HIS 106Chapter 23

European Enlightenment

Some revolutions took place without armies and without guns

The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment are two of these

Scientific Revolution

New scientific discoveries took shape from the 1600s onward

These discoveries affected intellectual life and promoted changes in how people looked at their world

The origins of this scientific revolution lay, for the most part, in developments in astronomy

Old beliefs concerning our universe were being challenged by these new discoveries in astronomy in the 17th century

The Catholic Church had put forth the Geocentric view The earth is at the center of the universe Celestial bodies rotated around the earth

Nicholas Copernicus Polish clergyman Disproved the geocentric view of the

earth Put forth the Heliocentric view of the

universe; that is the earth revolves around the sun

Published his findings just before he dies to avoid punishment by the Church

Galileo Galilei Openly agreed with and made known the

findings of Copernicus For this he was condemned by the

Catholic Church and placed under house arrest when he would not recant

He remained under house arrest for the rest of his life

Made a telescope, investigated gravity and planetary motion

Vesalius From Belgium Made new medical discoveries dealing

with anatomy Advanced knowledge for the time period

John Harvey From England Showed how the heart was able to

pump blood throughout the body Investigated the circulatory system

Rene Descartes From France Felt human reasoning powers could

discover the laws of nature, how the universe worked

Felt one should be skeptical and move from there

Quick review p. 498

Isaac Newton From England 1637 in “Principia”, he set forth the laws

of motion – for every action there is always an equal reaction

Defined the forces of gravity in mathematical notation

Spoke of the scientific method Explained the movements of the planets

Scientists used their reasoning powers to make discoveries

They did not blindly accept traditional beliefs that often proved inaccurate

The Enlightenment

An intellectual movement of the 18th century

Began in France where ideas were discussed in Salons like Madame Geofrin

Initially, it popularized rationalism and the scientific ideas of the 17th century

It was an era that witnessed the emergence of an informed body of public opinion, critical of absolutism and political and social abuses

Urged reform Philosophes, thinkers, put forth new ideas

to better society (in science, social sciences, politics, and economics)

p. 499 – formal definition

These ideas spread to other nations where others tried out some of the new ideas and reforms

Voltaire (1694 – 1778) French His real name was Francois Marie Arouet Admired English intellectual and political

freedom Attacked war and religious persecution

Was for religious toleration Not very optimistic about the human

condition in his writings Believed society could and should be

improved

Other ideas of Enlightenment

New ideas on how to treat criminals New ideas on how to control the

privileged “Laissez-faire” economy of Adam

Smith who wrote about it in The Wealth of Nations

Many believed society should work to improve life for all

Condemned slavery Promoted better agricultural and

industrial methods Promoted new political rights Baron de Montesquieu

Charles de Secondat For separation of powers and checks and

balances P. 501

Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed in equality for all; p. 504, picture

John Locke Promoted life, liberty, and property Believed people have the right, the duty,

to overthrow an unjust government

All these ideas were gathered in the Encyclopedia put together by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert

These ideas were picked up and practiced by some European rulers

Frederick the Great of Prussia offered freedom of religion Encouraged better agricultural methods Adopted the potato as a staple crop

Joseph II of Austria lessened the power of the Catholic

Church Tried other state-sponsored

improvements

Catherine the Great of Russia Education for elite boys and girls

These rulers became known as Enlightened Despots

They tried to wield their great authority for the good of the people but often fell short

Catherine the Great After the death of Peter the Great in 1724,

Russia experienced several decades of weak rule

The crown fell into the hands of people with little talent for ruling

Peter III came to the throne in 1762 Was weak and possibly insane Married in1745 to a young German princess,

Sophia, who would become Catherine the Great

She had neither love nor loyalty for her demented husband

After a few months of rule, Peter III was deposed and murdered; it is thought with Catherine’s approval, if not aid

Soon after Peter was removed, Catherine was proclaimed Empress

Catherine’s familiarity with the Enlightenment and the general culture of western Europe convinced her that Russia needed reform if it were to remain a great power

To have reform, Catherine realized that she would need wide political and social support

So she summoned a Legislative Commission in 1767 to advise her on revising the law and government of Russia

The Empress gave this Commission a set of Instructions drawn from the political ideas of the philosophes

A year later Catherine dismissed the Commission before several committees had reported

Revision of Russian law did not take place for at least 50 years

Calling the Commission was not a useless act

It gathered great amounts of information about local administration and economic life

Information gathered also indicated that most Russians saw no alternative to the absolute monarchy

From this Catherine could see she had support and she wished to then introduce some reforms She abolished capital punishment,

torture, serf auctions with the break-up of serf families

She appointed nobles to most offices responsible for local affairs

1785, she issued the Charter of Nobility that secured rights of aristocracy

She removed the internal barriers to trade, and exports greatly increased

Educational reforms for nobles’ children, both boys and girls, were introduced Elementary schools Teachers colleges were created Nobility was hostile to formal education Only really happened in major cities and

mostly with girls

Catherine worked to acquire warm water ports through an aggressive foreign policy Fought Turks to reach the Black Sea Moved on into Europe and extended

Russia’s western boundary into Central Europe

Destroyed Poland in the processAll this done by the time of her death in

1796

Her reforms did little for the majority of the Russian people -- 95% of whom were serfs

There was rural unrest Pugachev’s Revolt (1773-1775)

Emelyan Pugachev was a Cossack rebel who said he was Peter III come back to life to get Catherine

Pugachev captured the city of Kazan before being captured and executed

Radishev, a liberal reformer, also worked to make life better for the serfs; he was imprisoned for his views

Russian Society and Work 95% of Russians were serfs There weren’t too many other classes in

society, and they weren’t large At the top – Tsar and Tsarina Then nobles who lived mainly in

countryside A few bureaucrats and professionals Merchants were mainly foreigners No real artisan class

A merchant group grew under Peter the Great; however, nobles dismantled this group because they were afraid of their power

Most trade, outside of agriculture, fell to foreigners or to the state

Government ran industries in mining, iron, and munitions

International trade was organized and run by Western merchant companies

Life for the peasants was never good Hard work Traditional farming methods Harsh climate Lagged behind the West

Russia traded with Asia and the West They exported furs, grain, and timber

to the West Russia’s economy wasn’t advancing

quickly enough for world markets Feudalistic labor arrangements Little technology, little innovation No merchant class, few artisans

There were periodic rebellions by peasants and by intellectuals

They were all harshly put down Big gap between haves and have nots Elite adopted western art, read

western literature Ordinary Russian culture came from

their orthodox religion and oral stories and songs