history, politics and culture: archaeology and

14
Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 77 Harold Mytum History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and Interpretation in British National Parks hen national parks were established in England and Wales, their roles were defined as “preserving and enhancing the natural beauty of such areas and promoting their enjoyment by the public” (National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949). In this regard, the assumptions behind the setting up of national parks were similar to that in North America. National parks in Britain are unusual in a world context, however, because the areas within their responsibility are not publicly owned. This has clearly restricted their ability to carry through policy, but has perhaps made them more sensitive to local as well as national public opinion. It is significant that the preserving and enhancing of natural beauty was placed alongside promoting enjoyment by the public. The brief of national parks was to protect largely upland and agri- culturally marginal areas. The basic assumption that these were largely untouched, and represented areas with limited human impact, was quickly challenged, but it took some time before the archaeological as well as the historic built environment was incorporated within policies. During the same period, the greater availability of private transport, increase in leisure time, and the widening range of outdoor activities carried out in the parks led to a redefinition by the National Parks Review Panel in which the roles should be “to protect, maintain and enhance scenic beauty, natural systems and land forms, and the wildlife and cultural heritage of the area,” but also “to promote the quiet enjoyment and understanding of the area insofar as it is not in conflict with the primary purpose of conservation” (Edwards 1991). The role of conservation had become dominant in British national parks, linked to their planning role. National parks now operate under rather different conditions from those prevailing at their founding, and have a range of planning responsibilities which dominate much of their budgets and attention, and which have been recently extended with the latest bout of local government reorganisation. Nevertheless, the twin themes of conservation and interpre- tation play a part, particularly as all W

Upload: others

Post on 13-Nov-2021

4 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 77

Harold Mytum

History, Politics and Culture:Archaeology and Interpretation in

British National Parkshen national parks were established in England and Wales, theirroles were defined as “preserving and enhancing the naturalbeauty of such areas and promoting their enjoyment by thepublic” (National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act

1949). In this regard, the assumptions behind the setting up of national parkswere similar to that in North America. National parks in Britain are unusual ina world context, however, because the areas within their responsibility are notpublicly owned. This has clearly restricted their ability to carry through policy,but has perhaps made them more sensitive to local as well as national publicopinion. It is significant that the preserving and enhancing of natural beautywas placed alongside promoting enjoyment by the public.

The brief of national parks was toprotect largely upland and agri-culturally marginal areas. The basicassumption that these were largelyuntouched, and represented areaswith limited human impact, wasquickly challenged, but it took sometime before the archaeological as wellas the historic built environment wasincorporated within policies. Duringthe same period, the greateravailability of private transport,increase in leisure time, and thewidening range of outdoor activitiescarried out in the parks led to aredefinition by the National ParksReview Panel in which the rolesshould be “to protect, maintain andenhance scenic beauty, naturalsystems and land forms, and the

wildlife and cultural heritage of thearea,” but also “to promote the quietenjoyment and understanding of thearea insofar as it is not in conflict withthe primary purpose of conservation”(Edwards 1991). The role ofconservation had become dominantin British national parks, linked totheir planning role.

National parks now operate underrather different conditions from thoseprevailing at their founding, and havea range of planning responsibilitieswhich dominate much of theirbudgets and attention, and whichhave been recently extended with thelatest bout of local governmentreorganisation. Nevertheless, the twinthemes of conservation and interpre-tation play a part, particularly as all

W

Page 2: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

78 The George Wright FORUM

the parks are heavily tourist based.With the apparently inexorabledecrease in upland agriculturalincomes, tourism is becoming themajor factor in the economy of somenational parks, and in all the need toencourage but yet control andmanage visitor numbers is a criticalresponsibility. It is within this contextthat provision of and interest inarchaeology needs to be considered.

Archaeology is a recognised issuein all national parks, and all but oneemploy an archaeologist to cover thesubject within the authority (and thatone exception has several archaeo-logically trained employees on itsstaff). The role of archaeology hassome common threads over allnational parks, but as one moves awayfrom the most central and statutoryrequirements, then devel-opmentsrelate to interests and opportunitiesseized by individuals, and links toother organisations and individuals.

Education has increased in im-portance within national parks, as thishas been seen as a service needed andacknowledged by the community.Planning controversies can often leadto the parks appearing bureaucratic,uncaring, and against the individualand local community, but educationhelps to give the parks a positiveimage. Archaeological material fig-ures in many programmes, but isoften subsumed within other subjectswhich are specifically targeted withinthe national curricula.

PlanningThe statutory requirements within

the planning process absorb a greatdeal of the attention of the Englishnational park staff, including that oftheir archaeologists. In Wales, thesituation is slightly different, with thelocal archaeological units beingresponsible for planning control, withthe Gwynedd Archaeological Trust,for example, providing the servicewithin Snowdonia National Park,Cambrian Archaeology (formerly theDyfed Archaeological Trust) givingsuch a service to the PembrokeshireCoast National Park, and the Clwyd-Powys Archaeo-logical Trustadvising the Brecon Beacons NationalPark. It is worth noting that within allthese the parks various educationalinitiatives have proved possible,whilst they have been achieved in amore limited extent in most Englishauthorities.

Many upland areas have been longrecognised as repositories of greatarchaeological riches, but few large-scale academic landscape studieshave been undertaken in recent years.The most notable exceptions arethose by Fleming on Dartmoor and inSwaledale in the Yorkshire Dales(Fleming 1988; 1998). The RoyalCommissions have already coveredsome key areas (Taylor 1991) butmodern methods of aerial, surface,and geophysical survey now allow farmore sites to be identified, accurately

Page 3: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 79

located, and non-destructively invest-igated.

In order to be able to carry out theplanning control, particularly forextensive threats such as forestry,national park archaeologists in bothEngland and Wales have oftencommissioned surveys of thearchaeological resource to augmentthat already known. This has ofteninvolved funding from EnglishHeritage and Cadw respectively, andhas been carried out by the RoyalCommission staffs, contractedarchaeologists, or employees of theNational Parks. In every case, largenumbers of additional features havebeen found, ranging from Mesolithicflint scatters to World War II relics.These are then incorporated withinmanagement plans as well as localSites and Monuments Records andthe National Monuments Record.Whilst these may have a research andeducational role, they are primarilyused for landscape management andplanning guidance. An example ofsurvey increasing the number andrange of known sites can be indicatedby the work on the Brecon Beacons.The common of Mynydd Illtydcovers 625 acres, and systematic fieldwalking increased the number ofknown sites (Dorling 1991).

Whilst British legislationemphasises sites in the preservationprocess, and many archaeologicalremains are scheduled ancientmonuments within national parks,

there is less protection for landscapes.Some areas including archaeologicalremains have gained some protection,however, as environmentally sensitiveareas or sites of special scientificinterest (White 1991). Managementagreements with farmers, often withpayments attached, have alsoprovided a solution.

Conservation and Interpretation

Archaeologists have been closelyinvolved in the conservation of majormonuments within the national parks.These projects may have alsoincluded substantial elements ofdetailed survey, buildings recording,or excavation, or may have involvedless primary study and only an inputinto the design and management ofschemes.

At the Roman military camps atCawthorne, North Yorkshire,attempts at interpretation areconstrained by concerns overconservation and visitor manage-ment. This is a site purchased andcleared of regenerated woodland bythe North York Moors National Parkto ensure the most effective protectionfor the excellently preserved butfragile earthworks. A car park for only20 cars some distance awayminimises visitor impact, and for partof the visitor trail, Terram, apermeable membrane, has been usedto minimise wear (Cartwright 1991).The site is regularly monitored and

Page 4: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

80 The George Wright FORUM

measures taken to minimisedegradation by both animals andpeople, and vegetation control is byboth sheep-grazing and hand-spraying of chemicals (Lee 1994). Awide range of erosion preventionstrategies have been employed in theYorkshire Dales on sites of variousperiods and character (White 1994).

Industrial archaeology, particular-ly for quarrying and mining, aboundsin the upland areas of Britain. It istherefore not surprising that some ofthe most extensive, and expensive,conservation and interpretationprojects by national parks have beenin this field. It is with the industrialheritage that it has been most easy toobtain interest and resources tocombine archaeological conserva-tion, research, and interpretation.Industrial monuments can bestabilised and displayed in a resilientstate and can withstand at least smallnumbers of visitors. Moreover, manyare located in locations that cancombine other experiences expectedfrom a national park: spectacularscenery, (at least apparent) isolation,and a confrontation with nature andthe elements. Some such sites havebeen taken into guardianship byorganisations such as EnglishHeritage and the National Trust, butothers are managed by the nationalparks themselves.

In Snowdonia National Park,excavation and consolidation havetaken place on sites as different in date

as Iron Age iron smelting structuresand water-powered pumping andwinding engines, and the Clydachironworks in the Brecon Beacons wasa relatively early example ofconsolidation on some scale (Wilson1988). The charcoal-fired ironsmelting furnaces with bellowspowered by a water wheel at Duddonhave been excavated, conserved, anddisplayed. Here, Lake DistrictNational Park obtained the site on a50-year lease, and has sensitivelycarried out work but does not wish toencourage mass tourism (Lowe1991). Management agreements havebeen negotiated with land-owners inthe case of three lead smeltingcomplexes, including the Old Gangand Surrender mills in the YorkshireDales National Park, and EnglishHeritage has grant-aided consoli-dation (White 1989).

With stretched staff and financialresources, and an archaeologicalrecord both diverse and often fragile,the presumption is for preservationand no interpretation. Only key sitessuch as those discussed above, can beaccorded sufficient attention to beresilient to attrition caused by visitors.So, recent research by Kingston(1997) has shown why Lake DistrictNational Park considers that noelement of interpretation should begiven to indicate the location, nature,and extent of the famous Neolithicstone axe quarries and working areasat Great Langdale. The quarry faces,

Page 5: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 81

and the huge screes of debris,including rough-outs and wasteflakes, are under threat from walkersand others unaware of thesignificance of the site, but it was feltthat any on-site or nearby noticeswould only attract more visitors andpotential collectors. Interpretationsthat identify places of past humanactivity within the wider cultural andnatural landscape are rare in nationalparks because of the density ofvisitors, and the fact that these sitesoften lie on private land wherefarmers are attempting to run viablebusinesses. The problems of erosionof archaeological deposits on openmoorland are widespread in the parks(Griffiths 1994).

National parks have tended toavoid ownership of archaeologicalmonuments, with all the managementand interpretation responsibilitiesthat this entails. Apart from some ofthe industrial sites described above,the most notable exceptions are bothin Pembrokeshire Coast NationalPark. Here, the medieval and Tudorstone castle at Carew, and the IronAge fort with adjacent Roman nativefarmstead at Castell Henllys (Figure1), are both crucial parts of the park’spublicity and identity (Pembroke-shire Coast National Park 1999).Both also play important roles ineducational provision, and arediscussed further under that headingbelow. Moreover, they are alsointerpreted for the general public,

with facilities to cope with manythousands of visitors each year.

At Carew Castle, a range ofstanding remains are available forinspection, together with a famousearly-medieval cross and a post-medieval tide mill. Archaeologicalexcavations were carried out duringthe 1980s to discover the early historyof the site and as a planning conditionprior to the construction of touristfacilities, including toilets (Gerrard1991). These have now beencompletely covered over, however,and so their contribution to theunderstanding of the site has not beenas great as they might have been.Despite being a multi-period site, thecastle interpretation is primarilyconcentrated on the early Tudorperiod; having a Welsh origin, thisdynasty of British monarchs linkslocal, Welsh, and British interests,and thus appeals to a wide range ofvisitors (Davis 1987).

Castell Henllys Iron Age fort hadalready been operating as a touristattraction, in conjunction witharchaeological research and trainingexcavations, prior to its acquisition bythe national park. The style ofinterpretation has changed radically,and has resulted in greater investmentin high-quality display panels alongwell-managed routes, though at theloss of flexibility and personalengagement between owner andvisitor (Mytum 1999a). Excavationshave continued (Mytum 1999b), with

Page 6: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

82 The George Wright FORUM

Figure 1. Castell Henllys is an Iron Age inland promontory fort with substantialdefences, well-preserved evidence of internal occupation and buildings, and amonumental gateway of stone.

the result that they play an importantpart of the summer period attractions,when most tourists (as opposed toschools) visit the site. Here, thelinking of a project run by theUniversity of York and the nationalpark has allowed a large-scale projectto have the continuity of planning interms of facilities, access, andresources. This has involved the parkin relatively little expense, as theresearch institution and principalinvestigator obtain most of theresources and undertake theadministration of the project. Thearchaeological expertise has also

been vital in the interpretation of thesite and reconstruction of buildingson the site, continuing the work of theprevious owner. As a result of thiscollaboration, the richness of theinformation, and the diversity ofexperiences gained by all sorts ofvisitors, Castell Henllys won theHeritage in Britain award at the 1996British Archaeology awards (Figures2, 3, and 4).

As part of the conservation ethic,research excavation is not generallyencouraged within national parks, apolicy also supported by EnglishHeritage and Cadw. There have,

Page 7: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 83

Figure 2. Archaeological excavations at Castell Henllys.

nevertheless, been several notableexcavations within national parkswhich have often involved assoc-iations with the organisations, andthese have had valuable benefits forinterpretation. Projects which havenot involved substantial directnational park input have beenexcluded here.

The first notable researchexcavations which incorporated andthen led to even greater interpretationwere at Royston Grange in Peak

National Park, where a long-terminvestigation of a particular farm wasundertaken over many years by theSheffield University, and resulted in adetailed understanding of thiselement of the landscape (Hodges1991). This resulted in the Peak Parktaking into ownership some of theland, and the selling off of other partswith legal conditions on itsmanagement to ensure preservationof the identified archaeologicalresource and access for education

Page 8: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

84 The George Wright FORUM

Figure 3. The Iron Age chevaux-de-frise (arrangement of small standing stones)defences, preserved under a later defensive earthwork at Castell Henllys, is theonly excavated example in Europe and is now on display to the public.

Page 9: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 85

Figure 4. Reconstructed structure at Castell Henllys.

and research (Smith 1991). Thearchaeological research highlightedthe significance and potential of thesite, and led to its incorporationwithin direct national park man-agement. The use of a small numberof low-level interpretation panels,and some building plans recoveredfrom excavation visible on thesurface, are results of this collab-oration.

The Royston Grange researchproject has ended, but SheffieldUniversity has begun anothercollaborative project with PeakNational Park at Gardom’s Edge.Here again, interpretation is animportant element. In this case,access can be most easily gained viathe Web site on the excavation

(Sheffield University 1999).Archaeological interpretation at a

more general level is present in theliterature for many of the parks, but isoften merely the noting of sites ofinterest on suggested walks, such aslime kilns and promontory forts onPembrokeshire Coast National Park’sfootpath guides, or within the contextof general tourist literature. Mostnational park archaeologists haveneither the time nor the specifictraining to interpret for the public. Asthe only professional archaeologistsin isolated regions, however, they areoften asked to identify or comment onfinds made by local people of artefactsand structures, and many are involvedin the support of local amateurgroups.

Page 10: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

86 The George Wright FORUM

EducationInterpretation specifically for

children is an aspect which hasbecome increasingly importantwithin national parks. To justifyfunding and to ensure sufficientdemand from schools with limitedtime to give within a compressedcurriculum, resources offered areclosely linked to specified educa-tional requirements of the nationalcurricula for England and Wales.

Within this context, archaeology canbe found within the historycurriculum, but can also be relevantin other subject areas, such as localstudies, which link to geography,geology, and the environment.

Some national parks have a rangeof facilities for all age groups, thoughany archaeological element is oftenonly available at keystage 2, becauseof the curricula. Lake DistrictNational Park offers units, lasting a

Figure 5. School party visits the excavations at Castell Henllys, with explanation by anational park guide.

Page 11: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 87

Figure 6. Excavation of the Iron Age gateway at Castell Henllys, which thePembrokeshire Coast National Park intends to interpret with a full-scale in situreconstruction/simulation.

half or whole day, at the primary andsecondary level, and for moreadvanced students in further andhigher education. The range ofcurrent modules can be seen on theWeb, with the Discovery walks forkeystage 2 including a valley such asBorrowdale, contrasting two valleysnear Glenridding (including muchindustrial archaeology), or consid-

ering the context of LakeWindermere. All incorporate amixture of natural and humanimpacts on the landscape over time(Lake District National Park 1999).

Northumberland National Parkhas many assets, such as Hadrian’sWall, within its area, but many of itsfeatures are well maintained andinterpreted for the public and school

Page 12: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

88 The George Wright FORUM

parties by English Heritage (1997).The park has concentrated onlandscape issues, linking art,geography, history, and literacy inprogrammes for keystages 2 and 3which contain, to varying degrees,elements which are archaeological(Northumberland National Park1999).

Those sites owned by nationalparks where research excavation andinterpretation have taken place haveoften been given particular attentionwith regard to education. This hasbeen externally recognised in anumber of awards, such as the VirginAward at the British ArchaeologicalAwards, given for Castell Henllys in1996, and the McGregor Award forcontribution to environmental edu-cation, given for the Gardom’s Edgeexcavation in the Peak District in1999.

At Castell Henllys, investment hasbeen on a significant scale, with apurpose-designed education centre(Anonymous 1994) and theprovision of full-time and severalpart-time staff to allow a wide range ofschools to be taught through themedium of either English or Welsh.There is also a video and teachingpack (DCCED 1993). The mainemphasis is on keystage 2, particularlythe history curriculum, but also offerslinks to a range of other curricula(Mytum 1999a), and the experiencefor school parties includes elementsof role play, crafts, and study of the

reconstructed buildings. TheUniversity of York trainingexcavation for British and EuropeanUnion students (from school anduniversities as well as some maturestudents) runs every summer, as doesa credit-bearing field school foroverseas university students whichhas a wider remit (University of York1999). The Castell Henllys trainingexcavation is the largest of its kindrunning in Britain at present, and thatis only possible because of thesupport given by PembrokeshireCoast National Park.

The Brecon Beacons archaeo-logist is himself running a smallarchaeological education projectlinked primarily to keystage 2. Thisallows children of ages 5 and 6 toparticipate in excavation and findshandling at an Elizabethan manorhouse, as well as study standingremains, the surrounding historiclandscape, and documentary sources(Brecon Beacons National Park1999). The Snowdonia NationalPark archaeologist has directedtraining excavations, largely aimed atthe adult education market, whichhave been conducted largely on IronAge industrial sites.

ConclusionThere are many exciting initiatives

in national parks which involveactivities beyond the coreresponsibilities of planning control,conservation, and encouraging

Page 13: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 89

tourism. Interpretation of both widercultural landscapes and individualsites has grown considerably duringthe 1990s, and education pro-grammes are now beginning toinclude archaeological elementswhere appropriate for the curricula.With so many commitments, thenational park archaeologists are tornin many directions. But it is possibleto gain additional staff and promoteactivities through opportunisticapplications for funding from theEuropean Union, English or Welshgovernment agencies, the lottery, and

private sponsors. Even if some suchprojects are inevitably temporary,many have outcomes which can lastconsiderable periods of time. Theflagship projects, such as RoystonGrange and Castell Henllys, offer alead which others may follow if thecommitment is there to seizeopportunities as they presentthemselves. Despite renewed finan-cial pressures on recurrent funding,exciting times lie ahead forarchaeology within British nationalparks.

ReferencesAnonymous. 1994. A hand-made link to the Iron Age. The Architects’ Journal (6 July), 29-39.Berry, A. Q., and I. W. Brown, eds. 1994. Erosion on Archaeological Earthworks: Its Prevention,

Control and Repair. Mold, Wales: Clwyd Archaeology Service.Brecon Beacons National Park. 1999. Web site: <http://www.breconbeacons.org/english/archaeo-

tymawr01.html>.Davis, P. R. 1987. Carew Castle. Haverfordwest, Wales: Pembrokeshire Coast National Park

Authority.DCCED [Dyfed County Council Education Department]. 1993. Pathways to the Past. The Celts at

Castell Henllys. (Video and teacher’s pack.) Haverfordwest, Wales: DCCED and PembrokeshireCoast Nati onal Park Authority.

Dorling, P. 1991. Recent archaeological work in the Brecon Beacons National Park. Pp. 7-10 in Whiteand Iles 1991.

Edwards, R. 1991. Fit for the Future: Report of the National Parks Review Panel. Cheltenham:Countryside Commission.

English Heritage. 1997. Hadrian’s Wall. (Teacher’s handbook.) London: English Heritage.Fleming, A. 1988. The Dartmoor Reaves: Investigating Prehistoric Land Divisions. London: Batsford.———. 1998. Swaledale: Valley of the Wild River. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Un iversity Press.Gerrard, S. 1991. Carew Castle, Pembrokeshire Coast National Park. Pp. 47-54 in White and Iles

1991.Hodges, R. 1991. Wall-to-wall History: The Story of Roystone Grange. London: Duckworth.Kingston, E. J. 1997. Archaeology of the Uplands: A future for our past? M.A. thesis, Department of

Archaeology, University of York.Lake District National Park. 1999. Web site: <http://www.lake-district.gov.uk/educate/index.htm>.Lee, G. 1994. Erosion control on Cawthorn Roman Camps. Pp. 87-92 in Berry and Brown 1994.Lowe, A. 1991. Archaeology and the Lake District National Park. Pp. 20-24 in White and Iles 1991.Mytum, H. 1999a. Pembrokeshire’s pasts. Natives, invaders and Welsh archaeology: The Castell

Henllys experience. Pp. 181-193 in Stone and Planel 1999.———. 1999b. Castell Henllys. Current Archaeology 161.Northumberland National Park. 1999. Web site: <http://www.nnpa.org.uk/edvisits.html>.Pembrokeshire Coast National Park. 1999. Web site:

Page 14: History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and

Archaeology and the National Park Idea:Challenges for Management and Interpretation

90 The George Wright FORUM

<http://www.pembrokeshirecoast.org.uk/english/index1.htm>.Sheffield University. 1999. Web site: <http://www.shef.ac.uk/uni/projects/geap/>.Smith, K. 1991. Archaeology in the Peak District National Park: A report on progress in the last decade.

Pp. 39-46 in White and Iles 1991.Stone, P. G., and P. G. Planel, eds. 1999. The Constructed Past: Experimental Archaeology, Education

and the Public. London: Routledge, One World Archaeology 36.Taylor, C. 1991. Archaeological field survey in national parks by the Royal Commission on the

Historical Monuments of England. Pp. 65-68 in White and Iles 1991.University of York. 1999. Web site: <http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/arch/staff/sites/henllys/menu.htm>.White, R. F. 1989. Conservation of the remains of the lead industry in the Yorkshire Dales. Industrial

Archaeology Review 12, 94-104.———. 1991. Arresting decay: Archaeology in the Yorkshire Dales. Pp. 55-64 in White and Iles 1991.———. 1994. Combating Erosion in the Yorkshire Dales National Park. Pp. 93-101 in Berry and

Brown 1994.White, R. F., and R. Iles, eds. 1991. Arc haeology in National Parks. Leyburn: National Park Staff

Association and Yorkshire Dales National Park.Wilson, A. 1988. The excavation of Clydach Ironworks. Industrial Archaeology Review 11, 16-36.

Note: Web addresses quoted above were all accessible during November 1999.

Harold Mytum, Department of Archaeology, University of York, The King’sManor, York YO1 2EP, United Kingdom; [email protected].

1