hemembrane

Venezuela

231.2 With tied stick The stick s tied to the membranen an uprightposition Europe

232 Friction drum with cord A cord, attached o the membrane,srubbed

232.1 Stationaryfriction drum with cord The drum sheldstationaryEurope, frica

232.11 Single-skinstationarydrumswith friction-cord

232.12 Double-skinstationarydrumswith friction-cord

232.2 Friction drumwith whirlingstick The drum swhirled nacordwhich rubson a [resined[otch ntheholding tick.

Waldteufelcardboarduzzer]Europe,ndia,E. Africa)233 Handfriction drums Themembranes rubbedby the hand24 Singing membranes(Kazoos) The membranes madeto vibrateby

speaking r singing nto it; the membraneoesnot yieldanoteof itsownbutmerelymodifies hevoice

Europe,W.Africa241 Freekazoos Themembranesinciteddirectly,without hewind first

passinghrougha chamber Comb-and-paper242 Tube- or vessel-kazoos Themembranesplacednside tubeorbox

Africa;while lso,E. Asianfluteswitha lateral ole ealedbya

inmembrane,xhibit nadulterationith heprinciplefthe ube

kazoo

Suffixesorusewithanydivisionof thisclass(membranophones):-6 with membraneglued to drum

-7 with membranenailedto drum-8 with membrane aced to drum-8i Cord-(ribbon-)bracing Thecordsarestretchedrommembraneo

19







membraner arrangedn the formof a net,withoutem-

ployinganyof thedevicesdescribedelow

-811 Without specialdevices for stretching Everywhere-812 With tension ligature Crossribbonsor cordsaretiedroundthe

middleof thelacing o increasetstension Ceylon-813 With tensionloops The cordsare aced n a zigzag;everypairof

stringss caught ogetherwitha smallringorloop India

-814 With wedge-bracing Wedgesare nserted etween hewallof thedrumand hecordsof thelacing;by adjustinghepositionof thewedgest ispossibleo control hetension

India,ndonesia,frica-82 Cord-and-hidebracing The cordsarelaced at the lowerend to a

non-sonorouspieceof hide Africa-83 Cord-and-boardbracing The cordsare aced o anauxiliary oard

at the lowerend Sumatra

-84 Cord-and-flangebracing Thecordsare acedat the lowerendto a

flange arvedrom the solid Africa-85 Cord-and-beltbracing The cordsare acedatthe lowerendto abelt

of differentmaterial India

-86 Cord-and-pegbracing The cordsare acedat thelower endto pegsstuck nto the wallof thedrum Africa

NB -82 to -86 aresub-divideds-81 above

-9 With membrane lapped on A ringis slippedover the edgeof the

membrane

-91 With membranelappedon by ring of cord Africa-92 With membranelappedon by a hoop-921 Without mechanism Europeanrum

-922 With mechanism

-9221 Without pedal Machinetimpani-9222 With pedals Pedalimpani

3 CHORDOPHONES One or more stringsare stretchedbetween

fixedpoints31 Simple chordophonesor zithers Theinstrumentonsistsolelyof a

stringbearer,r ofastringbearerwitha resonator hich s

not integraland can be detachedwithoutdestroyinghe

sound-producingpparatus

311 Bar zithers Thestringbearersbar-shaped;t maybea boardplacededgewise

311.1 Musicalbows Thestringbearersflexible andcurved)311.11 Idiochordmusical bows The string s cut fromthe barkof the

cane,remainingttached t eachend

311.111 Mono-idiochord musical bows The bow has one idiochord

string only New Guinea(SepikR.), Togo

20







311.112 Poly-idiochord musical bows or harp-bows The bow hasseveral diochordtringswhichpassover a toothedstickor bridge W.AfricaFan)

31I.I2Heterochordmusicalbows Thestringsofseparate aterialrom

thebearer311.121 Mono-heterochord musical bows The bow has one hetero-

chordstringonly311.121.1 Without resonator NB If a separate, nattachedesonators

used, the specimen belongs to 311.121.21. The human

mouth is not to be taken into account as a resonator

311.121.1I Without tuning noose Africa ganza,samuius,o)311.121.12 With tuning noose A fibre noose is passedround the string,

dividingt into two sections

South-equatorialfrica n kungo, ta)

311.12.1.2 With resonator

311.I121.21With independent resonator Borneo (busoi)

311.121.22 With resonator attached

311.121.221 Without tuning noose S. Africa(hade, homo)311.121.222 With tuning noose S. Africa,Madagascargubo, hungo, bobre)311.122 Poly-heterochord musical bows The bow has severalhetero-

chord strings

311.122.1 Without tuning noose Oceania(kalove)311.I22.2 With tuning noose Oceania(pagolo)311.2 Stick zithers The stringcarrier s rigid

311.21Musical bow cum stick The stringbearerhas one flexible, curved

end.NBStickzitherswith bothends lexibleandcurved,liketheBasutobow,arecounted smusical ows India

311.22 (True)stickzithers NB Round stickswhichhappeno behollow

bychance o notbelongon thisaccount o thetubezithers,butareround-barithers; owever,nstrumentsnwhicha

tubular avityis employedas a trueresonator,ike themodernMexicanharpa,retubezithers

311.221 With one resonatorgourd India(tuila),Celebes(suleppe)311.222 With severalresonatorgourds India(vina)312 Tube zithers The stringbearer s a vaultedsurface

312.1 Whole-tube zithers The stringcarrier s a complete tube

312.11 Idiochord (true) tube zithers

AfricaandIndonesia(gonra, ogo,valiha)

312.I2Heterochord

(true)tube zithers

312.12I Without extra resonator S.E.Asia(alligator)312.122 With extraresonator Aninternodelengthof bamboo s placed

insideapalmeaf ied ntheshape f abowl Timor312.2 Half-tubezithers Thestrings restretchedalong heconvex urface

of agutter312.21 Idiochordhalf-tubezithers Flores

21







312.22 Heterochordhalf-tube zithers E. Asia(k in,koto)313 Raft zithers The stringbearers composed f canes iedtogethern

themanner f a raft

313.1 Idiochordraft zithers India,UpperGuinea, entral ongo

313.2 Heterochordraft zithers N. Nyasaregion314 Board zithers The stringbearers a board; heground oo is to be

countedas such

314.1 True boardzithers Theplaneof thestringss parallelwith thatofthestringbearer

314.11 Without resonator Borneo

314.12 With resonator

314.121 With resonator bowl The resonators a fruitshell or similar

object,or an

artificiallyarved

equivalent Nyasa egion314.122 With resonatorbox (box zither) The resonators madefromslats Zither,Hackbrett,ianoforte

314.2 Boardzither variations Theplaneof thestringss at rightanglesto thestringbearer

314.21 Groundzithers Thegroundsthestringbearer;here sonlyone

string Malacca,Madagascar314.22 Harp zithers A boardservesas stringbearer; hereare several

strings nda notchedbridge Borneo

315 Troughzithers Thestrings restretchedcrosshemouthof atroughTanganyika

315.1 Without resonator

315.2 With resonator Thetroughhasagourdor a similar bjectattachedto it

316 Frame zithers Thestrings restretchedcross nopenframe

316.1 Without resonator Perhapsmongst edievalsalteries316.2 With resonator W.Africa,mongstheKru(kani)32 Compositechordophones A stringbearer nda resonatorreorgani-

callyunited ndcannot eseparatedithoutdestroyingheinstrument

321 Lutes Theplaneof thestrings unsparallelwith thesound-table

321.1 Bow lutes [pluriarc]Each tringhas ts own flexiblecarrier

Africaakam,alangu, ambi)

321.2 Yoke lutes or lyres The stringsare attachedo a yokewhichliesin the sameplaneas the sound-tablendconsists f two

armsanda cross-bar

321.21Bowl

lyresA natural r carved-outowlserves sthe resonator

Lyra,E. Africanyre321.22 Box lyres A built-upwoodenbox serves sthe resonator

Cithara,rwth

321.3 Handle lutes The stringbearers a plainhandle.Subsidiaryecks,as e.g. in the Indian rasariniinaaredisregarded,s are

also uteswith stringsdistributedverseveralnecks, ike

22







theharpolyre,nd hose ike theLyre-guitars,n whichthe

yokeis merelyornamental

321.31 Spikelutes The handlepasses iametricallyhroughheresonator

321.311 Spikebowllutes Theresonatoronsistsf anatural rcarved-out

bowl Persia,ndia,ndonesia321.312 Spikebox lutes or spike guitars The resonatorsbuiltupfrom

wood Egypt rebab)321.313 Spike tube lutes The handlepassesdiametricallyhrough he

wallsof a tube China,ndochina

321.32 Neckedlutes Thehandlesattachedo or carved rom he resona-

tor, likea neck

321.321 Necked bowl lutes Mandoline,heorbo,alalaika

321.322 Necked box lutes or necked guitars NBLuteswhosebodyis

builtupintheshape f a bowl areclassifiedsbowllutesViolin, iol,guitar

322 Harps Theplaneof thestringsiesatrightangles o thesound-table;a linejoiningthe lower ends of the stringswouldpointtowards he neck

322.1 Openharps Theharphasno pillar322.11 Archedharps Theneckcurvesaway romthe resonator

BurmandAfrica322.12

AngularharpsTheneckmakes

sharp nglewith theresonator

Assyria, ncientEgypt,Ancient orea322.2 Frameharps Theharphasa pillar322.21 Without tuning action All medievalharps322.211 Diatonic frameharps322.212 Chromaticframeharps322.212.1 With thestrings n one plane Mostoftheolderhromaticharps322.212.2 With the stringsin two planescrossingone another

TheLyon hromaticarp

322.22 With tuning action Thestrings anbe shortened y mechanicalaction

322.221 With manualaction Thetuningcanbe altered y hand-leversHookharp, italharp, arpinella

322.222 With pedalaction Thetuningcanbe alteredby pedals323 Harplutes Theplaneof thestringsies at rightangles o thesound-

table;a linejoiningthelowerendsof thestringswouldbe

perpendicularo the neck.NotchedbridgeW.Africakasso,tc.)

Suffixesorusewithanydivision f thisclass(chordophones):-4 soundedby hammers or beaters-5 soundedwith the barefingers-6 soundedby plectrum-7 soundedby bowing-71 with a bow

23







-72 by a wheel

-73 by a ribbon [Band]-8 with keyboard-9 with mechanicaldrive

4 AEROPHONES Theair tself s thevibratorn theprimaryense

41 Freeaerophones Thevibrating ir snot confinedby theinstrument

411 Displacementfree aerophones The air-streammeetsa sharp dge,or a sharp dgeis movedthrough he air. In eithercase,

accordingo morerecent iews,aperiodic isplacementfairoccurs o alternatelanks f the

edge Whip,word-blade

412 Interruptive ree aerophones Theair-streams interrupted eriodi-cally

4I2.1 Idiophonic interruptive aerophonesor reeds The air-streamsdirected gainsta lamella, etting t in periodicvibrationto interrupthe streamintermittently.n thisgroupalso

belongreedswith a cover , .e. a tube in which the airvibratesnly n asecondaryense, otproducinghe soundbutsimplyadding oundnessnd imbre o thesoundmade

by the reed svibration;generallyrecognizable y theabsence f fingerholes Organeedtops

412.IIConcussionreeds Two lamellaemakeagapwhichclosesperiodi-

cally during heirvibration Asplit rass-blade412.12 Percussionreeds A single amella trikesagainst frame

412.121 Individual percussionreeds Brit.Columbia

412.122 Sets of percussionreeds Theearliereedstops forgans412.13 Freereeds The lamella ibratesthrough closely-fittinglot

412.131 (Individual)free reeds Single-noteotor orn

412.132 Setsof free reeds NB In instrumentsiketheChineseshenghefmgerholesdo not serveto modify the pitch and arethereforeotequivalento thefingerholesf otherpipes

Reedorgan,mouthorgan,ccordion

412.14 Ribbon reeds The air-streams directedagainst he edge of astretchedandor ribbon.The acoustics f thisprocess asnot yet beenstudied Brit.Columbia

412.2 Non-idiophonic interruptive nstruments Theinterruptivegentis not a reed

412.21 Rotating aerophones The interruptivegentrotatesn its own

plane Sirens

412.22 Whirling aerophones Theinterruptivegent urnson itsaxis

Bull-roarer,hirringisc, entilatingan413 Plosive aerophones The air is made to vibrateby a singledensity

stimulus ondensationhock Pop uns

24







42 Wind instrumentsproper The vibratingairis confinedwithintheinstrumenttself

421 Edge instrumentsorflutes A narrow tream f air s directedagainstanedge

421.1 Flutes without duct The playerhimselfcreatesa ribbon-shapedstream f airwith hislips

4zI.11 End-blownflutes The playerblowsagainsthe sharp im at the

upperopenendof atube

42I.111I (Single)end-blownflutes

421.III.I Open single end-blown flutes The lower end of the flute s

open

42I.III.II Without fingerholes Bengal

421.III.12With

fingerholes Almostworld-wide421.III.2 Stoppedsingle end-blown flutes The lower end of the flute

is closed

421.III.21 Without fingerholes Theboreofakey421.III.22 With fingerholes EspeciallyewGuinea

421.112 Sets of end-blownflutesor panpipes Several nd-blownlutesof differentpitcharecombinedo formasinglenstrument

421.112 Openpanpipes

421.112.II Open (raft)panpipes Thepipesare iedtogethern the form

of aboard, rtheyaremadebydrillingubes n aboardChina

421.112.2 Open bundle (pan-) pipes The pipesare tied together n aroundbundle

Solomons.,NewBritain, ewIreland,dmiraltys.421.112.2 Stoppedpanpipes Europe,. America

421.112.3 Mixed open andstoppedpanpipes Solomons.,S. America421.12 Side-blown flutes The playerblowsagainst he sharprim of a

hole in the sideof the tube

421.121 (Single)side-blown flutes421.121.1 Open side-blownflutes

421.I21.II Without fingerholes S.W. Timor

421.I21.I2 With fingerholes Europeanlute421.121.2 Partly-stoppedside-blown flutes Thelowerend of the tube

is anatural ode of thepipepiercedby a smallholeN.W.Borneo

42I.I21.3 Stoppedside-blownflutes

421.121.31 Without fingerholes421.121.311 With fixed stoppedlower end Apparentlyon-existent

421.121.312 With adjustable toppedlower end (piston lutes)Malacca,ewGuinea

421.121.32 With fingerholes E.Bengal,Malacca421.122 Setsof side-blownflutes

421.122.I Setsof open side-blown flutes Chamberfluteorum

25







421.122.2. Setsof stoppedside-blown flutesN.W. Brazil(amongheSiusi)

421.13 Vesselflutes(withoutdistinctbeak) Thebodyof thepipe snot

tubular utvessel-shapedBrazil Karaja),owerCongoBafiote)

421.2 Flutes with duct or duct flutes A narrowductdirects he air-stream gainsthesharp dgeof a lateral rifice

421.21 Flutes with external duct The ductis outside he wall of the

flute; hisgroup ncludesluteswith theductchamferednthe wall underaring-likeleeveandother imilararrange-ments

421.211 (Single) flutes with external duct

421.211.I Open flutes with external duct

421.211.11IWithout fingerholes China,Borneo

421.211.12 With fingerholes Indonesia

421.211.2 Partly-stopped flutes with external duct Malacca

421.211.3 Stopped flutes with external duct

421.212 Sets of flutes with external duct Tibet

421.22 Flutes with internal duct The duct is insidethe tube. This groupincludes fluteswith the duct formed by an internalbaffle

(naturalnode,block of

resin)andanexteriortied-on cover

(cane,wood, hide)

421.221 (Single)flutes with internal duct

421.221.1 Openflutes with internalduct

421.221.11 Without fingerholes Europeansignalli•ng

whistle

421.221.12 With fingerholes Recorder

421.221.2 Partly-stoppedflutewith internalduct India nd ndonesia

421.221.3 Stoppedflutes with internal duct

421.221.31 Without fingerholes

421.221.311 With fixed stoppedlower end Europeanignallinghistle421.221.312 With adjustable toppedlower end

Pistonpipes swanneehistle]

421.221.4 Vesselflutes with duct

421.221.41 Without fingerholesZoomorphicottery histlesEurope,sia)

421.221.42 With fingerholes Ocarina

421.222 Sets of fluteswith internalduct

421.222.1 Setsof open fluteswith internalduct421.222.11 Without fingerholes Openlue stops ftheorgan

421.222.I12With fingerholes Doublelageolet

421.222.2 Sets of partly-stoppedflutes with internalduct

Rohrfldtetops ftheorgan

421.222.3 Sets of stoppedflutes with internal duct

Stoppedluestops ftheorgan

26







422 Reedpipes Theair-streamas, hroughmeans f twolamellaeplacedat the head of the instrument,ntermittentccess o thecolumnof airwhich s to be made o vibrate

422.1 Oboes Thepipehasa [double] eedof concussionamellaeusuallya flattenedtem)

422.II (Single) oboes

422.11IIIWith cylindricalbore

422.111I. Without fingerholes Brit.Columbia422.11.2 With fingerholes Aulos, rumhorn422.112 With conicalbore Europeanboe422.12 Sets of oboes

422.121 With cylindricalbore Doubleulos

422.122 With conicalbore India422.2 Clarinets The pipehas a [single] reed consisting f a percussionlamella

422.21 (Single)clarinets

422.211 With cylindricalbore

422.211.I Without ingerholes Brit.Columbia422.211.2 With fingerholes Europeanlarinet422.212 With conicalbore Saxophone422.22 Sets of clarinets Egyptzummara)422.3 Reedpipeswith freereeds Thereedvibratesthrough at]aclosely-

fittedframe. Theremust be fingerholes, therwise heinstrumentbelongs o thefreereeds412.13 S.E.Asia

422.31 Single pipes with free reed

422.32 Double pipeswith free reeds423 Trumpets Theair-streampasseshroughheplayer s ibratingips,so

gainingntermittantccess o the air columnwhich is tobemade o vibrate

423.INatural

trumpets Withoutextradeviceso alterpitch423.II Conches A conchshell erves strumpet423.III End-blown

423.111.1 Without mouthpiece India423.III.2 With mouthpiece Japan rappakai)423.112 Side-blown Oceania423.12 Tubulartrumpets423.121 End-blown grumpets The mouth-hole aces the axis of the

trumpet

423.121.I End-blownstraighttrumpets Thetube sneither urvednorfolded

423.121.II Without mouthpiece Somealphorns423.12I.I2 With mouthpiece Almostworld-wide423.121.2 End-blown horns The tube s curvedorfolded

423.I21.2I Without mouthpiece Asia423.121.22 With mouthpiece Lurs

27







423.122 Side-blowntrumpets The embouchuresin thesideof thetube

423.122.1 Side-blown straight trumpets S. America

423.122.2 Side-blown horns Africa423.2 Chromatictrumpets With extradevices o modify hepitch

423.21 Trumpetswith fingerholes Cornetti,eybugles423.22 Slide trumpets The tube can be lengthenedby extendinga

telescopic ectionof the instrument Europeanrombone

423.23 Trumpetswith valves The tube is lengthened r shortened yconnectingrdisconnectinguxiliaryengthsof tube

Europe423.231 Valve bugles The tube sconicalhroughout423.232 Valve horns Thetube s predominantlyonical

423.233 Valve trumpets The tube spredominantlyylindrical

Suffixesor usewithanydivision f thisclass aerophones):-6 with airreservoir

-6i with rigid air reservoir

-62 with flexibleair reservoir

-7 with fingerholestopping-71 with keys-72 with Bandmechanikpresumablyperforatedoll or ribbonl-8 with

keyboard-9 with mechanicaldrive

TRANSLATORS GLOSSARY

SHOWING CERTAIN TERMS EMPLOYED AND

THEIR EQUIVALENTS IN THE ORIGINAL

Archedharps,BogenharfenBarrel-shapedrums,Fasstrommeln

Beater,SchlagelBow-lutes,BogenlautenBowl-,Schalen-Box zither,Kastenzither

Clackidiophone[cf. Sachs sKnack-holz],Cricri

Clapper ells,Kl ppelglockenClappers, lappernCograttlesRatchetattles],Ratschen

Conches, chneckentrompetenConcussion,Gegenschlag-

Conicaldrums,KonustrommelnDoubleconical,Doppelkonus-Cover (in interruptiveerophones,

412.1), AusfatzCylindrical rums,ZylindertrommelnDish-shaped,Schalenformig

Displacementaerophone, Ablenkung-saerophone

Duct, Kernspalte- flutes with external duct, Aussen-

spaltfl•ten- flutes with internal duct, Innen-

spaltfliten

28







Edge instruments,Schneideninstru-mente

End-blown (in conches),mit end-

standigen undloch

- flutes,Lingsflidten- tubulartrumpets, aiingstrompetenFreereeds,DurchschlagzungenFree-reedpipes, Durchschlagzungen-

Schalmeien

Friction,Reib-,ReibungFriction drums with fixed stick,

Fesselstab-Reibtrommeln

- semifixedtick,Halbfreistab-Reibtr.- cord,Schnur-Reibtrommeln- twirlingtick,Geschwungenechnur-

Reibtr.

Goblet-shaped,echer-Ground ithers,Erdzithern

Guimbarde,MaultrommelHandleutes,Stiellauten

Hangingbells,Hdngeglocken

Harp-bow,HarfebogenIndividual,elbstiindigeInterruptive erophone,Unterbrech-

ungsaerophoneKazoos,MirlitonsKettlegongs,KesselgongsLamella, unge,Lamella

Musical-bow-cum-stick,usikbogen-stdbe

Necked utes,HalslautenNoose:tuningnoose,StimnmschlingeNotchedmusicalbow, Kerb-Musik-

bogenOpenharps,BiigelharfenPelletbells,SchellenPendantattles,PendelrasselnPercussion, ufschlag-Piston lutes,Stempelfliten

Plaques, latten

Plosive aerophones,Explosiv-aero-phone

Plucked,Zupf-Rattle,Rassel

Reedpipes, chalmeienRestingbells,StandglockenRibbonreeds,BandzungenSetof, -spieleShakenidiophones, chiittel-IdiophoneSide-blown(in conch), mit seiten-

stdndigen undloch- flutes,QuerfldtenSingingmembrane, nsingtrommelnSiren,Lochsirene, ellensireneSlitdrums,Holztrommeln

Spike utes,SpiesslautenSplit diophones, eiss-IdiophoneStationaryin rictiondrums),tehende

Stick,Stab-

Sticks,StdbeStickzithers,Musikstdbe

Stopped in flutes), edacktStoppedowerend (influtes),Miin-dungsboden

Straightrumpets:nd-blown,Lang-stuben

- side-blown,QuertubenStriker,internalstriker (in bells),

KloppelStruckidiophones, chlag-Idiophone

String earer,aitentrigerStrung attles, chnurrasseln

Suspensionattles,Reihenrasseln

Troughzithers,SchalenzithernValvebugles,Signalhdrner- horns,Waldhirner- trumpets,TrompetenVertex,Scheitel

Vessel,Gefdss-

Whole-tube(inzithers),Vollriihren

For Frenchterminology see Andr6 Schaeffner s ection Adaptationranpaisedela classificationes Professeurs .M.v.Hornbostel t C.Sachs in Encyclop6dieFranqaiseVol.xvi, 1935, pp. 16 36-I5/16.

29

hornbostel sachs galpin s

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