histo removal notes merged

8/17/2019 Histo Removal Notes Merged

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Topic 1: EPITHELIUM

*Protoplasm- general term used to describe the living substance of plants and animals*Cell- the smallest unit of protoplasm capable of independent existence *Tissue- group of cells having the same function*Organ- a larger functional unit made up of combination of two or more tissues *Organ system- a functional unit made up of several organs whose functions are interrelated

PROTOPLAS- !"LL- T#SS$"- OR%A&- OR%A& S'ST""xample( ) Tissue- muscle+ bone+ epithelium , Organ- heart+ liver+ brain Organ s.stem- digestive s.stem+ urinar. s.stem+ vascular s.stem

EPITHELIUM- closel. aggregated cells that are in apposition over a large part of their surfaceand which have ver. little intercellular substanceOR#%#&(

) "ndoderm, esoderm esench.me

/$&!T#O&S( SEPTAS) Secretion, "xcretion Protection0 Transport1 Absorption2 Sensor. functions or Reception

!LASS#/#!AT#O&(3asis

a &umber of cell la.ers 4single la.er- simple t.pe 5 man. la.er- strati6ed7

b Shape of cells- s8uamous+ cuboidal+ columnar+ pseudostrati6ed+ transitional T.pe() Simple s8uamous, Simple columnar Simple cuboidal0 Strati6ed s8uamous1 Strati6ed columnar2 Pseudostrati6ed columnar9 Transitional

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM-thin plate-li:e cells with pol.gonal or irregular

) "ar- inner surface of the membranous lab.rinth wall -inner surface of t.mpanic membrane, :idne.- parietal la.er of the 3owman;s capsule+ thin segment of the loop of henle rete testis0 smallest excretor. ducts of man. glands1 mesothelium- bod. cavit.2 endothelium- lining the innermost of the blood vessel and the heart

SIMPLE CUOI!AL EPITHELIUM-hexagonal pol.gons with a s8uare or rectangular pro6le (TPR-COLD)


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) th.roid follicle, pigmented epithelium of the retina renal tubules0 choroid plexus1 ovar. free surface2 lens capsule- inner surface of the lens of the e.e9 ducts of glands

SIMPLE COLUM"A# EPITHELIUM

-has a rectangular outline but cells are much taller than those of the cuboidal epithelium !ellsloo: li:e columns+ nuclei are on the same level ma. have free surface speciali

) excretor. ducts of man. glands, uterine glands oviducts0 digestive tract- from the cardia of the stomach to the anus1 small bronchi of the lungs2 paranasal sinuses9 central canal of the spinal cord

ST#ATI$IE! SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM (CCEEPP-MVT)

-epithelium is thic:+ cells var. in shape from base to free surface- lowermost la.er consists of cuboidal or columnar cells- uppermost la.er consists of ?at or s8uamous cells- on the exposed surface of the bod. the uppermost la.er is composed of @"RAT#& 46brousprotein+ lifeless+ scale-li:e structure7

) cornea, conunctiva esophagus0 epidermis- :eratini


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- one la.er of cells and all these cells are in contact with the basement membrane but notall reach the free surface

- nuclei are aligned at two or more levels- ma. have free surface speciali


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!onnective Tissue Proper !omposition

) !ells- 6xed or wandering, "xtracellular components- 6bers and amorphous ground substance 4contains tissue ?uid7

CELLS

) $i'e. (FMAM7a /ibroblasts- principal cell of the connective tissue 4important7

- Responsible for the production and long term maintenance of the extracellularcomponents

- /usiform or ?at or stellate with several slender processesb esench.mal cells

- !ells which retain the developmental potentialities in an adult organism- Smaller than 6broblasts and less highl. diGerentiated

c Adipose or fat cells- !ells speciali


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, Elastic Connecti(e tissue

- dense connective tissue with predominance of elastic 6bers/ound in(

) Ligamentum ?avum, Kocal cords Large elastic arteries0 Aorta

62 #ETICULA# CO""ECTI-E TISSUE

- Predominance of reticular 6bers- /ound in( liver sinusoids-l.mphatic tissues

0 A!IPOSE TISSUE

- made up of adipose cells

/unctions of !onnective Tissue Proper

S.P.E.R.M.

) Storage of energ. reserves 4adipose7, Protection against infection "xchange of metabolites between the blood and tissues0 Repair after inur. 46broblast and mesench.mal cells71 echanical support of tissues

Topic ( CA#TILA4E

-speciali


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¬ "nclosed in a dense connective tissue covering called perichondrium

Histogenesis

¬in the site of cartilage formation esench.mal TissueM!ells withdraw their process

¬ then the. crowd together+43undle of esench.mal !ells7 in what is called Protochondral Tissue or !enter of !hondri6cation¬ then the &uclei are close together and the cells enlarge and diGerentiate and Secrete theatrix !omponents !ollagen and !hondromucoproteins

¬ then the Amount of #nterstitial material increases ¬ and the !ells become isolated inside the compartments called Lacuna and the cells are called!hondroc.tes

Types:-based on the amount of the amorphous matrix and the abundance of 6bers in it

) Hyaline Cartilage *proto.pe- ost common+ semi-transparent+ bluish gra.+ the most !FARA!T"R#ST#! T'P"- Two t.pes are modi6cations 4other t.pes7 - /ound in( ventral ends of ribs+ tracheal rings+ bronchial plates+ lar.nx+ oint surfaces of bones

*VTBLJ

, Elastic Cartilage - 'ellowish+ more opa8ue+ more ?exible+more elastic than h.aline cartilage- !ells are round+ surrounded b. capsules and scattered singl. or in groups 4group of , or 0 cells7*same grouping F.aline- diGers in its interstitial substances+ has branching 6bers containing "LAST#& obscuring thematrix - /ound in( external ear+ external auditor. walls+ "ustachian tube+ epiglottis+ parts of thecorniculate and cuneiform cartilages *EEEEP

Histogenesis:

- a primitive connective tissue develops with 6broblasts and 6bers which are later transformedinto "LAST#! /#3"RS-the cells secrete the matrix around themselves-then these cells secrete the matrix around themselves-then these cells are later recogni


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- a. regenerate to some extent- There is connective tissue formation in the inured area- Presence of 6broblasts which are later transformed into !ART#LA%" !"LLS

Regressive !hange #n the !artilage

CALCI$ICATIO"7 cartilage cells undergo a se8uence of c.tological changes plus changes in thematrix!alci6ed cartilageN cartilage bone

CA#TILA4E 4#O/TH

12 Interstitial 4ro8t*

• itotic division of chondroc.tes+ secretion of new matrix between daughter cells leadsto an expansion of the cartilage from within

,2 Appositional 4ro8t*

• %rowth starts from Perichondrium 4!hondrogenic La.er7

• EiGerentiate into !hondroc.tes secreting the atrix around themselves• &ew cells are added to the surface of the cartilage

• =Outside growth>

/unctions of !artilage(

) To sustain great weight , Allow bones to move easil. and smoothl. against one another Serve as pliable .et resistant framewor: that prevents the collapse of the tubularorgans 0 #mportant in determining the si


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These properties in turn expresses , fundamental Attributes of Protoplasm(

12 Irritaility D capacit. to react to various ph.sical and chemical agents ,2 Con.ucti(ity D abilit. to transmit the resulting excitation from one localit. to another

Composition o) "er(ous Tissue:

Origin( "mbr.onic "ctoderm) &erve cell or neuron

a Eendrites b Soma c Axon , &erve 6ber &euroglia*except for icroglia

"EU#O"-!ell bod. has , cell processes(!en.rites-man. or severalA'on-)*sheath covering related to axon

A2 "ucleus(

Large+ pale ovoid+ and centrall. placed within the peri:ar.on 4c.toplasm for nerve cells7with a single nucleolus and 6ne chromatin particles* Fuman /emale Sex chromatin is prominentl. located either near the nucleolus or at theperipher. of the nucleus

2Periaryon

o neuro6brils- protein threadso !hromophilic Substances(

&issl bodies D basophilic masses whose main component is ribonucleoproteino Drepresent sites of protein s.nthesis

D absent at the axon hilloc: and axis c.linder• #nclusions D pigments li:e melanin and lipofuschin+ lipid+ gl.cogen

! Processes(

) !en.rites D ma. be direct extensions of peri:ar.on or remote arbori


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,2 A'on &A'is Cylin.er+ D arise from small conical elevation on the peri:ar.on called axon hilloc:+ devoidof &issl 3odies+ contains other cellular organelles D has a sheath or covering called .elin which is not part of the &eurons D ma. have axon collaterals or small branches coming from axon

/unction( carr. the response of the neuron in form of action potential

"er(e $ier Composition

12 A'on ,2 S*eat*s

a2 S*eat* o) Sc*8ann 4neurolemmal sheath7

D envelops the axon from it;s beginning to near its peripheral terminationD made up of ?attened cells which form a thin sleeve around the m.elinD has %olgi Apparatus and itochondria

2Myelin S*eat*

D absent in smaller axonD made up of alternating la.ers of mixed lipids and proteins called neuroeratin D are actuall. successive la.ers of plasma membrane of the Schwann !ells

#nterrupted at each node called &ode of Ranvier "er(e $ier D axon enveloped b. the m.elin Sheath which is surrounded b. Sheath of

Schwann D outermost covering is called endoneurium which is not a nervous tissue but a!O&&"!T#K" T#SS$" PROP"R

"euroglia

D =nerve glue>

non- neural supportive cells consisting of

12 Epen.ymal D lines the ventricles of the brain and spinal cord and epithelial in character ,2 "euroglial cells and their processes D found with in the neurons in the !&S and retina-schwann cells ma. be considered as peripheral neuroglia

"euroglial Cells:

Origin( "ctoderm

a Astroc.tes b Oligodendroc.tes c acroglia dicroglia D mesodermal origin

$unctions o) "euroglia(

) mechanical support, mediator for the normal metabolism of neurons 4supports7 prevents contact between processes of nerve cells at sites other than the s.napse 4sites

of transmission of impulses70 activel. involved during pathological states5 undergo active migration and phagoc.tosis

a activel. involved in degeneration and regeneration of nerve 6bers


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b active in vascular and infectious diseasec D chief source of tumors in the !&S

Response of the &euron to inur.( inur. to the axon) Eegeneration of axon at the proximal and distal portions5 Jallerian degeneration4primar. and secondar.7, At the proximal portion+ new axonal sprouts appear as a sign of regeneration Eistal portion+ axon and m.elin degeneration

Surgical approximation of cut ends ma. be necessar. to reverse the distaldegeneration at the cell bod.+ there is a retrogra.e c*romatolysis with apparentdisappearance of &issl 3odies+ swelling of the peri:ar.on and shifting of the nucleus toa peripheral location

#f the cell survives the inur.+ changes will revert bac: to normal#f not+ the cell dies

Rate of &erve %rowth D D 0 mm per da. or , cm per da.

Topic 1( O"E;


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1 Pla.s an important metabolic role as a mobili


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• "nds of long bones covered with articular cartilage

• Sites where tendons and ligaments are inserted

• 3ones formed within tendons or sesamoid bones 4patella+ thumb7

• Subscapular areas of the nec: of the femur and astra galus 4foot bone7

En.osteum D lines the marrow cavities and cavities of spong. bone and also lined b. s8uamouscells and has osteogenic propert.

one Cells:

• Osteoprogenitor Cell D spindle shaped+ undiGerentiated cell with the capacit. for mitosis and for further structural and functional speciali


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Intramemranous Ossi3cation

) #n the primitive tissue mesench.me+ there appears a richl. vasculari


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• %one o) Hypertrop*y or %O"E O$ P#O-ISIO"AL CALCI$ICATIO" D cells appear aslarge vacuolated cells and the matrix becomes the site of calcium deposition

• %one o) Cell !egeneration D chondroc.tes degenerates+ the open ends of their enlargedlacunae are being invaded b. capillar. loops and primitive osteogenic cells from themarrow spaces of the diaph.sis+ the matrix becomes calci6ed and osteoblasts proliferate

4ro8t* in t*e .iameter o) Long ones

¬

This growth is the result of the deposition of new membrane bone beneath the periosteum ◊ product of subperiosteal intramembranous ossi6cation

¬ Eeposition of new bone on the outside of the shaft is accompanied b. the appearance ofosteoclasts in the subperiosteal trabeculae to enlarge the marrow cavit.

Surface Remodeling of 3ones • Shape of bone is maintained during growth b. continualremodeling of the surface 4involves bone deposition in some areas of periosteum and absorptionin other areas7

Internal #eorgani?ation o) one

• #nternal bone destruction and reconstruction continue activel. throughout life so at an. onetime ma. see in a bone cross section(

) ature osteons 4all rebuilding activit. has come to an end7, /orming of new osteons Absorption cavities are hollowed out for the new osteons


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• cavit.5 walls of the oint cavities are composed of dense connective tissue whose cellsare4irregularl. distributed7 • Small amounts of cartilage or all transitions between the cartilage cells and the ointor4s.novial cells7 can be found• Articular surface of 3ones ◊ are covered with F.aline !artilage where the opposingcartilages touch+ the. are 4not covered with dense connective tissue7 but at their bases asmall area of perichondrium is re?ected bac:ward into the membrane of the oint capsuleand at this point+ there are man. cartilage cells extending into the s.novial membrane

• Articular cartilages contain no blood vessels and the. are nourished b. E#//$S#O& fromthe oint ?uid and surrounding tissues

Layers o) t*e


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12 epi.ermis 9 surface epithelium,2 corium or .ermis D subacent connective tissue la.er 3eneath the two mail la.ers is theh.podermis or super6cial fascia

D this ma. be transformed into the subcutaneous adipose tissue which in turn is connected tothe underl.in deep fascia or periosteum

Mucocutaneous @unction D s:in is continuous with the mucous membrane 4present in lips+nares+ e.elids+ vulva+ prepuce+ anus7 Stratum corneum is thin or absent+ the reddish color is dueto the underl.ing capillaries Ox.genated blood-pin:ish+reddish unox.genated blood-purplish orbluish

Sin - ma:es up )2 of the bod. weight

$unctions:

) protects the organism from inur. and dessication or dr.ing up, receives stimuli from the environment excretes various substances0 ta:es part in the thermoregulation and maintenance of water balance1 forms various s:in appendages such as hairs+ nails+ glands

EPI!E#MIS --!ells produce( ) eratin D 6brous protein essential for the protective function of the s:in,2 Melanin D pigment that protects the s:in against $K radiation

--%ives rise to the main t.pes of glands(12 s8eat glan.s D produces water. secretion called sweat,2 Seaceous glan. D produces an oil. secretion called sebum

-- strati6ed s8uamous epithelium composed of two distinct lineages( 12 malpig*ian or eratini?ing system D cells undergo :eratini


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,2 stratum luci.um - clear la.er - cells have no nuclei *stratum corneum and stratum lucidumare :eratini


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Male se' *ormones &an.rogens+ - at the onset of pubert.+ areas of the beard and mustacheproduce strongl. pigmented thic: hairs5 in females+ with the same number of fair follicles+develop 6ne hair-at the axilla and pubic regions+ hairs appear on both sexes at the onset of pubert.

AL!"ESS -loss of all follicles or a few that remain produce a ver. 6ne hairs** one or moresebaceous glands are associated with each hair follicle

HAI# MUSCLE D Arrector Pili -smooth muscle attached to the connective tissue sheath of thehair follicle at one end and the other end is attached to the papillar. la.er of the dermis -contracts in response to cold+ fear+ or anger - this muscle moves the hair in a more vertical position depresses the s:in at the region of itsattachment and elevates the s:in immediatel. around the hair >goose ?esh>

"AILS -horn. plates on the dorsal surfaces of the terminal phalanges of the 6ngers and toes+nowhere else in the bod.

"ail e. D surface of the s:in covered b. nails "ail 8all D fold of s:in surrounding the nail laterall. and proximall. *cuticle "ail groo(e D slit between the wall and the nail bedo.y o) t*e nail D visible part of the nail plate "ail root D proximal edge of the nail plateLunula D whitish color near the root

"AIL PLATE -consist of closel. compacted horn. scales which are dead residues of corni6edepithelial cells -below the nail plate 4nail bed area7 the stratum malpighii is present -for the rest of the nail wall+ all the epidermal la.ers are present **&ail is semitransparent and permits the color underl.ing tissue rich in blood vessels to showthrough

4LA"!S:) sebaceous glands, sweat glands mammar. glands

SEACEOUS 4LA"!S

-scattered over the surface of the s:in except in the palms+ soles and sides of the feet- have ducts which open into the nec:s of the hair follicles or directl. in the surface- secretor. portions are round sacs 4alveoli7 graduall. 6lled b. fat droplets **S"3$- secretions result from the destruction of epithelial cells

S/EAT 4LA"!

-found along the surface of the s:in except at the margins of the lips+ glans penis+ and nail beds - these are simple+ coiled tubular glands-contain m.oepithelial cells 4spindle shaped branching cells with m.o6laments- contractile6laments7 which help in the discharge of secretions when the. contract

Types o) s8eat glan.s:) "ccrine, Apocrine Speciali


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ECC#I"E S/EAT 4LA"!S

) &o connections with hair follicles, functions throughout life produce water. secretion0 do not function simultaneousl. or under the same conditions on all parts of the bod.

APOC#I"E S/EAT 4LA"!S

) shed the apical portion of their cells in the secretor. process, connected with hair follicles and are located deep in the subcutaneous la.er located in the armpit and around anus0 function at pubert. producing a more viscid secretion

Special types o) S8eat 4lan.s

12 Ceruminous glan.s o) t*e e'ternal au.itory meatus - produce cerumen which is rich inpigment granules containing lipid ,2 Molls glan. -found in the margin of the e.elids

Histogenesis:

Epi.ermis- develops from the ectoderm+ starts as double la.ered epithelium!ermis- arises from mesench.me

Topic 9( MUSCULA# TISSUE

$U"CTIO" :

for locomotion and for movements of various parts of the bod. with respect to one anotherU the propert. of contractilit. is highl. developedU the cells are elongated in the direction of contraction


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U the structural unit is called the $S!L" /#3"R

T/O 4E"E#AL CATE4O#IES:

) SOOTF $S!L", STR#AT"E $S!L"

a S@"L"TALb !ARE#A!

SMOOTH MUSCLE $IE#

U long+ spindle-shaped cells in var.ing lengths in diGerent organsV with elongated single nucleus occup.ing the thic:est part of the 6ber+ midwa. along its length U c.toplasm is called sarcoplasm with 6ne longitudinal striations called m.o6brils

Areas 8it* SMOOTH MUSCLE

) contractile portion of the wall of the digestive tract from the #EEL" of the esophagusto the internal sphincter of the anus, found in the walls of the ducts of glands associated with the digestive tract found in the walls of the respirator. passages from the trachea to the alveolar ducts0 found in the urinar. and genital ducts1 found in the walls of the arteries+ veins and l.mphatic vessels2 forms the arrector pili muscles responsible for elevation of hairs of the s:in 4 goose

pimples 7 9 AR"OLA of the mammar. gland which participates in the erection of the nipple B subcutaneous tissue of the scrotumC found in the e.e+ forms the musculature of the iris and ciliar. bod. which is concerned

with accomodation and with constriction and dilatation of the pupil

HISTO4E"ESIS O$ SMOOTH MUSCLES

U smooth muscle cells arise from the mesench.meU mesench.mal cells become arranged at regular intervals+ multipl. b. mitosis and producem.o6laments within the c.toplasm U m.oblast then come in contact with one another laterall. forming a continuous la.er ofsmooth muscle

#E4E"E#ATIO"

U in inured areas+ smooth muscle regeneration is minimal+ so healing is mostl. b. scar tissueformation 4 6broblastic proliferation 7

SELETAL MUSCLE

Muscle 3er

W single histological unit of the s:eletal muscleW it is long and c.lindricalW with alternating dar: and light bandsW multinucleated cellsW nuclei at the peripher. or near the sarcolemma 4limiting membrane of the muscle7

uscle 6berW group of muscle 6bers form one /AS!#!L" which is surrounded b. a connective tissuela.er called P"R#'S#$


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W groups of fascicles will compose particular muscle which is surrounded b. a connectivetissue la.er called "P#'S#$W made up of several m.o6brils and each 6ber is surrounded b. a connective tissue la.ercalled the "&EO'S#$

Myo3ril

W show the dar: and light bandsW dar: bands are composed of m.osin 6laments 4 A bands 7W light bands are composed of actin 6laments 4 # bands 7

Sarcomere

W bounded b. , discsW the functional unit of the muscle because it contains the structures involved in thecontractile mechanism

Seletal Muscle

* diameter of the muscle 6ber increases with age and ma. further increase in response tostrenuous muscular activit. 777D Hypertrop*y o) Use * the opposite ma. happen 4decrease in 6ber diameter 7 if the muscle is immobili


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the elongated nuclei are located deep in the interior of the 6ber instead of immediatel.beneath the sarcolemma0 spontaneous nature of the beat of cardiac muscle with a de6nite rh.thm 1 contraction is not under voluntar. control

C5TOLO45:

- SA#COLEMMA is similar to that of s:eletal muscle but sarcoplasm is more abundant-cross striations are the same nucleus is centrall. located - intercalated discs are present for 6rm cohesion of cellular units and uniform transmission oftension along the 6bers

HISTO4E"ESIS

U develops from embr.onic m.ocardium wMc is actuall. an epithelium 4endothelium7 whose cellsmultipl. b. mitosis producing m.o6laments

#E4E"E#ATIO"

W ta:es place b. scar tissue formation

SUMMA#5:

SMOOTH MUSCLE

- composed of individual cellular units - innervated b. the autonomic nervous s.stem - contraction not subect to voluntar. control 4 involuntar. 7

SELETAL MUSCLE:

- exhibits regularl. spaced transverse bands along the length of the 6ber - are s.nc.tial - innervated b. the cerebrospinal s.stem of nerves - contraction is under voluntar. control- ma:es up the somatic musculature 4muscles of the extremities and bod. wall7+ head and nec:muscles+ tongue and upper and middle third of the esophagus+ diaphragm

CA#!IAC MUSCLE

- 6bers are made up of separate cellular units- rh.thmical contraction is involuntar. - ma:es up the wall of the heart

Topic B( En.ocrine 4lan.s

T*yroi. 4lan. >>Pure En.ocrine 4lan.

-located at the anterior nec: area -consists of two lateral lobes connected b. an isthmus-crosses the trachea ust below the cricoid cartilage


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$unction: -elaborates+ stores and releases into the blood streamth.roid hormone which is concerned with the regulation of metabolic rate

Histological organi?ation:

-the gland is composed of spherical c.st li:e follicles lined with simple cuboidal or s8uamousepithelium containing a gelatinous colloid which is the stored product of the secretor. activit. ofthe epithelium -follicles are surrounded b. a thin basal lamina and enclosed b. a networ: of reticular 6bers andplexus of capillaries

**gelatinous colloi.N homogenous pin:ish structure product of secretor. activit.** reticular 3ersN s:eletal framewor: of the glands

Cells:

12 $ollicular epit*elial cells or Principal cells- low cuboidal or s8uamous+ secrete the th.roid hormone

,2 Para)ollicular cells- present in the epithelium and interfollicular spaces+ larger in si>Posterior Aspect o) t*e T*yroi.

-small+ .ellow brown+ oval bodies intimatel. related to the posterior surface of the th.roid gland-has a framewor: of reticular 6bers with a rich capillar. networ: between gland cells and a lot ofadipose cells -parench.ma consists of densel. pac:ed groups of cells forming anastomosing cords or follicleswith small amount of colloid in the lumen

Cells:

) Principal cells or C*ie) cells- pol.gonal cells, O'yp*ilic cells- less abundant+ larger in siA.renal Corte' 4Outer !ortex7

12 %ona 4lomerulosa -adacent to the capsule+ consists of closel. pac:ed clusters of columnar

cells,2 %ona $asciculata -consists of pol.hedral cells larger than those of the


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Secretions:

) %ona 4lomerulosa- ineralocorticoid 4aldosterone+ deox.corticosterone7◊ for ?uid and electrol.te balance

, %ona $asciculata an. %ona #eticularis- %lucocorticoids 4cortisol+ cortisone+corticosterone7◊ concerned with metabolism of carboh.drates+ fats and proteins

>A.renal Me.ulla &AME"G A.renal Me.ulla; Epinep*rine; "orepinep*rine+

-composed of large epitheloid cells arranged in rounded groups or short cords in intimaterelation to blood capillaries and venules with 3ne ro8n granules 4catecholamines-epinephrine and norepinephrine7◊ called chromaIn cells

$unction:

-enables the bod. to respond normall. to emergenc. situation>>Epinep*rine- increases heart rate+ increases blood ?ow to organs+ increases ox.genconsumption and basal metabolic rate+ increases blood sugar level

>>"orepinep*rine- increase blood pressure+ results in vasoconstriction

Supporting )rame8or o) t*e 8*ole organ

◊ reticular 6bers

Histogenesis:

Adrenal cortex- mesodermAdrenal medulla- ectoderm

#egeneration( H Regeneration for the cortex - Regeneration for the medulla

Hypop*ysis &Pituitary 4lan.+ **aster %land -located at the base of the brain+ ) cm in length+ weighing 1 gm

12 A.eno*ypo*ysis NDTI a Pars distalis 4anterior lobe7b Pars tuberalisc Pars intermedia

,2 "euro*ypo*ysis N"Ia Pars nervosa 4infundibular process7b #nfundibulum 4posterior lobe7 -infundibular stal: and median eminence

*Pars !istalis -largest subdivision+ composed of glandular cells arranged in irregular cords andclumps+ intimatel. related to sinusuoids -supporting networ:◊ reticular 6bers

Cells:

) Aci.op*ils 4alpha cells7- round granular cells producing growth hormone orsomatotropic hormone and prolactin or luteotropic hormone

, asop*ils 4beta cells7- elongated or pol.gonal granular cells arranged in clustersproducing th.roid stimulator. hormone or TSF and gonadotropic hormone


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C*romop*oes 4reserve cells7- small cells which are undiGerentiated 7pro.uce ACTH 4adrenocorticotropic hormone7

>Pars Interme.ia -consists of pol.gonal cells H granules producing SF 4melanoc.testimulating hormone7 H rich capillar. networ:

>Pars Tueralis &Pars In)un.iularis+ -most highl. vasculari"euro*ypop*ysis-contains cells called pituicytes and a large bundle of unm.elinated nerve 6bers andspherical masses called herring bodies which are accumulations of neurosecretor.material-site of storage and release of ox.tocin and vasopressin or the anti- diuretic hormonewhich are produces in the *ypot*alamus

Pancreas -pin:ish white organ l.ing retroperitoneall. at about the level of the lumbar , and lumbar -divided into portion

◊ *ea. on the right near the duodenum+ o.y; tail on the left near the spleen

>E'ocrine Pancreas

7 Acinar Tissue -the acinar tissue 4acini7 form lobules bound together b. loose connective tissuethrough which run blood vessels+ nerves+ l.mphatics and excretor. ducts-these acini consist of a single row of p.ramidal epithelial cells converging toward a centrallumen and resting upon a basal lamina supported b. reticular 6bers -between the cells are 6ne secretor. capillaries connected with the central lumen-the cells ma. contain


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,2 eta cells- have small brownish orange granules+ produce insulin which decreases blood sugar levels -located at the interior area of the islet -91 of the islet cell population

62 !elta cells- have small blue staining granules-1 of the islet cell population

0 C cells- non granular

#egeneration:

H Regeneration of the islets inimal regeneration of the acinar tissues

Topic C( #ESPI#ATO#5 $unction:Provides for the inta:e of ox.gen and the elimination of carbon dioxide!i(isions:

) Con.ucting Portion- nose+ phar.nx+ lar.nx+ trachea+ bronchi+ respirator. bronchioles, Al(eolar sacs an. Al(eoli- air 6lled vesicles

*Respirator. 3ronchioles- smallest+ adacent to alveolar sacs


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PHA#5"0-serves as part of the alimentar. tract connecting the mouth with the esophagus

LA#5"0-contains the organ of phonation Kocal cords located 4air passing Kibrate7

"OSE-hollow organ composed of bone+ cartilage+ muscle+ connective tissue-s:in is provided with unusuall. large sebaceous glands and small hairs-epithelium is strati6ed s8uamous with stiG hairs to help exclude particles of dust from inspiredair 4extends from the anterior nares to the vestibule of the nose7

#EST O$ THE "ASAL CA-IT5 -lined with mucus-secreting pseudostrati6ed columnar ciliated epithelium with goblet cells with ahighl. specialioi.) Th.roid cartilage, !ricoid !artilage Ar.tenoid cartilageELASTIC CA#TILA4ES &ECC+) "piglottis, !orniculate cartilage !uneiform !artilage

T#ACHEA


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Thin-walled tube+ continuous with the lar.nx above and ends below b. dividing into two main#O"CHI-lining epithelium is pseudostrati6ed columnar ciliated epithelium with goblet cells-Supporting framewor: )2 to , !-shaped h.aline cartilages which encircle it on its ventral andlateral aspects while the posterior wall is surrounded b. a thic: la.er of muscle bundles

LU"4SPAI#E! O#4A"S occup.ing a great part of the thoracic cavit.

-#I4HT LU"4 is divided into t*ree lobes an. LE$T LU"4 is divided into t8o lobes-these lobes are further divided into smaller lobules called bronchopulmonar. segments10 segments – RIGHT LUNG8 segments – LEFT LUNG

#O"CHI- 3efore the. enter the lungs the. appear similar to the trachea- Jhen the. enter the lungs+ the cartilage rings disappear and are replaced b. cartilage plates**!lue( bronchus found inside the lungs no c-shaped cartilage-as the. grow smaller+ the cartilage disappears and onl. the muscular tissue remains

LA5E#S:EPITHELIUM-pseudosrati6ed columnar with goblet cellsLAMI"A P#OPIA-consist of reticular+ collagenous and elastic 6bers with l.mphoid cellsMUCOSA-has longitudinal folds due to smooth muscle contractionMUSCLE-smooth muscle with elastic 6bers but does not form a closed ringOUTE#MOST LA5E#- Eense connective tissue with glandsAL-EOLI-has dense networ: of capillaries with reticular and elastic 6bers+ has small opening or alveolarpores

!"LL$LAR !OPO&"&TS() Suamous epit*elial cells, Septal or al(eolar cells 4cubo!"#7 Cytosomes D produce surfactant to stabili


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- Tubuloaveolar gland consisting of )1-,1 irregular lobes radiating from the mammar. papilla ornipple - Lobes are separated b. la.ers of dense connective tissue with abundant adipose - "ach lobe is provided with lactiferous duct lined with strati6ed s8uamous epithelium whichopens to the nipple- "ach lobe is subdivided into lobules with alveolar ducts and alveoli5 the interlobular connectivetissue is dense while the intralobular connective Tissue is loose with more cells+ collagenous6bers but &O /AT 4#nterNdense+ intraNloose7 - The alveolar ducts and alveoli 4secretor. portion7 consist of cuboidal or low columnar cells with'O"P#TF"L#AL !"LLS - The sense of engorgement experienced to certain times of the menstrual c.cle is due toh.peremia and edema of the conn Tissue of the breast

"IPPLE A"! A#EOLA -covered b. the epidermis with long dermal papilla whose capillaries bring blood close to thesurface 4pin:ish color7 **dar:eningNhormones -s:in becomes pigmented at pubert. and the degree of pigmentation increases duringpregnanc. -an elaborate pattern of bundles of smooth muscle arranged longitudinall. along the lactiferousducts and circumferentiall. both within the nipple around its base ma:e it possible for the nippleto become erect in response to certain stimuli -s:in at the nipple tip is richl. enervated with free nerve endings=#/ 'O$ !A&T /""L #T J#TF 'O$R /#&%"R+ /""L #T J#TF 'O$R PPL"S>-stimulus of suc:ling is re8uired for maintenance of normal lactation-sensitive area of the bod.( lips+ nipples+ 6ngertip

ACTI-E MAMMA#5 4LA"!-associated with pregnanc. growth of epithelial structure and glandular tissue with regression ofadipose tissue -there is an increase in6ltration of J3!+ l.mphoc.tes+ plasma cells+ eosinophils

!OLOSTR$ -eosinop*ilic secretion rich in lactoproteins+ poor on lipid+ with special laxative properties andcontains antibodies -3rst mil that comes from the mother after birth

HO#MO"AL CO"T#OL) %rowth of duct s.stem-estrogen , Alveolar growth- estrogen+ progesterone+ prolactin+ somatotropic or growth hormone inor mammar. growth- in.irect eGect of A!TF X TSF0 #nitiation of mil: secretion- pituitar. hormones+ adrenal cortical hormones 1 aintenance of lactation- prolactin **mil: hormone2 Removal of mil: from the glands D ox.tocin *stimulate smooth mucles

***stimulus of suc:ing acts via the h.pothalamus to cause release of ox.tocin from theneuroh.poph.sis which in turn stimulates the m.oepithelial cells to contact+ therefore+ eectingmil: from the alveoli to the ducts#E4#ESSIO" O$ THE MAMMA#5 4LA"! -gradual collapse of the alveoli with increase inperialveolar connective tissue and adipose tissue I"-OLUTIO" O$ MAMMA#5 4LA"! -secretor. portion 4alveoli7 and the excretor. ducts4lactiferous7 undergo atroph. and interstitial connective tissue becomes less cellular withdecrease in the number of collagenous 6bers**menopausal and old age

Topic ))( LOO!

HEMOPOIESIS> Dthe process of formation of blood cells


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HEMOPOIETIC or HEMATOPOEITIC TISSUES=O#4A"SJ -sites where blood cell formationoccursO"E MA##O/J Dprincipal hemopoietic tissue in AE$LTS5 produces the blood cellsLI-E#; SPLEE"; L5MPH "O!ESJ Dsites of blood cells formation during "3R'O! L#/" andin certain pathologic conditions

O"E MA##O/ D LO!AT"E #& TF" ) edullar. cavities of long bones , Spongiosa of vertebral bodies+ ribs+ and sternum /lat bones of the pelvis

LOO! CELLSJ

12 E#5TH#OC5TES or #E! LOO! CELLS C+$U"CTIO":

o vehicle for the transport of hemoglobin which is the vehicle of ox.gen and carbondioxide

o ature form has no nucleus+ appears as a biconcave dis: 4if withnucleusNpathologic7

o Life span is ), da.s then is degraded in the bone marrow **0mos+ resused for new

set of R3!o &ormal counts( AL"( 0, D 10 millionMcubic mm of blood

/"AL"( B D 1, millionMcubic mm of blood

,2 TH#OMOC5TES or PLATELETS$U"CTIO":

- important in maintaining vascular integrit. and in blood coagulation- Eetached portionMfragments of the c.toplasm of mature mega:ar.oc.tes found in the

bone marrow- ega:ar.oc.tes D largest of all blood cells- Platelets have no nucleus with rounded or elongated bodies with granules- a. appear singl. or in groups

- &ormal counts( i )1+ D 01+ Mcubic mm of blood

62 LEUOC5TES or /HITE LOO! CELLS &/C+&ormal counts( i 0+1 D ))+ Mcubic mm of blood

Types o) /C A2 Agranulocytes 4no c.toplasmic granules7

12 Monocytes

¬ Largest among the J3!;s

¬ @idne.-shaped 4or $-shape7 nucleus with agranular bluish c.toplasm

¬ Spends ) D da.s in the blood then move into the tissues where it maturesor transformed into macrophages 4histioc.tes7¬ , D ) of J3!

¬ /unction( Phagoc.tosis

,2Lymp*ocytes

¬ Round nucleus with bluish agranular c.toplasm

¬ /unction is programmed b. the th.mus gland

¬ Spend few da.s in blood then settles in the tissues

¬ Scant. c.toplasmN because of big nucleus

¬ !arries antibodies

¬ , - 0 of J3!


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2 4ranulocytes &8it* cytoplasmic granules+

12 "eutrop*ils or Polymorp*onuclear cells &PM"+ or Segmenters

¬ One nucleus with , D 1 lobes 4lobulated7

¬ Pin:ish+ 6ne granular c.toplasm

¬ Spends ) da. in the blood then enters the tissues

¬ /unction( Phagoc.tosis

¬ 1 - 9 of J3! **most abundant

,2 Eosinop*ils

¬ 3ilobed single nucleus with larger bright red granules in the c.toplasm **li:e pair ofe.es ¬ Spend few da.s in the blood then enters the tissues

¬ /unction( phagoc.tosis and carries histamine **mediator for allergic reaction

¬ ) - 0 of J3!

62 asop*ils

¬ !lover leaf-shape single nucleus with bluish coarse granules but ma. not be seen

because the. are soluble in water ¬ !arries histamine and heparin

¬ - ) of J3!**hard to 6nd**dar: blue+ blue-blac:** granules dissolve in 6xing of the slide


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Topic ),( CA#!IO-ASCULA# S5STEM

$unction:

) To distribute to the tissue the ox.gen+ nutritive materials and hormones, To collect from the tissue carbon dioxide and other products of tissue metabolism andtransmit them to the excretor. organ

COMPO"E"TS( F3L) Feart, 3lood vessels !AKS

A capillaries3 sinusoids! arteries E veins

L.mph vessels

loo. capillaries

- Fas onl. an endothelium 4simple s8uamous epithelium7- #t is where the actual exchange of ox.gen and carbon dioxide and metabolites ta:es place- endothelial cells are accompanied b. collagenous and reticular 6bers 4endothelial cell- ?at+plate-li:e7

Types:

12 Continuous capillaries-common form of capillar. found in muscle+ !&S and connective tissue -have man. small vesicular invaginations 4ca(eola+ of the surrounding membrane- "ndothelium is uninterrupted and basal lamina is continuous

,2 $enestrate. capillaries-found in the renal glomerulus+ endocrine gland+ lamina propia of the intestines-has attenuated areas of endothelium penetrated b. circular fenestrae or pores *minute+molecules pass through

Sinusoi.s: -Thin-walled vascular channels of large caliber with irregular outline separated b. connectedtissue la.er from the organ parench.ma -best organ L#K"R -develop b. ingro8t* of the parench.ma of the organ -characteristic of liver+ spleen and bonemarrow

A#TE#IES:

-carr. blood from the heart to the capillar. networ: in the tissue and organs

ASIC O#4A"I%ATIO"( - concentric la.ers or tunics

12 tunica intima - inner la.er consisting of an endothelial tube whose cells have theirlong axis oriented longitudinall. **diseases of Arteries( )st involved is intima+ cloe contactwith blood,2 tunica me.ia - intermediate la.er predominantl. made up of smooth muscle cellsarranged circumferentiall. with abundance of elastic 6bers62 tunica a.(entitia - Outer coat made up of 6broblastic or 6brous element that areoriented longitudinall.


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- This la.er graduall. merges with the loose connective tissue that accompanies all bloodvessels

** Internal elastic lamina 4elastic interna7 - boundar. between the tunica intimaand tunica media

** E'ternal elastic lamina 4elastic externa7 - 3oundar. between tunica media andtunica adventitia

T5PES O$ A#TE#IES:

)2 Large; elastic or con.ucting arteries 4aorta+ common carotid7 -thic:er intima and mediabut thin adventitia, Me.ium si?e.; muscular or .istriuting arteries 4radial7 - not so thic: intima and mediabut elastica interna is well developed+ adventitia is thic: Small arteries an. arterioles -thin intima ) or , la.ers of smooth muscles in the media andthin in adventitia

-EI"S( -carr. blood from the capillar. networ: to the heart

CHA#ACTE#ISTICS:) !aliber is larger 4lumen or opening7 , Jalls are thinner Jalls are elastic0 Jalls are collapsed1 Lumen is irregular2 Lumen slit-li:e9 3oundaries among the la.ers are indistinctB uscular and elastic tissue is not as well-developedC !onnective tissue component is much more prominent

T5PES O$ -EI"S:

12 Large (eins 4inferior vena cava7 -thin intima and media -adventitia ma:es up thegreater part of the wall

,2 me.ium7 si?e. (eins 4brachial and popliteal7 -thinner intima and media but thic:eradventitia

62 Small (eins an. (enules -much thinner intima+ media and adventitia**venules D union of several capillaries**valves D pair of semilunar poc:ets at the inner surface covered b. endothelium

- Present in the medium si


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,2 Larger lymp*atic (essels -Large-si


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Topic )( L5MPHOI! O#4A"S &IMMU"E S5STEM+

made up of() L.mph nodes M l.mph gland, Spleen Th.mus gland

L5MPH "O!E Small organ occurring in series along the course of the l.mph vessels /unction(

o /or the immune response of the bod. Fistological organi


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!onsists or irregularl.-shaped blood vessels of large caliber called K"&$SS#&$"S 6lled with R3!

Splenic cords of 3#LLROTF D the tissue occup.ing the spaces between thevenous sinuses forming a spong. cellular mass supported b. a framewor: orreticular 6bers

62 CAPSULE A"! T#AECULA ade up of dense connective tissue+ no cortex medulla but with white and

red pulp E0TE"SIO"

TH5MUS 4LA"! Located in the mediastinum anterior to the %R"AT K"SS"LS as the. emerge from the heart !omposed of two lobes Persistence is Pathologic Attains its greatest si


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Topic )0( 4AST#OI"TESTI"AL S5STEM• - largest organ s.stem

• Com&ositio#(

• Lips

• outh• Phar.nx

• "sophagus

• Stomach

• Small intestines

• Large intestines

• Rectum

• Anus

• The digestive tube is made up of the following(

MUCOSAo ucous membrane which lines the inner surface of the digestive tube consisting of

a super6cial la.er of epithelium and a supporting la.er of loose connective tissuecalled the LA$INA PR%PIA

MUSCULA#IS MUCOSAo a:es the outer limit of the mucosa and is made up of a thin la.er of smooth

muscle5 ma. not alwa.s be present

SUMUCOSA

o Located next to the muscularis mucosa and is made up of a la.er loose connectivetissue with numerous blood vessels+ l.mphatics+ l.mphoid nodules and nerves

MUSCULA#IS E0TE#"Ao La.er of smooth muscles 4 inner circular and outer longitudinal7

SE#OSA & PE#ITO"EUM +o oist serous membrane covering the surface of the stomach and intestineso Simple s8uamous epithelium5 thinnest la.er

"ndothelium esothelium

P'%r$' S&$%

• Potential space

• Trauma and certain condition will be 6lled with air+ blood+ etc

• Allows the organs to slide freel. over one another within the peritoneal cavit. duringperistalsis


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ORAL CAV!TY

• "ntrance parto "pithelium of the mucous membrane ( STRAT#/#"E SY$AO$S5 &O&-@"RAT#"Eo L$mi#$ &ro&i$ D loose connective tissue+ 6bers are mostl. collagenous and elastic

with man. l.mphoc.tes+ several plexuses of blood vessels+ man. nerve endingo Submucosa D well developed in oral cavit.

Har. palate D "O S$3$!OSA and the mucous membrane is 6rml. boundto the periosteum of the bone

So)t palate D consists of la.ers of striated muscle and 6brous connectivetissue covered b. mucous membranePARYN

• Shared b. the %astrointestinal Tract S.stem and Respirator. S.stemo Posterior continuation of the oral cavit.o P$rts+

#$s$'

or$'

'$r"#,%$'

o &&%r &$rt ( resembles that of the respirator. s.stem 4pseudostrati6ed ciliatedcolumnar epithelium7

o 'o%r &$rt ( corresponds to the general plan or histologic design of the digestivetube

epithelium of the lower phar.nx( STRAT#/#"E SY$AO$S lamina propia D dense connective tissue with a lot of elastic 6bers

o muscularis mucosa D instead of this+ the mucous membrane is provided with athic: dense elastic la.er

o sumucosa D well developed onl. in the lateral wall of the nasal part and at thearea where the phar.nx continues into the esophagus

o 4LA"!S( pure mucous and mixed glandTONUE

• epithelium is STRAT#/#"E SY$AO$S+ &O&-@"RAT#"Eo consist of thic: interlacing bundles of striated muscle covered b. a tightl. adherent

mucous membraneo has a lamina propiao submucous la.er D present O"L5 on the ventral portiono dorsal portion 4anterior+ ,M7 is covered b. numerous excrescences called

PAP!LLAEo posterior+ )M is covered b. irregular bulges of larger siteo boundar. line is the K-shaped structure and of the apex of the angle is the angle is

the FORAMEN CECUM ($%m) - rudiment of the th.roglossal duct whichconnects the th.roid gland with the oral cavit.

o Papillae(o $ili)orm D sides and midlineo

$ungi)orm D tipo Circum(allate D numbering ) D ),(5 present in the v-lineo $oliate D paired5 present in the dorsolateral aspect of the posterior part of the

tongue• Associated 8it* presence o) taste u.s which are receptors for taste sensations

4sweet+ bitter+ acid+ salt.7(• /ungiform

• !ircumvallate

• SAL!VARY LANDS

• Parotid


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• Submandibular

• Sublingual

• Small salivar. glands in the mucosa and submucosal areas **secrete saliva continuousl.

• Secrete saliva onl. in the presence of mechanical+ thermal+ chemical stimulus+ ps.chic+olfactor. stimulus

• Parotid

• Submandibular

• Sublingual

SAL!VAo ixture of the secretion of various salivar. glandso Kiscous+ colorless+ opalescent li8uid which contains(

/ater

Mucoproteins

Immunogloulins

Caro*y.rates

Inorganic components:

• !alcium

• Phosphate

• Sodium

• Potassium• agnesium

• !hloride

• #ron

• #odineo E"%5ME( Salivar. Am.lase M Pt.alino Ees8uamated s8uamous epithelial cellso Salivar. corpuscles D degenerating l.mphoc.tes M granuloc.tes

• %lands ma. contain(

• O#'" mos %''s D cuboidal cells elaborating a viscid secretion consisting almostexclusivel. of mucin

• O#'" s%ros %''s D cuboidal cells elaborating a water. secretion+ lac:ing in mucus butcontains salts+ Proteins and pt.alin

• Mi/%0 %''s D both serous and mucous cells are present and the secretion is a viscid li8uidcontaining mucin+ salts and pt.alin

o P$roti0 ,'$#0 1 &r%'" s%ros

o S2m$#0i2'$r ,'$#0 1 mi/%0 ,'$#0 it3 mor% s%ros $'4%o'i

o S2'i#,$' ,'$#0 1 mi/%0 ,'$#0 it3 mor% mos $'4%o'i

TONS!LSo Lymp*oi. orangs in t*e oral area5 covered b. strati6ed s8uamous+ non-

:eratini


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• Cro8n - proects above the gingiva

• #oot - 6ts a soc:et of maxilla or mandible

• Fard and Soft parts(o HA#!

• Enamel - hardest substance in the bod.5 covers the outer surface in the region of thecrown5 composed mostl. of !a salts

• !entin - forms the bul: of the tooth surrounding the pulp chamber5 harder than bone5

contains collagen and h.drox.apatite cr.stals• Cementum - covers the root of the tooth5 closest bone in ph.sical and chemical

characteristicso SO$T

• Pulp - 6lls the pulp chamber 4cavit.7 - composed of connective tissue with groundsubstance similar to that of mucoid connective tissue5 has connective tissue 6bers andcells 4odontoblasts and other connective tissue cells7 blood vessels+ nerves andl.mphatics5 =tooth ache> ** Jharton ell.

• Perio.ontal memrane - connects the cementum5 covered surface of the root with thebone5 made up of the collagenous 6bers

• 4ingi(a &gum+ - portion of the oral mucous membrane surrounding the tooth5 mainl.

strati6ed s8uamous :eratini


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12 C*ie) or %ymogenic cells- contain granules of pepsinogen which is the antecedent ofen


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62 Argentan cells 4 basal granular cells or enterochromaIn cells7-rounded or p.ramidal cells at the base of the epithelium containing granules-endocrine cells found in stomach and small intestines+ abundant in the appendix-secrete serotonin which causes vigorous contraction of smooth muscles 4important in thegeneration of peristaltic movements that propel food and wastes through the gutK2 Panet* cells- p.ramidal cells occuring in small groups in the cr.pts+ have granules+ functionun:nown

Lamina Propia( 6lls the spaces between the intestinal glands and forms the cores of theintestinal villi-has elastic and reticular 6bers- highl. cellular with strands of smooth muscle *-has l.mphoid tissue 4called Pe.er[s patches in the ileum7Muscularis Mucosa( has inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle la.ersSumucosa( dense connective tissue with abundant elastic tissue and adipose tissue-in the duodenum+ it is occupied b. a thic: la.er of duodenal glands or 3R$&&"R[S glands-tubular glands whose cellular secretions 4clear+ viscous+ al:aline ?uid7 protect the duodenalmucosa against the erosive eGects of the acid gastric uiceMuscularis E'terna( internal and external smooth muscle la.ers and between these la.ers isthe s.mpathetic 4m.enteric nerve plexus - Auerbach[s plexusSerosa( mesothelial cells resting on loose connective tissue

LARE !NTEST!NE!haracteristics features(

ucosa does not form folds except in the rectum #ntestinal villi are absent above the ileocecal valve #nterior surface is smooth and lined with simple columnar cells with thin striated border #ntestinal glands are straight tubules and the. attain their greatest lengths Fas greater abundance of goblet cells &o Paneth cells Jell-developed muscularis mucosa

uscularis externa diGers in the arrangement of its outer longitudinal la.er wich is not acontinuous la.er but is locali


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thic: la.er of submucosa with blood vessels and nerves muscularis externa is reduced in thic:ness but with , la.ers as in the rest of the

gastrointestinal organs similar serosa to the rest

Origin o) 4I Organs Salivar. glands+ lining of palate+ anterior ,M of tongue - ECTO!E#M Tooth enamel - "EU#AL C#EST

Eentin and pulp - MESE"CH5ME Tonsils+ posterior )M of tongue+ rest of %#T associated glands - E"!O!E#M

Topic 1N: LI-E# A"! 4ALLLA!!E#

largest gland in the bod.+ Second largest organ of the bod. Jeight( )1 :g Situated in the abdominal cavit. beneath thediaphragm 3lood suppl.( portal vein 49-B7+ hepatic arter.

$unctions: W gathering+ transforming and accumulating metabolites W for neutrali


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enter the organ and where the right and left hepatic duct and l.mphatics exit

Li(er loule

Fepatoc.te( basic structural component of the liver 4%ree: hepar( liver 5 :.tos( cell7 Liver lobule( formed of pol.gonal mass of tissue and are separated from each other b. a

la.er of connective tissue and portal spaces on its corners

Fuman liver( contains -2 portal spaces per lobule each with a venule 4a branch of portalvein7 an arteriole 4 a branch of hepatic arter.7 a duct and a l.mph vessel

Hepatocytes

Pol.hedral+ with 2 or more surfaces+ and have a diameter of ,- um F and " staining( c.toplasm is eosinophilic+ mainl. because of large number of

mitochondria and some smooth "R Fas both endocrine and exocrine functions+ example of its "xocrine function( 3ile

secretion Arranged li:e bric:s in the liver lobule+ these cellular plates are directed from the

peripher. of the lobule to its center and anastomose freel.+ forming a spongeli:e structure

Li(er Sinusoi.s

capillaries found in the spaces between liver cells+ irregularl. dilated vessels composed solel. of continuous la.er of fenestrated endothelial

cells also contain macrophages --@upGer cells-- found on the luminal surface of endothelial cells Srro#0%0 $#0 s&&ort%0 2" $ 0%'i$t% s3%$'t3 of r%ti'$r 52%rs

upFer cells

Account for )1 percent of the liver cell population ost of them are located in the peri portal region of theliver lobule+ where the. are ver.

active in phagoc.tosis

$unction o) upFer cells

etaboli


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Li(ers loo. supply

Receives blood from , sources( W B percent( portal vein( which carries ox.gen-poor+ nutrient-rich blood from the

abdominal viscera W , percent( hepatic arter.( which supplies ox.gen-rich blood

$''2'$00%r

#s a hallow+ pear-shaped organ attached to the lower surface of the liver !an store -1ml of bile #ts wall consists of a mucosa composed of S#PL" !OL$&AR "P#TF"L#$ and LA#&A

PROPR#A+ a la.er of smooth muscle+ a perimuscular connective tissue la.er+ and a serousmembrane

The mucosa has abundant folds that are particularl. evident when the gallbladder isempt.

The epithelial cells are rich in mitichondria All these cells found in %allbladder are capable of secreting small amounts of mucus Tubuloacinar mucous glands near the c.stic duct are responsible for the production of

most of the mucus present in the bile

/unction of the gallbladderain function( store bile

!oncentrates bile b. absorbing its water Release bile when necessar. into the %# tract !ontraction of the smooth muscle of the gallbladder is induced b. !FOL"!'STO@#&( a

hormone produced b. enteroendocrine cells 4# cells7 located in the epithelial lining of thesmall intestine

Release if cholec.sto:inin is stimulated b. presence of dietar. fats in small intestine

Mucosa: 7it includes the lining epithelium of simple columnar variet.7 Lamina propria rich in elastic /ibers and blood vessels7 Presence of microvilli gives brush border appearance to the epithelium under light

microscope+ which facilitates absorption of waterucosa thrown into small folds when thebladder is empt.

Muscularis- this la.er consists of circularl. arranged smooth muscle 6bers intermixed withconnective tissue rich in elastic 6bers

7 The nec: of the gallbladder+ the lamina propria houses simple tubuloalveolar glands+ whichproduce a small amount of mucus

Serosa or A.(entitia( fundus and lower surface of bod. of gallbladder is covered b.peritoneum

7 $pper surface is attached to the fossa for gallbladder b. means of connective tissue

Topic )2: U#I"A#5 S5STEM!onsists of(

:idne.s ureters urinar. bladder urethra

FUN&TI%NS'

• to clear the blood of waste products of metabolism

• to regulate concentrations of bod. ?uid constituents


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• "&EO!R#&" /$&!T#O&( produces hormones Er"t3ro&oi%ti# D which aGect blood cell formation in the bone marrow R%#i# D which aGects blood pressure

6!DNEYS- paired organs- )-), cm long- Located retroperitoneall. at the posterior wall of the abdominal cavit. on either side of the

vertebral column- surrounded b. a capsule of dense collagenous 4connective7 6bers

UR!N!FEROUS TUBULES, Principal Portions(

N%&3ro# - )st portion 5 called S"!R"TOR' PORT#O&5 concerned with urineformation5 /$&!T#O&AL $T O/ @#E&"'

Co''%ti#, T2'% - ,nd portion5 !arries out the 6nal concentration of urinar. soluteto form a h.pertonic urine and serves as a secretor. duct+ conve.ing the urine torenal pelvis

NEPRON12 #enal Corpuscle

a2 o8mans capsule Parietal la.er composed of simple s8uamous cells and visceral la.er

composed of podoc.tes which are stellate cells with processes andinterrupted b. slit pores

2 4lomerulus !omposed of interlacing networ:s of capillaries *fenestrated

,2 Pro'imal tuules 7 Lined with simple cuboidal epithelium with brush border free surfacespeciali


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Euct S.stem Accessor. glands

TESTIS D enclosed b. a capsule called TU"ICA ALU4I"EA 4extends into the parench.ma ofthe testis to divide into smaller lobules and each lobule is further divided into smaller p.ramidalcompartments b. septula testis 4around 0 lobules77

The testis is both an E0OC#I"E and E"!OC#I"E 4LA"!

E/ori#%( secrete the cell called SPER$AT%(%A 4Sperm cell7E#0ori#%( produces the hormone TEST%STER%NE 4Le.dig cells7

SEMI"I$E#OUS TUULEA Sertoli cells3 Spermatogenic cells

Surrounded b. loosed connective tissue with all of the connective tissue components plusthe nte)stt"# ce##s o LE+DIG ,o#./e!)"# ce##s which produce TEST%STER%NE

lined b. strati6ed epithelium composed of , maor cell categories( A Supporting !ells D S"RTOL# !"LLS 4columnar cells7

• provide mechanical support

• protection for the developing germ cells

• participate in their nutrition

• pla. an active role in the release of mature spermato


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Tail D responsible for motilit. and appropriate orientation for ovum penetration

!UCTUS S5STEM Tuuli recti

#ete testis

!uctus eFerens - lined b. alternating tall and low cells with cilia and microvilli5 has a thinla.er of smooth muscles

!uctus epi.i.ymis - lined with pseudostrati6ed columnar epithelium with stereocilia5 hasa thin la.er of smooth muscles5 site of accumulation and storage of spermato


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Topic )B( $EMALE #EP#O!UCTI-E S5STEM

Organs ovaries uterus fallopian tube vagina external genitalia

O-A#IES one on each side lined b. simple cuboidal epithelium parench.ma is divided into the co)te2 3 me!u##"A2 Corte' - highl. cellular with 6broblast li:e cells with collagenous 6bers5 has the ovarian

follicles with wide range of si


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-connective tissue elements penetrate the developing corpus luteum and willconvert the blood clot in the central cavit. into a 6brous core-if the ovum is not fertili


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-in the cervix+ smooth muscles are with dense collagenous and elastic 6bers with cervicalglands producing mucus

-A4I"A - distensible muscular tube extending from the vestibule of the female externalgenitalia to the cervix of the uterus-Lower end contains transverse semi-circular fold - YMEN

/ALL $ucos"- lined with strati6ed s8uamous epithelium+ dense connective tissue+ no glands $uscu#") co"t - has circular and longitudinal muscle bundles A!entt"# co"t - has thin la.er of dense connective tissue

E0TE#"AL 4E"ITALIA C'itoris - has , small erectile corpora cavernosa L$2i$ mi#or$ - lined with strati6ed s8uamous epithelium with a core of spong.

connective tissue5 numerous large sebaceous glands with &O FA#RS L$2i$ m$;or$ - covered b. folds of s:in with large amounts of subcutaneous fat and a

thin la.er of smooth muscle5 numerous sebaceous and sweat glands5 O$T"R S$R/A!"(!OK"R"E J#TF FA#R

V%sti2'% B$rt3o'i#

histo removal notes merged

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