history of cybernetics movement

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A HISTORY OF THE CYBERNETICS MOVEMENT

IN THE UNITED STATES

Stuart A. Umpleby

Research Program in Social and Organizational Learning

The George Washington Uniersity

Washington! "# $%%&$ USAumpleby'g(u.edu

September )! $%%&

Published in theJournal of the Washington Academy of Sciences!

*ol. +,! -o. $! Summer $%%&! pp. &/)).
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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A HISTORY OF THE CYBERNETICS MOVEMENT

IN THE UNITED STATES

Stuart A. UmplebyThe George Washington Uniersity

Washington! "# $%%&$ USA

umpleby'g(u.edu

ABSTRACT

0ey eents in the history o1 cybernetics and the American Society 1or #ybernetics are discussed! amongthem the origin o1 cybernetics in the 2acy 3oundation con1erences in the late ,+%s and early ,+&%s4

di11erent interpretations o1 cybernetics by seeral pro1essional societies4 reasons (hy the U.S.

goernment did or did not support cybernetics in the ,+&%s! )%s! and 5%s4 early e6periments in

cyberspace in the ,+5%s4 conersations (ith Soiet scientists in the ,+7%s4 the deelopment o1 8second

order9 cybernetics in the ,++%s4 and increased interest in cybernetics in :urope and the United States inthe $%%%s! due at least in part to improed understanding o1 the assumptions underlying the cybernetics

moement. The history o1 cybernetics in the United States is ie(ed 1rom the perspectie o1 theAmerican Society 1or #ybernetics ;AS#< and seeral =uestions are addressed as to its 1uture.

THE ORIGIN OF CYBERNETICS

#ybernetics as a 1ield o1 scienti1ic actiity in the United States began in the years a1ter World War >>.

?et(een ,+) and ,+&@ the osiah 2acy! r. 3oundation sponsored a series o1 con1erences in -e( BorC

#ity on the subDect o1 8#ircular #ausal and 3eedbacC 2echanisms in ?iological and Social Systems.9The chair o1 the con1erences (as Warren 2c#ulloch o1 2>T. Only the last 1ie con1erences (ere

recorded in (ritten proceedings. These hae no( been republished ;Pias! $%%n this (ay the meetings became Cno(n as the 2acy #on1erences on #ybernetics.

>n subse=uent years cybernetics in1luenced many academic 1ields computer science! electrical

engineering! arti1icial intelligence! robotics! management! 1amily therapy! political science! sociology!

biology! psychology! epistemology! music! etc. #ybernetics has been de1ined in many (aysF as control

and communication in animals! machines! and social systems4 as a general theory o1 regulation4 as theart o1 e11ectie organization4 as the art o1 constructing de1ensible metaphors4 etc. The term 8cybernetics9

has been associated (ith many stimulating con1erences! yet cybernetics has not thried as an organized

scienti1ic 1ield (ithin American uniersities. Although a 1e( cybernetics programs (ere established on

U. S. campuses! these programs usually did not surie the retirement or death o1 their 1ounder.

Relatie to other academic societies the meetings on cybernetics tended to hae more than the usualcontroersy! probably due to the (ide ariety o1 disciplines represented by those in attendance. >ndeed

2argaret 2ead (rote an article! 8#ybernetics o1 #ybernetics!9 in the proceedings o1 the 1irst con1erence

o1 the American Society 1or #ybernetics! in (hich she suggested that cyberneticians should apply their

Cno(ledge o1 communication to ho( they communicate (ith each other. ;2ead! ,+)7


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INTERPRETATIONS OF CYBERNETICS

-ot eeryone originally connected (ith cybernetics continued to use the termF

,. The cybernetics o1 Allen Turing and ohn on -eumann became computer science! A>! androbotics. Turing 1ormulated the concept o1 a Uniersal Turing 2achine a mathematical

description o1 a computational deice. Ee also deised the Turing test a (ay o1 determining

(hether a computer program displays 8arti1icial intelligence.9 The related pro1essional societiesare the Association 1or #omputing 2achinery and the American Association 1or Arti1icial

>ntelligence.

$. -orbert WienerHs cybernetics became part o1 electrical engineering. This branch o1 cyberneticsincludes control mechanisms 1rom thermostats to automated assembly lines. The >nstitute o1

:lectrical and :lectronics :ngineers! including the Systems! 2an! and #ybernetics Society! is the

main pro1essional society. The principal concern is systems engineering.

@. Warren 2c#ullochHs cybernetics became 8second order cybernetics.9 2c#ulloch chaired the2acy 3oundation con1erences. Ee sought to understand the 1unctioning o1 the nerous system

and thereby the operation o1 the brain and the mind. The American Society 1or #ybernetics has

continued this tradition. >t is the only one o1 the three groups that seeCs to promote cyberneticsas a transdisciplinary 1ield.

Other! smaller groups can also be identi1ied. 3or e6ample! a control systems group (ithin psychology(as generated by the (orC o1 William Po(ers ;,+5@nstitute has deeloped

simulation methods based on the idea o1 cellular automata.

This paper recounts about si6ty years o1 the history o1 the cybernetics moement in the United States!

diided into 1ie year interals. The 1ocus (ill be on the third group! 2c#ullochHs cybernetics.

EARY !"#$%

>n ,+@ t(o landmarC papers (ere published. Warren 2c#ulloch and Walter Pitts (rote! 8A Logical#alculus o1 the >deas >mmanent in -erous Actiity.9 ;2c#ulloch and Pitts! ,+@< This article sought

to understand ho( a net(orC o1 neurons 1unctions so that (e e6perience (hat (e call 8an idea.9 They

presented their e6planation in mathematical 1orm.

Arthuro Rosenblueth! -orbert Wiener and ulian ?igelo( published! 8?ehaior! Purpose! Teleology.9

;Rosenblueth! et al., ,+@< They obsered behaior! (hich they interpreted as purpose1ul! and

then sought to e6plain ho( this phenomenon could happen (ithout teleology! using onlyAristotleHs e11icient cause. Also in the early ,+%s Wiener (orCed on a radar/guided anti/aircra1t

gun.

ATE !"#$%

>n the late ,+%s the early 2acy #on1erences (ere held in -e( BorC #ity. They (ere attended byscientists including -orbert Wiener! ulian ?igelo(! ohn on -eumann! 2argaret 2ead! Gregory

?ateson.! Ross Ashby! Grey Walter! and Eeinz on 3oerster. ?y ,++ three Cey booCs (ere publishedF

WienerHs Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine ! *on -eumannHs

and 2orgensternHs Theory of Games and conomic !eha"ior, and ShannonHs and WeaerHs, The


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Mathematical Theory of Communication. These three booCs de1ined a ne( science o1 in1ormation andregulation.

EARY !"&$%

>n the early ,+&%s more 2acy con1erences (ere held. This time proceedings (ere published (ith Eeinz

on 3oerster as editor. 2ean(hile the 1irst commercial computers (ere manu1actured.

ATE !"&$%

>n the ,+&%s the #>A (as concerned about the possibility o1 brain/(ashing and mind control. Under thecode name 20Ultra e6periments (ith LS" and other drugs (ere conducted at Earard Uniersity and

else(here. ;2arCs! ,+57< Some o1 the money 1or this research (as channeled through the 2acy

3oundation. >n one incident! a #>A employee (as gien LS" (ithout his Cno(ledge. Apparently he

thought he (as going mad and doe out a (indo( o1 a hotel in -e( BorC #ity. Ted 0aczynsCi! theUnabomber! (hen he (as a student at Earard! (as an e6perimental subDect o1 these mind control

e6periments. ;#hase! $%%@n ,+&)

at a con1erence at "artmouth Uniersity people interested in studying the brain and people

interested in creating computer programs parted (ays. Therea1ter the people interested incybernetics and the people interested in arti1icial intelligence had little interaction.

3ollo(ing a sabbatical year (orCing (ith Arthuro Rosenblueth and Warren 2c#ulloch! Eeinz on3oerster 1ounded the ?iological #omputer Laboratory at the Uniersity o1 >llinois.

EARY !"'$%

>n the early ,+)%s seeral con1erences on sel1/organizing systems (ere held! one o1 them at the

Uniersity o1 >llinoisHs Allerton ParC. ;on 3oerster and Iop1! ,+)$< As a result o1 an initation made at

this con1erence! Ross Ashby moed 1rom :ngland to >llinois. The (orC on sel1/organizing systems (asa 1orerunner to the 1ield o1 study no( called 8comple6ity.9

Although the 2acy 3oundation #on1erences ended in ,+&@! the American Society 1or #ybernetics;AS#< (as not 1ounded until ,+). This seems rather late. Actually the 1ounding o1 the AS# (as in

part the result o1 the #old War. "uring the Presidential campaign in ,+)%! (hen ohn 3. 0ennedy (as

elected! there (as talC about a 8missile gap9 bet(een the United States and the Soiet Union. -ot long

therea1ter there began to be talC o1 a 8cybernetics gap.9 Some people in the Soiet Union thoughtcybernetics (ould proide the theory they needed to operate their centrally planned economy.

#onse=uently the Soiet goernment generously 1unded cybernetics research. Some people in the U.S.

goernment then 1eared that the U.S. might 1all behind in a critical area o1 research! i1 this country did

not also 1und cybernetics research.


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>n Washington! "#! a cybernetics luncheon club (as meeting. The participants included Paul Eensha(!Atomic :nergy #ommission4 #arl Eammer! Uniac4 acC 3ord! #>A4 "ouglas 0night! >?24

Walter 2unster4 ?ill 2oore! la(yer. This group 1ounded the American Society 1or #ybernetics

;AS#


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3or a 1e( years! due to a con1lict (ith the AS# o11icers in Washington! "#! there (as a rialorganization! the American #ybernetics Association ;A#A

came bacC together a 1e( years later through the e11orts o1 ?arry #lemson! "oreen Steg! 0laus

0rippendor11 and others. The reorganized society used the AS# name and the A#A by/la(s. ?ut the

society remained small! usually haing 1e(er than %% members.

EARY !")$%

As a result o1 being the moderator o1 the on/line discussion group! Umpleby (as elected president o1

AS#. A planning con1erence in ,+7% charted a ne( direction 1or the Society. ;Umpleby! ,+7,nstitute o1

Psychology o1 the Russian Academy o1 Sciences in 2osco(. Le1ebreHs theory o1 re1le6iecontrol is being used by psychologists and educators to help (ith the psychological and cultural

issues inoled in the social! political! and economic transition in Russia.

ATE !")$%

2embers o1 the American Society 1or #ybernetics began o11ering tutorials on 1irst and second order

cybernetics prior to systems con1erences ;see Table ,


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>n ,++% t(o symposia on 8Theories to Guide the Re1orm o1 Socialist Societies9 (ere held inWashington! "#! and *ienna! Austria ;Umpleby! ,++,


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Gien the promising and e6citing beginnings o1 cybernetics! the outstanding scientists inoled! and thesubse=uent impact o1 cybernetics on many disciplines! it is curious that the term 8cybernetics9 is not

(idely Cno(n or used today! een though most pro1essional people spend seeral hours a day in

8cyberspace.9 2argaret 2ead commented on the deelopment o1 cybernetics at the 1irst AS#

con1erence in ,+)7F

We (ere impressed by the potential use1ulness o1 a language su11iciently sophisticated to be used

to sole comple6 human problems! and su11iciently abstract to maCe it possible to crossdisciplinary boundaries. We thought (e (ould go on to real interdisciplinary research! using this

language as a medium. >nstead! the (hole thing 1ragmented. -orbert Wiener (rote his booC

Cybernetics. >t 1ascinated intellectuals and it looCed 1or a (hile as i1 the ideas that he e6pressed(ould become a (ay o1 thought. ?ut they didnHt. ;2ead! ,+)7nstitute. These (riters

rarely re1er to the early (orC in cybernetics and systems theory.

What preented unityK There (as neer agreement on 1undamentals. :ric "ent in his doctoral

dissertation at The George Washington Uniersity proides an e6planation o1 the continuing

heterogeneity o1 the 1ield o1 cybernetics and systems science. ;"ent! ,++)< "ent claims that a1ter WorldWar >> the systems sciences dramatically e6panded the scienti1ic enterprise. Speci1ically! they e6panded

science along eight dimensions // causality! determinism! relationships! holism! enironment! sel1/

organization! re1le6iity! and obseration. ;"ent! $%%,< Eo(eer! not all o1 the arious systems 1ields

chose to emphasize the same dimensions. >ndeed! each 1ield chose a uni=ue combination. This meantthat the arious systems 1ields did not agree on (hat the Cey issues (ere. As a result each sub1ield

deeloped its o(n language! theories! methods! traditions! and results.

These eight dimensions hae both united and diided the systems sciences. The dimensions unite the

systems sciences because each o1 the sub1ields o1 systems science uses at least one o1 the ne(

assumptions! (hereas classical science uses none. The dimensions diide the systems sciences becauseeach sub1ield emphasizes a di11erent dimension or set o1 dimensions. Eence! issues that are ery

important in one sub1ield are less important or do not arise in other sub1ields. Gien di11erent =uestions!

the ans(ers in theories and methods hae been di11erent. ;Umpleby and "ent! ,+++< Perhaps in the $,st

century the progress made in deeloping the 1ield o1 cybernetics in many disciplines (ill be success1ullyintegrated.

REFERENCES

?ausch! 0. ;ed.

#hase! A. ;$%%@


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"echert! #. ;ed."ent! :. ;,++)

Organi-ations. Ann Arbor! 2>F Uniersity 2icro1ilms.

"ent! :. ;$%%,

Pias! #. ;ed.

Rosenblueth! A.! -. Wiener! and . ?igelo(. ;,+@

Science,,%! pp. ,7/$. Reprinted in W. ?ucCley ;ed.< Modern Systems 7esearch for the !eha"ioral

Scientist.#hicagoF Aldine! ,+)7! pp. $$,/$$&.

Shannon! #. and W. Weaer. ;,++LF

Uniersity o1 >llinois Press.

Umpleby! S. ;,+5

Cybernetics. Reprinted in ,++&! 2inneapolisF 3uture Systems.

Umpleby! S. ;,+5+n

Eenderson! 2. and 2. 2ac-aughton. ;eds.

?oulder! #OF Westie( Press.

Umpleby! S. ;,+7,

Cybernetics &orum! *ol. ,%! -o.,.

Umpleby! S. and 0. Thomas. ;,+7@

>n Anthony "ebons ;ed.

-iDho11.


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Umpleby! S. ;,+75a

Systems Theory. Cybernetics and Systems! *ol. ,7.

Umpleby! S. ;,++%

Systems,*ol. $,! -o. ,.

Umpleby! S. and *. SadosCy. ;eds.

and #ybernetics. Cybernetics and Systems! *ol. @%.

Umpleby! S. ;$%%%

#omputer #risis!9 in G. LasCer! et al. ;ed.>>.Windsor! #anadaF >nternational >nstitute 1or Adanced Studies in Systems Research and#ybernetics.

Umpleby! S. ;$%%@a

?ulgaria! ?lagoegrad! ?ulgaria.

Umpleby! S. ;$%%@b


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E2,eer,2

Cyberet,/%

B,+l+2,/al Cyberet,/% S+/,al Cyberet,/%

The ie( o1epistemology

A realist ie( o1epistemologyF

Cno(ledge is a

8picture9 o1 reality

A biological ie( o1epistemologyF ho( the

brain 1unctions

A pragmatic ie( o1epistemologyF

Cno(ledge is

constructed toachiee human

purposesA Ceydistinction

Reality s.Scienti1ic Theories

Realism s.#onstructiism

The biology o1cognition s. the

obserer as a social

participant

The puzzle to be

soled

#onstruct theories

(hich e6plainobsered

phenomena

>nclude the obserer

(ithin the domain o1science

:6plain the

relationship bet(eenthe natural and the

social sciences

What must bee6plained

Eo( the (orld(orCs

Eo( an indiidualconstructs a 8reality9

Eo( people create!maintain! and change

social systemsthrough languageand ideas

A Ceyassumption

-atural processescan be e6plained by

scienti1ic theories

>deas about Cno(ledgeshould be rooted in

neurophysiology

>deas are accepted i1they sere the

obsererHs purposes

as a social participant

An important

conse=uence

Scienti1ic

Cno(ledge can be

used to modi1ynatural processes to

bene1it people

>1 people accept

constructiism! they

(ill be more tolerant

?y trans1orming

conceptual systems

;through persuasion!not coercion

change societyTABLE 2. Three Versions of Cybernetics

history of cybernetics movement

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