hindu astrology - hindu-gods

8/13/2019 Hindu Astrology - Hindu-Gods

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The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hindu Gods And Heroes, by Lionel D. Barnett

This eBook is for the use of anyone anyhere at no cost and ithal!ost no restrictions hatsoe"er. #ou !ay co$y it, gi"e it aay orre%use it under the ter!s of the Project Gutenberg License includedith this eBook or online at .gutenberg.org

Title& Hindu Gods And Heroes 'tudies in the History of the (eligion of )ndia

Author& Lionel D. Barnett

(elease Date& *ctober +, -- /EBook 01123

Language& English

4haracter set encoding& )'*%1125%6

777 'TA(T *8 TH)' P(*9E4T G:TE;BE(G EB**< H);D: G*D' A;D HE(*E' 777

Produced by Thierry Alberto, 'ankar =isanathan, and the*nline Distributed Proofreading Tea! at htt$&>>.$gd$.net

The ?isdo! of the East 'eries

ED)TED B#

L. 4(A;@E(%B#;G

Dr. '. A.


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B#

L)*;EL D. BA(;ETT, @.A., L)TT

7 7 7 7 7

P(E8A4E

The folloing $ages are taken fro! the 8orlong Beuest lectures hich) deli"ered in @arch last at the 'chool of *riental 'tudies. *ing toeigencies of s$ace, !uch of hat ) then said has been o!itted here,es$ecially ith regard to the orshi$ of 'i"aC but enough re!ains to!ake clear !y general "ie, hich is that the religion of the Aryansof )ndia as essentially a orshi$ of s$irits%%so!eti!es s$irits ofreal $ersons, so!eti!es i!aginary s$irits%%and that, although in earlydays it $ro"isionally found roo! for $ersonifications of naturalforces, it could not digest the! into Great Gods, and therefore they

ha"e either disa$$eared or, if sur"i"ing, re!ain as !ere 'truldbrugs.Thus ) a! a heretic in relation to both the 'olar Theory and the=egetation Theory, as e"eryone !ust be ho takes the trouble to studyHindu nature ithout $rejudice.

L. D. B.

@ay 5, 65.

7 7 7 7 7

4*;TE;T'

). THE =ED)4 AGE&

Po$ular (eligion, $. 5%%(ig%"eda and $riestly religion, $.66%%Dyaus%eus, $. 6+%%:shas, $. 61%%'urya, $. 65%%'a"ita, $.65%%@itra and =aruna, $. 65%%Agni, $. %%'o!a, $. F%%)ndra, $.2%%The As"ins, $. F2%%=ishnu, $. F%%(udra%'i"a, $. +%%'u!!ary, $.+.

)). THE AGE *8 THE B(AH@A;A'&

Groth of Brah!an influence in e$anding Aryan society, $. +2%%'yste!of $riestly doctrine& theory of 'acrifice and !echanical control ofnature thereby, $. +1%%)ts antino!ianis!& $artly corrected by thegroing cult of (udra%'i"a, $. 2F%%The :$anishads& their relation tothe Brah!anas, $. 25%%Brah!a the Absolute, $. -%%


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))). THE EP)4', A;D LATE(&

). The Great ?ar and the Panda"as, $. -%%=ishnu%


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THE =ED)4 AGE

Let us i!agine e are in a "illage of an Aryan tribe in the EasternPanjab so!ething !ore than thirty centuries ago. )t is !ade u$ of afe large huts, round hich cluster s!aller ones, all of the! rudelybuilt, !ostly of ba!booC in the other larger ones dell the heads of

fa!ilies, hile the s!aller ones shelter their kinsfolk and folloers,for this is a $atriarchal orld, and the housefather gi"es the la tohis household. The $eo$le are !ostly a co!ely folk, tall andclean%li!bed, and rather fair of skin, ith ell%cut features andstraight nosesC but a!ong the! are not a fe suat and ugly !en ando!en, flat%nosed and nearly black in colour, ho ere once the freedellers in this land, and no ha"e beco!e sla"es or serfs to theirAryan conuerors. Around the "illage are fields here bullocks aredragging rough $loughsC and beyond these are oods and !oors in hichlurk ild !en, and beyond these are the lands of other Aryan tribes.Life in the "illage is si!$le and rude, but not une"entful, for the"illage is $art of a tribe, and tribes are constantly fighting ithone another, as ell as ith the dark%skinned !en ho often try to

dri"e back the Aryans, so!eti!es in s!all forays and so!eti!es in!assed hordes. But the orld in hich the "illage is interested is as!all one, and hardly etends beyond the bounds of the land here itstribe dells. )t knos so!ething of the land of the 8i"e (i"ers, inone corner of hich it li"es, and so!ething e"en of the lands to thenorth of it, and to the est as far as the !ountains and deserts,here li"e !en of its on kind and tongueC but beyond these li!its ithas no knoledge. *nly a fe bold s$irits ha"e tra"elled eastardacross the high slo$e that di"ides the land of the 8i"e (i"ers fro!the strange and !ysterious countries around the great ri"ers Ganga and#a!una, the unknon land of dee$ forests and sar!ing dark%skinned!en.

)n the !atter of religion these Aryans care a good deal about char!sand s$ells, black and hite !agic, for $re"enting or curing all kindsof diseases or !isha$s, for inning success in lo"e and ar and tradeand husbandry, for bringing har! u$on ene!ies or ri"als%%char!s hicha fe centuries later ill be dressed u$ in (ig"edic style, stuffedout ith i!itations of (ig"edic hy!ns, and $ublished under the na!e ofAthar"a "eda, the lore of the Athar"ans, by iIards ho clai! tobelong to the old $riestly clans of Athar"an and Angiras. But e ha"enot yet co!e so far, and as yet all that these $eo$le can tell us is agreat deal about their black and hite !agic, in hich they are hugelyinterested, and a fair a!ount about certain "aliant !en of olden ti!esho are no orshi$$ed by the! as hel$ful s$irits, and a little aboutso!e "ague s$irits ho are in the sun and the air and the fire and

other $laces, and are "ery high and great, but are not interesting atall.

This $o$ular religion see!s to be a ho$eless one, ithout ideals andsy!bols of lo"e and ho$e. )s there nothing better to be found in this$laceJ #es, there is a $riestly religion alsoC and if e ould knoso!ething about it e !ust listen to the chanting of the $riests, thebrah!ans or !en of the holy s$irit, as they are called, ho areholding a sacrifice no on behalf of the rich lord ho li"es in thelargest house in the "illage%%a ser"ice for hich they e$ect to be$aid ith a handso!e fee of oen and gold. They are $riests by


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heredity, ise in the knoledge of the ays of the godsC so!e of the!understand ho to co!$ose riks, or hy!ns, in the fine s$eech dear totheir order, hy!ns hich are al!ost sure to in the godsK fa"our, andall of the! kno ho the sacrifices shall be $erfor!ed ith $erfecteactness so that no sli$ or i!$erfection !ay !ar their efficacy.Their $sal!s are called (ig%"eda, lore of the "erses, and they setthe!sel"es to find grace in the ears of the !any gods ho! these$riests orshi$, so!eti!es by o$en $raise and so!eti!es by riddling

descri$tion of the e$loits and nature of the gods. *ften they are"ery fineC but alays they are the ork of $riests, artists in ritual.And if you look heedfully into it you ill also !ark that these$riests are inclined to think that the act of sacrifice, the offeringof, say, certain oblations in a $articular !anner ith $articularords acco!$anying the!, is in itself $otent, uite a$art fro! the$sal!s hich they sing o"er it, that it has a !agic $oer of its ono"er the !achinery of nature./63 (eally this is no ne idea of our=edic $riestsC ten thousand years before the! their re!ote forefathersbelie"ed it and acted u$on it, and if for ea!$le they anted rainthey ould s$rinkle dro$s of ater and utter !agic ords. *ur =edic$riests ha"e no a different kind of sy!bols, but all the sa!e theystill ha"e the notion that cere!ony, rita as they call it, has a

!agic $otency of its on. Let us !ark this ell, for e shall see !uchissuing fro! it.

/8ootnote 6& 4f. e.g. (=. ))). ii. 6.3

?ho are the gods to ho! these $riests offer their $rayers and $sal!sJThey are !any, and of "arious kinds. @ost of the! are taken fro! thereligion of the $eo$le, and dressed in ne garb according to thei!agination of the $riestC and a fe are $riestly in"entionsaltogether. There is Dyaush%$ita, the 'ky%father, ith Prithi"i @ata,the Earth%!otherC there are =ayu the ?ind%s$irit, Parjanya the(ain%god, 'urya the 'un%god, and other s$irits of the sky such as'a"itaC there is the Dan%goddess, :shas. All these are or ere

originally deified $oers of nature& the $eo$le, though theiri!agination created the!, ha"e ne"er felt any dee$ interest in the!,and the $riests ho ha"e taken the! into their charge, though theytreat the! "ery courteously and sing to the! elegant hy!ns full offigures of s$eech, ha"e not been able to co"er the! ith the flesh andblood of li"ing $ersonality. Then e ha"e Agni the 8ire%god, and 'o!athe s$irit of the intoicating juice of the so!a%$lant, hich is usedto ins$ire the $ious to drunken ra$tures in certain cere!oniesC bothof these ha"e acuired a $eculiar i!$ortance through their associationith $riestly orshi$, es$ecially Agni, because he, as bearing to thegods the sacrifices cast into his fla!es, has beco!e the ideal Priestand di"ine Paraclete of Hea"en. ;e"ertheless all this hieratici!$ortance has not !ade the! gods in the dee$er sense, reigning in the

hearts of !en. Then e find $oers of doubtful origin, @itra and=aruna and =ishnu and (udra, and figures of heroic legend, like thearrior )ndra and the tin charioteers called As"inaa and ;asatya. Allthese, ith !any others, ha"e their orshi$ in the (ig%"eda& the$riests sing their $raises lustily, and often s$eak no of one deity,no of another, as being the highest di"inity, ithout the leastconsistency.

'o!e sa"age races belie"e in a highest god or first di"ine Being inho! they feel little $ersonal interest. They seldo! s$eak of hi!, andhardly e"er orshi$ hi!. 'o it see!s to be ith Dyaush%$ita. The


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$riests s$eak of hi! and to hi!, but only in conneion ith othergodsC he has not a single hole hy!n in his honour, and the onlydefinite attribute that attaches to hi! is that of fatherhood. #et hehas beco!e a great god a!ong other races akin in s$eech to the Aryansof )ndia& Dyaush%$ita is $honetically the sa!e as the Greek /Greek&eus $at r3 and the Latin )u$$iter. Ho co!es it then that he isnot, and a$$arently ne"er as, a god in the true sense a!ong the)ndian AryansJ Because, ) think, his na!e has alays betrayed hi!. To

call a deity 'ky%father is to label hi! as a !ere abstraction. ;o!ystery, no $ossibility of hu!an $ersonality, can gather round thoseto $lain $rose ords. 'o long as a deity is knon by the na!e of the$hysical agency that he re$resents, so long ill he be unable to grointo a $ersonal God in )ndia. The $riests !ay sing "ociferous $sal!sto =ayu the ?ind%s$irit and 'urya the 'un%s$irit, and e"en to theirbelo"ed Agni the 8ire%godC but sing as !uch as they ill, they ne"ercan !ake the $eo$le in general take the! to their hearts.

*bser"e hat a different history is that of eus a!ong theGreeks%%eus, 8ather of Gods and @en, the ideal of kingly !ajesty andisdo! and goodness. The reason is $atent. Ages and ages before thedays hen the Ho!eric $oets sang, the Greeks had forgotten that eus

originally !eant sky& it had beco!e to the! a $ersonal na!e of agreat s$iritual $oer, hich they ere free to in"est ith the noblestideal of $ersonality. But "ery likely there is also another reason& )belie"e that the *ly!$ian eus, as !odelled by Ho!er and acce$ted byfolloing generations, as not the original /Greek& eus $at r3 atall, but a usur$er ho had robbed the old 'ky%father of his throne andof his title as ell, that he as at the outset a hero%king ho so!eti!e after his death as raised to the seat and dignity of the old'ky%father and recei"ed likeise his na!e. This theory e$lains theold hero%sagas hich are connected ith eus and the strange fact thatthe 4retans $ointed to a s$ot in their island here they belie"ed eusas buried. )t e$lains hy legends $ersistently a"erred that euse$elled his father


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the character of a hero ho had $eculiarly fascinated $o$ulari!agination $artly ecli$sed that of the old god hose na!e and rank heusur$ed. The reason for this, ) su$$ose, is that e"en the earlyEgy$tians had already a conser"ati"e religion ith fied traditionsand a $riesthood that forgot nothing,/23 hereas a!ong the forefathersof the Greeks, ho ere andering sa"ages, social order and religionere in a "ery fluid state. Hoe"er that !ay be, a deified hero !ightoust an older god and reign under his na!eC and this theory e$lains

!any difficulties in the legends of eus.

/8ootnote & 'ir E. A. ?. Budge, Literature of the AncientEgy$tians, $. 6 ff., and Gods of the Egy$tians, i, $$. F f., +F.3

/8ootnote F& Er!an, Handbook of Egy$tian (eligion, $. F f.3

/8ootnote +& Budge, Lit. of the Egy$tians, $. 6C Er!an, ut su$ra,$. F f.3

/8ootnote 2& )t is e"en $ossible that in one case, that of *siris, ahero in Egy$t !ay ha"e ecli$sed by his $ersonality the god ho! heousted. 'ee 'ir 9. ?. 8raIerKs Adonis, Attis, *siris, ii, $. --,

and 'ir ?. (idgeayKs Dra!as and Dra!atic Dances, etc., $. 5+ ff.3

As to the (o!an )u$$iter, ) need not say !uch about hi!. Like all thegenuine gods of Latiu!, he ne"er as !uch !ore than an abstractionuntil the Greeks ca!e ith their literature and dressed hi! in theardrobe of their eus.

4o!ing no to :shas, the Lady of the Dan, and looking at her na!efro! the stand$oint of co!$arati"e $hiloso$hy, e see that the ordushas is closely connected ith the Greek /Greek& he s3 and theLatin aurora. But hen e read the literature, e are astonished tofind that hile the Greek Dan%lady has re!ained al!ost alays a !ereabstraction, the )ndian s$irit is a lo"ely, li"ing o!an instinct ith

the richest sensuous char!s of the East. 'o!e tenty hy!ns areaddressed to her, and for the !ost $art they are ali"e ith real$oetry, ith a sense of beauty and gladness and so!eti!es ithal anunder%note of sadness for the brief joys of life. But hen e lookcarefully into it e notice a curious thing& all this hy!n%singing to:shas is $urely literary and artistic, and there is $ractically noreligion at all at the back of it. A fe stories are told of her, butthey see! to con"ince no one, and she certainly has no ritual orshi$a$art fro! these hy!ns, hich are really $oetical essays !ore thananything else. The $riestly $oets are thrilled ith sincere e!otion atthe sight of the dan, and are ins$ired by it to stately and li"elydescri$tions of its beauties and to touching reflections u$on the$assing of ti!e and !ortal lifeC but in this scene :shas herself is

hardly !ore than a !odel fro! an artistKs studio, in a "ery Bohe!ianuarter. @ore than once on account of her free dis$lay of her char!sshe is co!$ared to a dancing girl, or e"en a co!!on harlot Here thei!agination is at ork hich in course of ti!e ill $o$ulate the HinduParadise ith a celestial cor$s de ballet, the fair and frailA$sarasas. *ur =edic :shas is a forerunner of that gay co!$any. Achar!ing $erson, indeedC but certainly no genuine goddess.

As his na!e shos, 'urya is the s$irit of the sun. ?e hear a good dealabout hi! in the (ig%"eda, but the hole of it is !erely descri$tionof the $oer of the sun in the order of nature, $artly allegorical,


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and $artly literal. He is only a nature%$oer, not a $ersonal god. Thecase is not uite so clear ith 'a"ita, hose na!e see!s to !eanliterally sti!ulator, one ho stirs u$. *n the hole it see!s !ostlikely that he re$resents the sun, as the "i"ifying $oer in nature,though so!e/3 think that he as originally an abstraction of the"i"ifying forces in the orld and later beca!e connected ith the sun.Hoe"er this !ay be, 'a"ita is and re!ains an i!$ersonal s$irit ithno hu!an ele!ent in his character.

/8ootnote & 'ee *ldenberg, (eligion des =eda, $. + f.3

'till !ore $er$leing are the to deities @itra and =aruna, ho are"ery often associated ith one another, and a$$arently are related.@itra certainly is an old god& if e go o"er the !ountains to the estand north%est of the country of our )ndian Aryans, e shall findtheir kins!en in Persia and Bactria orshi$$ing hi! as a $oer that!aintains the las of righteousness and guards the sanctity of oathsand engage!ents, ho by !eans of his atch!en kee$s !ankind under hisobser"ation and ith his terrible ea$ons crushes e"il $oers. The)ndian Aryans tell al!ost eactly the sa!e tale of their @itra and hisco!$anion =aruna, ho $erha$s is si!$ly a doublet of @itra ith a

different na!e, hich $erha$s is due to a "ariety of orshi$. But theyha"e !ore to say of =aruna than of @itra. )n =aruna e ha"e thehighest ideal of s$irituality that Hindu religion ill reach for !anycenturies. ;ot only is he described as su$re!e controller of the orderof nature%%that is an attribute hich these $riestly $oets ascribeith generous inconsistency to !any others of their deities%%but he islikeise the o!niscient guardian of the !oral la and the rule ofreligion, sternly $unishing sin and falsehood ith his dreaded noose,but shoing !ercy to the $enitent and graciously co!!uning ith thesage ho has found fa"our in his eyes.

But @itra and =aruna ill not enjoy this ealted rank for long. 'oonthe $riests ill declare that @itra rules o"er the day and =aruna o"er

the night MT'. )). i. , +C =). i". 1, FN, and then =aruna ill beginto sink in honour. The noose of =aruna ill co!e to !ean !erely thedisease of dro$sy. His connection ith the darkness of the night illcause !en to think of hi! ith fearC and in their dread they illforget his ancient attributes of uni"ersal righteousness, justice, and!ercy, and re!e!ber hi! chiefly as an a"enger of guilt. They illbanish hi! to the distant seas, hose ri"ers he no guides o"er theearth in his gracious go"ern!ent of natureC and there he ill dell ineile for e"er, re!e!bered only to be feared. And @itra ill beco!e!erely another na!e for the sun.

?hat is the origin of this singular cou$leJ And hy are they destinedto this fallJ ;either of these uestions can be ansered by anything

but conjectures. There is no e"idence either fro! )ndian or fro!)ranian religion that @itra or his double =aruna gre out of theorshi$ of the sun or the sky, although in their orshi$ they ereso!eti!es connected ith the sun and the sky. Hoe"er far backards elook, e still find the! essentially s$irits of natural order and!oral la, gods in the higher sense of the ord. But their character,and es$ecially the character of =aruna, it see!s to !e, is rather toohigh to sur"i"e the co!$etition of ri"al cults, such as that of the$o$ular hero )ndra and the $riestsK darling Agni, hich tend toengross the interest of orshi$$ers lay and cleric, and to blunt theirrelish for !ore s$iritual ideals. 'o @itra and =aruna beco!e stunted


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in their grothC and at last co!es the fatal ti!e hen they areidentified ith the sky by day and night. This is the final blo. ;odeity that is $lainly li!ited to any one $hase or for! of nature in)ndia can be or beco!e a great godC and s$eedily all their realdi"inity fades aay fro! @itra and =aruna, and they shri"el intoinsignificance.

;et e turn to a s$irit of a "ery different sort, the 8ire%god, Agni.

The ord agni is identical ith the Latin ignisC it !eans fire,and nothing else but fire, and this fact is uite sufficient to$re"ent Agni fro! beco!ing a great god. The $riests indeed do theirbest, by fertile fancy and endless re$etition of his $raises, to lifthi! to that rankC but e"en they cannot do it. 8ro! the days of theearliest generations of !en 8ire as a s$iritC and the household fire,hich cooks the food of the fa!ily and recei"es its si!$le oblationsof clarified butter, is a kindly genius of the ho!e. But ith all hisusefulness and elfish !ystery 8ire si!$ly re!ains fire, and thereKs anend of it, for the ordinary !an. But the $riests ill not ha"e it so.The chief concern of their li"es is ith sacrifice, and their dee$estinterest is in the s$irit of the sacrificial fire. All the riches oftheir i!agination and their "ocabulary are la"ished u$on hi!, his

for!s and his acti"ities. They ha"e de"oted to hi! about -- hy!ns and!any occasional "erses, in hich they dell ith constant delight andingenious !eta$hor u$on his s$lendour, his $oer, his birth fro!ood, fro! the to firesticks, fro! trees of the forest, fro! stones,or as lightning fro! the clouds, his kinshi$ ith the sun, hisdelling in three abodes M"iI. as a rule on earth, in the clouds aslightning, and in the u$$er hea"ens as the sunN, his $lace in theho!es of !en as a holy guest, a friend and a kins!an, his $rotectionof orshi$$ers against e"il s$irits and !alignant sorcerers, andes$ecially his function of con"eying the oblation $oured into hisfla!es u$ to the gods. Thus they are led to re$resent hi! as thedi"ine Priest, the ideal hiero$hant, in ho! are united the functionsof the three chief classes of (ig"edic sacrificial $riests, the

hota, adh"aryu, and brah!an, and hence as an all%knoing sageand seer. )f infinite Ieal and ingenuity in singing AgniKs $raises andglorifying his acti"ities can a"ail to raise hi! to the rank of agreat god, e !ay e$ect to find hi! "ery near the to$. But it is notto be. The $riests cannot con"ince the $lain !an of AgniKssu$er%godhead, and soon they ill fail to con"ince e"en the!sel"es.The ti!e ill shortly co!e hen they ill regard all these gods aslittle !ore than $u$$ets hose strings are $ulled by the !ysteriouss$irit of the sacrifice.

The $riests ha"e another $et deity, 'o!a. 8or the sacred rites includethe $ressing and drinking of the fer!ented yello juice of theso!a%$lant, an acid draught ith intoicating $oers, hich hen !ied

ith !ilk and drunk in the $riestly rites ins$ires religious ecstasy.This drinking of the so!a%juice is already an ancient and i!$ortantfeature in the orshi$ of our Aryans, as it is also a!ong theirkins!en in )ranC so it is no onder that the s$irit of the sacred$lant has been !ade by the $riests into an i!$ortant deity andcelebrated ith endless abundance of $raise and $rayer. As ith Agni,'o!aKs a$$earance and $ro$erties are described ith inehaustibleealth of e$ithets and !eta$hors. The $oets lo"e to dell on the!ystic $oers of this onderful $otion, hich can heal sickness ofsoul and body and ins$ire gods and !en to !ighty deeds and holyecstasy. @ost often they tell ho the god )ndra drank huge $otions of


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it to strengthen hi!self for his great fight ith the dragon =ritra.@ost of this orshi$ is of $riestly in"entionC "olu!inous as itsrhetoric is, it !akes no great i!$ression on the laity, nor $erha$s onthe clergy either. 'o!e of the !ore ingenious of the $riests arealready beginning to trace an affinity beteen 'o!a and the !oon. Theyello so!a%stalks sell in the ater of the $ressing%"at, as theyello !oon aes in the skyC the so!a has a !agical $oer ofsti!ulation, and the !oon sends forth a !ystic liuid influence o"er

the "egetation of the earth, and es$ecially o"er !agic $lantsC theso!a is an a!brosia drunk by gods and heroes to ins$ire the! to !ightydeeds, and the !oon is a bol of a!brosia hich is $eriodically drunkby the gods and therefore anes !onth by !onth. The net ste$ illsoon be taken, and the $riests ill say that 'o!a is the !oonC andliterature ill then obediently acce$t this state!ent, and, graduallyforgetting nearly e"erything that 'o!a !eant to the (ig"edic $riests,ill use the na!e 'o!a !erely as a secondary na!e for 4handra, the!oon and its god. A "ery illu!inating $rocess, hich shos ho a god!ay utterly change his nature. ;o e turn to the hero%gods.

)ndra and the As"ina at the beginning ca!e to be orshi$$ed becausethey ere heroes, !en ho ere su$$osed to ha"e rought !ar"ellously

noble and "aliant deeds in di! far%off days, sa"iours of theafflicted, cha!$ions of the right, and ho for this reason ereorshi$$ed after death, $erha$s e"en before death, as di"ine beings,and gradually beca!e associated in their legends and the for!s oftheir orshi$ ith all kinds of other gods. Ti!es change, gods groold and fade aay, but the re!e!brance of great deeds li"es on instrange ild legends, hich, hoe"er !uch they !ay borro fro! otherorshi$s and hoe"er !uch they !ay be obscured by the $hanto! lightsof false fancy, still thro a gli!!er of true light back through thedarkness of the ages into an i!!easurably distant $ast.

)ndra is a !ighty giant, tany of hair and beard and tany of as$ect.The $oets tell us that he bears u$ or stretches out earth and sky,

e"en that he has created hea"en and earth. He is a !onarch su$re!ea!ong the gods, the lord of all beings, i!!easurable and irresistibleof $oer. He rides in a golden chariot dran by to tany horses, or!any horses, e"en as !any as ele"en hundred, and he bears as his chiefea$on the "ajra, or thunderbolt, so!eti!es also a bo ith arros,a hook, or a net. *f all drinkers of so!a he is the lustiestC hesills !any lakes of it, and he eats !ightily of the flesh of bullsand buffaloes. To his orshi$$ers he gi"es abundance of ealth andha$$iness, and he leads the! to "ictory o"er hostile tribes of Aryansand the still !ore dreaded hordes of dark%skins, the Dasas and Dasyus.He guided the $rinces #adu and Tur"asa across the ri"ers, he aidedDi"odasa Atithig"a to disco!fit the dark%skinned 'a!bara, he ga"e toDi"odasaKs son 'udas the "ictory o"er the ar!ies of the ten allied

kings beside the ri"er Parushni. @any are the na!es of the de"ils andde!ons that ha"e fallen before hi!C but !ost glorious of all his deedsis the conuest of =ritra, the dragon delling in a !ountain fastnessa!idst the aters, here )ndra, acco!$anied by the troo$ of @aruts, orstor!%gods, sle the !onster ith his bolt and set free the aters, orreco"ered the hidden kine. *ur $oets sing endless "ariations on thisthe!e, and so!eti!es s$eak of )ndra re$eating the e$loit for thebenefit of his orshi$$ers, hich is as !uch as to say that they, orat least so!e of the!, think it an allegory.

)n all this !aIe of sa"age fancy and $riestly in"ention and ild


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eaggeration there are so!e $oints that stand out clearly. )ndra is agod of the $eo$le, $articularly of the fighting !an, a glorified ty$eof the fair%haired, hard%fighting, hard%drinking forefathers of the)ndian Aryans and their distant cousins the HellenesC and therefore heis the cha!$ion of their ar!ies in battles. He is not a fiction ofhieratic i!agination, ho! $riests regale ith hy$erbolic flatteryualified only by the lukear!ness of their belief in their on ords.He is a li"ing $ersonality in the faith of the $eo$leC the $riests

only in"ent ords to e$ress the $eo$leKs faith, and $erha$s add tothe old legends so!e riddling fancies of their on. @any ti!es theytell us that after conuering =ritra and setting free the aters orthe kine )ndra created the light, the dan, or the sunC or they saythat he $roduced the! ithout !entioning any fight ith =ritraCso!eti!es they s$eak of hi! as setting free the kine of the @orning,hich !eans that they understood the cos to signify the light of!orning, and it ould see! also that they thought that the aters!entioned in the story signified the rain. But hy do they s$eak ofthese acts as heroic deeds, e$loits of a !ighty arrior, in the sa!etone and ith the sa!e e$ic fire as hen they sing of )ndraKs battlesin ti!es near to their on, real battles in hich their onforefathers, strong in their faith in the god, shattered the ar!ies of

hostile Aryan tribes or the fortresses of dark%skinned nati"esJ The$ersonality of )ndra and the s$irit in hich his deeds are recountedre!ind us of hero%sagasC the allegories hich the $oets read into the!are on the other hand uite in the style of the $riest. Ho can ee$lain the $resence of these to "oicesJ Besides, hy should thesetting free of the rain or the daylight be a $eculiarly heroicattribute of )ndraJ *ther gods are said to do the sa!e things as $artof their regular duties& Parjanya, @itra and =aruna, Dyaus, dis$ensethe rain, others the light.

The e$lanation is si!$le. )ndra, it see!s to !e, is a god of just thesa!e sort as eus, hose nature and history ) ha"e already e$lainedaccording to !y lights. )n the far%aay $ast )ndra as si!$ly a hero&

"ery likely he as once a chieftain on earth. The story of his greatdeeds so fascinated the i!agination of !en that they orshi$$ed his!e!ory and at last raised hi! to the rank of a chief god. ;o they had$re"iously orshi$$ed to "ery high godsC one of these asDyaush%$ita, the 'ky%father, of ho! ) ha"e s$oken before, and anotheras T"ashta, the All%creator. 'o so!e of the!, as the (ig%"eda$ro"es, declared that Dyaus as the father of )ndra, and others a$$earto ha"e gi"en this honour to T"ashta, hile others regarded T"ashta as)ndraKs grandfatherC and so!e e"en said that in order to obtain theso!a to ins$ire hi! to di"ine deeds )ndra killed his father, hich ofcourse is just an i!aginati"e ay of saying that )ndra as !ade into agod and orshi$$ed in $lace of the elder god.

The $uIIle no is sol"ed. )ndra has re!ained don to the ti!e of the(ig%"eda true to his early nature, an e$ic hero and ty$ical arriorCbut he has also borroed fro! the old 'ky%father the chief attributesof a sky%s$irit, es$ecially the gi"ing of rain and the !aking oflight, hich the $riests of the (ig%"eda riddlingly describe assetting free the aters and the cos. He bears the thunderbolt, asdoes also eusC like eus, he has got it fro! the 'ky%father, ho hadlikeise a thunderbolt, according to so!e (ig"edic $oets, thoughothers say it as forged for hi! by T"ashta, his other father. ) e"en"enture to think that there is a kernel of heroic legend in the storyof the slaying of =ritraC that at botto! it is a tale relating ho


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)ndra ith a band of bra"e fellos stor!ed a !ountain hold surroundedby ater in hich delt a icked chieftain ho had carried aay thecattle of his $eo$le, and that hen )ndra had risen to the rank of agreat god of the sky !en added to this $lain tale !uch !ythicaldecoration a$$ro$riate to his ne uality, turning the co!rades of)ndra into the stor!%gods and inter$reting the aters and cos to !eanrain and daylight. 'ince !ost of us are agreed that stories such asthat of )ndra defeating 'a!bara for the benefit of Di"odasa refer to

real e"ents, it see!s unnatural to su$$ose that the =ritra%legend is a$urely i!aginary !yth. ?e can thus e$lain hy the ideas of )ndrasetting free the rain and the light fit in so akardly ith theheroic ele!ent in the legend& for they are !erely secondaryattributes, borroed fro! the !yths of other gods and !echanicallyattached to )ndra on his ele"ation in the $antheon. But e can e$lain!uch !ore. There is a regular cycle of hero%saga connected ith )ndrahich is "isible or half%"isible at the back of so!e of the =edichy!ns and of the $riestly literature hich is destined to follo the!.

The truth is that the $riests of the (ig%"eda on the hole ha"e notuite !ade u$ their !inds about )ndraKs !erits, and e shall find the!a fe generations hence eually uncertain. They $raise his heroic

deeds lustily and ad!ire his $oer i!!enselyC but they are keenlyaare that he is a god ith a $ast, and so!eti!es they dell on that.Their fa"ourite !ethod is to relate so!e of his for!er uestionabledeeds in the for! of a re$roach, and then to turn the story to hiscredit in so!e ay or anotherC but as ti!e goes on and the $rieststhink less and less of !ost of their gods, )ndraKs character illsteadily sink, and in the end e shall find hi! $laying a subordinate$art, a debauched king in a sensuous $aradise, $o$ularly orshi$$ed asa gi"er of rain. But this is to antici$ate. As yet )ndra is to the(ig"edic $riests a "ery great godC but ho did he beco!e soJ )f eread carefully the hy!n (=. )=. "iii./3 e see at the back of it astory so!ehat like this. Before he as born, T"ashta, )ndraKsgrandfather, kne that )ndra ould dis$ossess hi! of his so"ereignty

o"er the gods, and therefore did his best to $re"ent his birth Mcf.(=. ))). l"iii.NC but the baby )ndra ould not be denied, and heforced his ay into the light of day through the side of his !otherAditi, ho see!s to be the sa!e as @other Earth Mcf. =ed. 'tud., ii,$. 1N, killed his father, and drank T"ashtaKs so!a, by hich heobtained di"ine $oers. )n ". 6 of this hy!n )ndra ecuses hi!self bysaying that he as in great straits, and that then the so!a asbrought to hi! by an eagle. ?hat these straits ere is indicated inanother hy!n M)=. "ii.N, hich tells us that he as i!$risoned, andesca$ed on the back of the eagle, hich he co!$elled to carry hi!C theatch!an


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but re$eatedly, the $riestly literature of the generations that illfollo i!!ediately after that of the (ig%"eda ill be found to treat)ndra as the ty$e of the arrior order./53 They ill describe ani!aginary coronation%cere!ony of )ndra, ending ith these ords&Anointed ith this great anoint!ent )ndra on all "ictories, foundall the orlds, attained the su$eriority, $re%e!inence, and su$re!acyo"er all the gods, and ha"ing on the o"erlordshi$, the $ara!ountrule, the self rule, the so"ereignty, the su$re!e authority, the

kingshi$, the great kingshi$, the suIerainty in this orld,self%eisting, self%ruling, i!!ortal, in yonder orld of hea"en,ha"ing attained all desires he beca!e i!!ortal./6-3 Thus e see thata!idst the !aIe of obscure legends about )ndra there are three $ointshich stand out ith $erfect clearness. They are, firstly, that )ndraas a usur$erC secondly, that the older gods fought hard but "ainly tokee$ hi! fro! su$re!e di"inity, and that in his struggle he killed hisfatherC and thirdly, that he as identified ith the arrior class, aso$$osed to the $riestly order, or Brah!ans. This antagonis! to theBrah!ans is brought out "ery clearly in so!e "ersions of the tales ofhis e$loits. @ore than once the $oets of the (ig%"eda hint that hisslaying of =ritra in"ol"ed so!e guilt, the guilt of brah!a%hatya, orslaughter of a being in ho! the brah!a, or holy s$irit, as

e!bodied/663C and this is e$lained clearly in a $riestly tale MT'.)). ". , 6 ff.C cf. 'B. ). i. F, +, "i. F, 1N, according to hich)ndra fro! jealousy killed T"ashtaKs son =is"aru$a, ho as cha$lainof the gods, and thus he incurred the guilt of brah!a%hatya. ThenT"ashta held a so!a%sacrificeC )ndra, being ecluded fro! it, broke u$the cere!ony and hi!self drank the so!a. The so!a that as left o"erT"ashta cast into one of the sacred fires and $roduced thereby fro! itthe giant =ritra, by ho! the hole uni"erse, including Agni and 'o!a,as en"elo$ed Mcf. the later "ersion in @ahabharata, =. "iii. f.N. Byslaying hi! )ndra again beca!e guilty of brah!a%hatyaC and so!e(ig"edic $oets hint that it as the consciousness of this sin hich!ade hi! flee aay after the deed as done.

/8ootnote & ) follo in the inter$retation of this hy!n E. 'ieg, Die'agenstoffe des (g"eda, i. $. ff. 4f. on the subject =ed. 'tud.,i. $. 66, ii. $$. +%2+. 4har$entier, Die 'u$arnasage, takes aso!ehat different "ie of (=. )=. "i.%"ii., hich, hoe"er, doesnot con"ince !eC ) rather sus$ect that (=. )=. "i. 6 and +, iththeir !ention of @anu, to ho! the so!a as brought, are echoes of anancient and true tradition that )ndra as once a !ortal.3

/8ootnote 1& The other legend in @'. )). i. 6, that Aditi bound theunborn )ndra ith an iron fetter, ith hich he as born, and of hichhe as able to rid hi!self by !eans of a sacrifice, is $robablylater.3

/8ootnote 5& E.g. AB. =)). i., =))). ii. 4f. BA. :$. ). i".66%6F.3

/8ootnote 6-& AB. =))). i". M


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he thus rose to the first rank in the $antheon, gathering roundhi!self a great cycle of heroic legend based u$on those traditions,and only secondarily and by artificial in"ention beco!ing associatedith the control of the rain and the daylight.

The na!e As"ina !eans The To Horse!enC hat their other na!e,;asatya, signifies nobody has satisfactorily e$lained. But e"en iththe na!e As"ina there is a difficulty. They are described usually as

riding together in a chariot hich is so!eti!es said to be dran byhorses, and this ould suit their na!eC but !ore often the $oets saythat their chariot is dran by birds, such as eagles or sans, andso!eti!es e"en by a buffalo or buffaloes, or by an ass. ) do not seeho e can esca$e fro! this difficulty ece$t by su$$osing that$o$ular i!agination in regard to this !atter "aried fro! "ery earlyti!es, but $referred to think of the! as ha"ing horses. At any ratethey are "ery ancient gods, for the $eo$le of )ran also ha"etraditions about the!, and in the far%aay land of the @itanni, in thenorth of @eso$ota!ia, they are in"oked together ith )ndra, @itra, and=aruna to sanction treaties. )n )ndia the Aryans kee$ the! "ery busy,for they are !ore than anything else gods of hel$. Thrice e"ery dayand thrice e"ery night they sally forth on their $atrols through earth

and hea"en, in order to aid the distressed/63& and the $oets tell usthe na!es of !any $ersons ho! they ha"e relie"ed, such as old4hya"ana, ho! they restored to youth and lo"e, Bhujyu, ho! theyrescued fro! droning in the ocean, Atri, ho! they sa"ed fro! a fiery$it, =is$ala, to ho! hen her leg had been cut off they ga"e one ofiron, and Ghosha, to ho! they brought a husband. @any other hel$fulacts are ascribed to the!, and it is "ery likely that at least so!e ofthese stories are !ore or less true. Another legend relates that theyjointly edded 'urya, the daughter of the 'un%god, ho chose the! fro!a!ongst the other gods./6F3

/8ootnote 6& 4f. =ed. 'tudien, ii. $. F6, (=. ). i". .3

/8ootnote 6F& 4f. =ed. 'tudien, i. $. 6+ ff.3

A!idst the !edley of saga and facts and $oetical i!agination hichsurrounds the As"ina, can e see the outlines of their originalcharacterJ )t is hard to say& o$inions !ust differ. The Aryans of)ndia are inclined to say that they are si!$ly di"ine kings acti"e ingood orksC but the $riests are $erha$s beginning to fancy that they!ay be e!bodi!ents of $oers of nature%%they are not sure hich%%andin course of ti!e they ill ha"e "arious theories, $artly connectedith their rituals. But really all that is certain in the =edic ageabout the As"ins is that they are an ancient $air of sa"iour%gods horide about in a chariot and render constant ser"ices to !ankind. ?eare te!$ted hoe"er to see a likeness beteen the! and the /Greek&

Di s k r 3 of the distant Hellenes, the heroes


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of !yth as the three strides of =ishnu./63 *bser"e that in the(ig%"eda the u$$er hea"en is not the delling%$lace of =ishnu onlyCAgni the 8ire%god, )ndra and 'o!a ha"e their ho!e in it also M(=. ).cli". , )=. "i. , "ii. F%+, =. iii. F, =))). li. 1, )O.liii. , l"i. F-, l"iii. , l"ii. , l"i. +, O. i. F, i. +,ci. 1, cli". +N. Later, hoe"er, hen their ad"entitious di"initybegins to fade aay fro! Agni and 'o!a, and )ndra is allotted as$ecial $aradise of his on, this highest ste$ ill be regarded as

$eculiar to =ishnu, =ishnoh $ara!a! $ada!.

/8ootnote 6+& A later and distorted "ersion of this !yth a$$ears inAB. =). ".3

/8ootnote 62& E.g. @'. 6. i". 6+, 'B. ). i. 6, , 6F, TB. ). ii. 2, 6,AB. ). ".,


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bal!s and !edicines to those that in his fa"our. The (ig"edic $riestsas yet do not take !uch interest in hi!, and for the !ost $art theylea"e hi! to their so!ehat des$ised kins!en the Athar"ans, ho do athri"ing trade in hy!ns and s$ells to secure the co!!on folk againsthis rath.

There are !any !ore gods, godlings, and s$irits in the =edic religionCbut e !ust $ass o"er the!. ?e ha"e seen enough, ) ho$e, to gi"e us a

fair idea of the nature and "alue of that religion in general. ?hatthen is its "alueJ

The (ig"eda is essentially a $riestly bookC but it is not entirely a$riestly book. @uch of the thought to hich it gi"es utterance is$o$ular in origin and senti!ent, and is by no !eans of the loestorder. *n this groundork the $riests ha"e built u$ a syste! ofhieratic thought and ritual of their on, in hich there is !uch thatdeser"es a certain res$ect. There is a good deal of fine $oetry init. There is also in it so!e idea of a la of righteousness& in s$iteof !uch ild and un!oral !yth and fancy, its gods for the !ost $artare not ca$ricious de!ons but s$irits ho act in accordance ithestablished las, !ajestic and ise beings in ho! are e!bodied the

highest ideals to hich !en ha"e risen as yet. @oreo"er, the $riestsin the later books ha"e gi"en us so!e !ystic hy!ns containing "igorousand $regnant s$eculations on the dee$est uestions of eistence,s$eculations hich are indeed fanciful and unscientific, but hichne"ertheless ha"e in the! the ger!s of the $oerful idealis! that isdestined to arise in centuries to co!e. *n the other hand, the $riestsha"e cast their syste! in the !ould of ritualis!. (itual, cere!ony,sacrifice, $rofessional benefit%%these are their $redo!inantinterests. The $riestly cere!onies are concei"ed to $ossess a !agical$oer of their onC and the fied las of ritual by hich thesecere!onies are regulated tend to ecli$se, and finally e"en to sallou$, the las of !oral righteousness under hich the gods li"e. A fegenerations !ore, and the $riesthood ill frankly announce its ritual

to be the su$re!e la of the uni"erse. @eanhile they are beco!ing!ore and !ore indifferent to the $ersonalities of the gods, hen theyha"e $reser"ed anyC they are uite ready to ascribe attributes of onedeity to another, e"en attributes of no!inal su$re!acy, ithunscru$ulous inconsistency and dubious sincerityC for the$ersonalities of the different gods are beginning to fade aay intheir eyes, and in their !ind is arising the conce$tion of a singleuni"ersal Godhead.

4HAPTE( ))

THE AGE *8 THE B(AH@A;A' A;D :PA;)'HAD'

4enturies ha"e $assed since the hy!ns of the (ig%"eda ere co!$osed.The Aryans ha"e no crossed the fateful ridge on the east of theirfor!er settle!ents, and ha"e s$read the!sel"es o"er the lands of;orthern Hindostan around the u$$er basins of the Ganges and 9a!na,reaching eastard as far as Bihar and southard don to the =indhya@ountains, and in the course of their groth they ha"e absorbed not alittle of the blood of the dark%skinned nati"es. The old organisation


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of society by tribes has co!e to an end, though the na!es of !anyancient tribes are still heardC the Aryans are no di"ided laterallyby the $rinci$le of hat e call caste, hich is based u$on aco!bination of religious and $rofessional distinctions, and "erticallyby the rule of kings, hile a fe oligarchic go"ern!ents still sur"i"eto re!ind the! of =edic days. )n these kingdo!s the old tribes arebeginning to be fused togetherC fro! these co!binations ne 'tates arearising, arring ith one another, constantly aing and aning.

'ociety is ruled $olitically by kings, s$iritually by Brah!ans. ?iththe rise of the kingdo! an Established 4hurch has co!e into eistence,and the Brah!an $riesthood orks out its $rinci$les to the bitterestend of logic.

The Brah!ans are no, !ore than they e"er ere before, a closecor$oration of race, religion, and $rofession, a religious fraternityin the strict sense of the ords. ?hile other classes of the Aryansha"e !ied their blood to a greater or less degree ith that of thenati"es, the Brah!ans ha"e $reser"ed !uch of the $ure Aryan strain.They, !oreo"er, ha"e !aintained the knoledge of the ancient =ediclanguage in hich the sacred hy!ns of their forefathers ere co!$osed,of the traditions associated ith the!, and of the $riestly lore of

=edic ritual. Proud of this heritage and resol"ed to !aintain itundi!inished, they ha"e knitted the!sel"es into a close s$iritual andintellectual aristocracy, hich stands fast like a lighthouse a!idstthe darkness and stor!s of $olitical changes. They e!$loy all the artsof the $riest, the thinker, the states!an, and e"en the !agician to$reser"e their $ri!acyC and around the! the !anifold "ariety of theother castes, in all their di"isions and subdi"isions, grou$s itselfto !ake u$ the !ulti%coloured eb of )ndian life.

)n course of ti!e this $riesthood ill s$read out octo$us%liketentacles o"er the hole of )ndia. Beco!ing all things to all !en, itill find a $lace in its $antheon for all gods and all ideas,ba$tising the! by orthodo na!es or justifying the! by ingenious

fictions. )t ill send forth a$ostles and colonies e"en to thefurther!ost regions of the distant 'outh, hich, alien in blood and intradition, ill ne"ertheless acce$t the! and surrender its bestintellect to their control. )t ill e"en ad!it into the loer ranks ofits on body !en of foreign birth by !eans of legal fictions, in orderto !aintain its control of religion. Though itself s$litting u$ intoscores of di"isions "arying in $urity of blood and tradition, it illstill as a hole !aintain its $osition as against all other classes ofsociety. That the Brah!an is the Deity on earth, and other classesshall acce$t this dog!a and agree to take their rank in accordanceith it, ill beco!e the $rinci$le holding together a "astagglo!eration of utterly di"erse ele!ents ithin the elastic bounds of4atholic Brah!anis!.

But as yet this condition of things has not arri"ed. The Brah!ans arestill co!$arati"ely $ure in blood and ho!ogeneous in doctrine, andthey ha"e as yet sent forth no colonies south of the =indhya. They areestablished in the lands of the Ganges and 9a!na as far to the east asBenares, and they look ith so!e conte!$t on their kins!en in theestern country that they ha"e left behind. They are busily e!$loyedin orking out to logical conclusions the ideas and $rinci$les oftheir (ig"edic forefathers. They ha"e no three =edasC for to the old(ig%"eda they ha"e added a #ajur%"eda for the use of the sacrificantorders of $riests and a 'a!a%"eda or hy!nal containing (ig"edic hy!ns


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arranged for the chanting of choristers. The result of these laboursis that they ha"e created a "ast and intricate syste! of sacrificialritual, $erha$s the !ost colossal of its kind that the orld has e"erseen or e"er ill see. ?hat is still !ore re!arkable, the logicalresult of this i!!ense de"elo$!ent of ritualis! is that the $riesthoodin theory is $ractically atheistic, hile on the other hand a certainnu!ber of its !e!bers ha"e arri"ed at a $hiloso$hy of co!$leteidealis! hich is beginning to turn its back u$on ritualis!.

The atheist is not so !uch the !an ho denies the eistence of any godas the !an to ho! God is not God, ho looks u$on the Deity assubordinate to $oers "oid of holiness and nobility, the !an ho illnot see in God the highest force in the orld of nature and in thereal! of the s$irit. )n this sense the Brah!ans are thorough atheists.According to the!, the uni"erse ith all that is in it%%gods, !en, andloer things%%is created and go"erned by an iron la of soullessnatural necessity. )t has arisen by e!anation fro! a cos!ic Princi$le,Praja$ati, the Lord of 4reatures, an i!$ersonal being ho shos notrace of !oral $ur$ose in his acti"ity. Praja$ati hi!self is notabsolutely the first in the course of nature. The Brah!anas, the$riestly books co!$osed in this $eriod to e$ound the rules and !ystic

significance of the Brah!anic cere!onies, gi"e us "arying accounts ofhis origin, so!e of the! saying that he arose through one or !oreinter!ediate stages fro! non%eistence MTB. )). ii. 5, 6%6-, 'B. =).i. 6, 6%2N, others deri"ing hi! indirectly fro! the $ri!iti"e atersM'B. O). i. , 6N, others tracing his origin back to the still !orei!$ersonal and abstract Brah!a M'a!a". B. ). 6%F, Go$. B. ). i. +N.All these are atte!$ts to e$ress in the for! of !yth the idea of ani!$ersonal Princi$le of 4reation as arising fro! a still !ore abstractfirst $rinci$le. ?e ha"e seen the $oets of the (ig%"eda gradually!o"ing toards the idea of a unity of godheadC in Praja$ati this goalis attained, but unfortunately it is attained by sacrificing al!ostall that is truly di"ine in godhead. The conce$tion of Praja$ati thate find in the Brah!anas is also e$ressed in so!e of the latest hy!ns

of the (ig%"eda. A!ong these is the fa!ous Purusha%sukta M(=. O. 5-N,hich thros a $eculiar light on the character of Praja$ati. )t is in$raise of a $ri!iti"e Purusha or @an, ho is, of course, the sa!e asPraja$atiC in so!e !ysterious !anner this Purusha is sacrificed, andfro! the "arious $arts of his body arise the "arious $arts of theorld. The idea con"eyed by this is that the uni"erse ca!e intoeistence by the o$eration of the !ystic las re"ealed in theBrah!anic rituals, and is !aintained in its natural order by the sa!e!eans. The Brah!anas do not indeed often assert on their on authoritythat Praja$ati as hi!self sacrificed in order to $roduce the orld,and in fact they usually gi"e other accounts of the creationC but astheir authors li"e in a rarefied at!os$here of !ystical allegory inhich fact and fancy are co!$letely confused ith one another and

consistency ceases to ha"e any !eaning, none of the! ould ha"edifficulty in acce$ting the (ig"edic state!ent that he as sacrificed.Hence they tell us on the one hand that Praja$ati has created theorld fro! a blind ill for generation or increase, $roducing fro!each of his li!bs so!e class of beings corres$onding to it Me.g. @'.)=. "i. FN, or co$ulating ith the earth, at!os$here, sky, and s$eechM'B. =). i. , 6N, or that he brought it into eistence indirectly byentering ith the Tri$le 'cience or !ystic lore of the three =edasinto the $ri!e"al aters and thence for!ing an egg fro! hich ashatched the $ersonal De!iurge Brah!a, ho actually created the orldM'B. =). i. 6, 6-NC and on the other hand they relate that he created


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sacrifice and $erfor!ed it, !aking of hi!self a "icti! in order thatthe gods, his offs$ring, !ight $erfor! the rites for their onbenefit, for!ing an i!age of hi!self to be the sacrifice, by hich heredee!ed hi!self fro! the gods M'B. O). i. 1, %+C cf. AB. =)). 65,


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?hen the student on reading the Brah!anas finds the! full ofinter!inable cere!onial rules ith eually inter!inable co!!entariesinter$reting the! by ildest analogies as sy!bolical of details of!yths or of las of nature and hence as conferring !ystic $oers,besides all kinds of !yths, so!e forcibly dragged into theinter$retation of the ritual because of so!e i!aginary $oint ofrese!blance, others in"ented or recast on $ur$ose to justify so!e

detail of cere!ony, and hen !oreo"er he obser"es that !any of these!yths and so!e of the rites are brutally and filthily obscene, andthat hardly any of the! sho the least !oral feeling, he !ay beecused for thinking the Brah!anas to be the ork of !ad!en. But thereis so!e !ethod in their !adness. Hoe"er strangely they !ay e$ressthe!, they ha"e definite and strictly logical ideas about thesacrificial ritual and its cos!ic function. )t is !ore difficult todefend the! against the charge of ant of !orality. )t !ust bead!itted that their su$re!e Being, Praja$ati, is in the !ain lines ofhis character utterly i!$ersonal, and here incidentally he shos anyhu!an feelings they are as a rule far fro! creditable to hi!. Hecreated the uni"erse fro! !echanical instinct or blind desire, andco!!itted or tried to co!!it incest ith his daughter Mthe accounts

are "ariousN. He has begotten both the gods and the de!ons, de"asand asuras, ho are constantly at ar ith one another. The gods,ho are e!bodi!ents of truth Mthat is to say, correct knoledge ofthe la of ritualN, ha"e been often in great danger of beingo"erhel!ed by the de!ons, ho e!body untruth, and they ha"e beensa"ed by Praja$atiC but he has done this not fro! any sense of right,but !erely fro! blind ill or fa"our, for he can hardly distinguishone $arty fro! the other. The gods the!sel"es, in s$ite of being oftruth, are sadly frail. DoIens of !yths charge the! ith falsehood,hatred, lust, greed, and jealousy, and only the stress of the dangerthreatening the! fro! their ad"ersaries the de!ons has induced the! toorganise the!sel"es into an ordered kingdo! under the so"ereignty of)ndra, ho has been anointed by Praja$ati. True, !any of the offensi"e

features in this !ythology and ritual are sur"i"als fro! a "eryancient $ast, a $re%historic ti!e in hich !orals ere cons$icuouslyabsent fro! religionC the $riesthood has forgotten "ery little, and asa rule has only added ne rituals and ne inter$retations to thislegacy fro! the days of old. ;e"ertheless it !ust be confessed thatthere is a tone of ritualistic $rofessionalis! in the Brah!anas thatis un$leasingC the $riesthood are consciously su$erior to nature, God,and !orals by "irtue of their Tri$le 'cience, and they constantlye!$hasise this clai!. )t is difficult for us to realise that these arethe sa!e !en ho ha"e created the Brah!anic culture of )ndia, hich,hoe"er e !ay criticise it fro! the ?estern $oint of "ie, isessentially a gentle life, a field in hich !oral feeling andintellectual effort ha"e born abundance of goodly fruit. #et if e

look !ore closely e shall see that e"en these ritualists, besotted asthey !ay see! to be ith their orgies of $riestcraft, are not hollyuntouched by the better s$irit of their race. Etre!es of sanctity,hether it be ritualistic or anti%ritualistic sanctity, alays tend in)ndia%%and in other countries as ell%%to $roduce su$er!en. And ifour $riesthood in the Brah!anas feel the!sel"es in the $ride ofs$iritual $oer lifted abo"e the rules of !oral la, they are not in$ractice indifferent to it. Their li"es are for the !ost $art gentleand good. Though truth in the Brah!anas usually !eans onlyaccordance ith the ritual and !ystic teachings of the Tri$le 'cience,it so!eti!es signifies e"en there "eracity and honesty also.


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Truthfulness in s$eech is the hall%!ark of the Brah!an, saysHaridru!ata Gauta!a to 'atyaka!a 9abala M4hhand. :$. )=. i". 2NC ande"en in the Brah!anas a lie is so!eti!es a sin. )f conser"atis!co!$els the $riests to kee$ obscene old $ractices in their rituals,they are not alays satisfied ith the!, and "oices begin to be heard$leading that these rites are really obsolete. )n short, a !oral senseis beginning to arise a!ong the!.

;o the !oral la, in order that it !ay be feared, needs to bee!bodied in the $ersonality of a god. @ost of their gods ins$ire nofear at all in the souls of the Brah!ansC but there is one of ho!they ha"e a dread, hich is all the greater for being illogical.Praja$ati is a "ast i!$ersonality, too re!ote and abstract to ins$irethe soul ith either fear or lo"e. The other gods%%)ndra, Agni, 'o!a,=aruna, =ishnu, and the rest%%are his offs$ring, and are !o"ed like$u$$ets by the !achinery of the ritual of sacrifice created by hi!.Hoe"er !uch they !ay see! to differ one fro! another in theirattributes and $ersonalities, they are in essence one and negligiblein the eyes of the !aster of the ritual lore. )n the beginning, saythe Brah!anas, all the gods Mece$t Praja$ati, of courseN ere alike,and all ere !ortalC then they $erfor!ed sacrifices and thereby beca!e

i!!ortal, each ith his $eculiar attributes of di"inity./613 Thus atbotto! they are all the sa!e thing, !erely $hases of the uni"ersalgodhead, a"es stirred u$ by the current of the cos!ic sacrifice. Theyha"e no terrors for the $riesthood. But there is one deity hoobstinately refuses to acco!!odate hi!self to this con"enient $oint of"ie, and that is (udra, or 'i"a. By rights and logically he ought tofall into rank ith the rest of the godsC but there is a crossgrainedele!ent in his nature hich kee$s hi! out. As e ha"e seen, he co!esfro! a different source& in origin he as a de!on, a $oer of terror,hose real! of orshi$ lay a$art fro! that of the gods of higherclass, and no, although it has etended into the do!ains of orthodoreligion, an at!os$here of dread still broods o"er it./653 (udraields all his ancient terrors o"er a !uch idened area. The $riests

ha"e assigned hi! a regular $lace in their liturgies, and fullyrecognise hi! in his se"eral $hases as Bha"a, 'ar"a, :gra, @aha%de"aor the Great God, (udra, )sana or the Lord, and Asani or theThunderbolt M


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it de"elo$s $oerfully and fruitfully in one as$ect hich attractsgra"e and earnest i!aginations. The @uni, the conte!$lati"e ascetic,$enetrates in !editation through the terrors of 'i"aKs outard for! tothe godKs inard lo"e and isdo!, and beholds in hi! his on di"ine$rototy$e. And so 'i"a co!es to be figured in this nobler as$ect asthe di"ine @uni, the su$re!e saint and sage.

/8ootnote 61& 8or the original !ortality of the gods see T'. =)). i".

, 6, 'B. O. i". FF f., O). i. , 6, ii. F, C for their $ri!iti"enon%differentiation, T'. =). "i. 1, , 'B. )=. ". +, 6%+.3

/8ootnote 65& 4f. e.g.


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Brah!a then is absolute knoledgeC and all that eists is reallyBrah!a, one and indi"isible in essence, but $resenting itselfillusi"ely to the finite consciousness as a orld of $lurality, of!ost !anifold subjects and objects of thought. The highest isdo!, thegreatest of all secrets, is to kno this truth, to realise ith fullconsciousness that there eists only the *ne, Brah!a, the infinite)deaC and the sage of the :$anishads is he ho has attained this

knoledge, understanding that he hi!self, as indi"idual subject ofthought, is really identical ith the uni"ersal Brah!a. He hasrealised that he is one ith the )nfinite Thought, he has raisedhi!self to the !ystic heights of transcendental Being and


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their guilt. But in the :$anishads the doctrine a$$ears full%fledged,and it is fraught ith conseuences of i!!ense i!$ortance. 'a!sara!eans literally a andering to and fro, that is, the cycle of birthsthrough hich each soul !ust e"erlastingly $ass fro! infinite ti!e,and


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the indi"idual soul as di"ine to hu!an, gi"er of grace to recei"er ofgrace. Later :$anishads ill take u$ this strain, in honour of 'i"aand other gods, and finally they ill end as !ere tracts of this orthat theistic church.

#et another current is no beginning to stir !enKs !inds, and it isone that is also destined to a great future. )t starts fro!


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in hat


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$olyandry, hich is uite o$$osed to standard Hindu !orals, but is byno !eans un$aralleled in early )ndian literature/-3N retired intoeile for thirteen years, and then ca!e back ith a great ar!y ofallies, and after fierce and bloody battles ith the


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for a su$re!e deity hose character as $oerful enough to !o"e !enKssouls, either through ae or lo"eC and for this "acancy there ere tostrong candidates, =ishnu and 'i"a, ho in course of ti!e succeeded tothe $ost and di"ided the su$re!acy beteen the!.

=ishnu has altered i!!ensely since last e !et hi!. 8irst, after anetraordinary change in his on character, he has been identified ith;arayana, and then both of the! ha"e been euated ith


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a !an of the ;ara fa!ilyC that ;arayana as originally a di"ine ordeified saint, a rishi, as the Hindus ould call hi!C and thatso!eho he beca!e identified ith =ishnu and the :ni"ersal '$irit.

/8ootnote 6& )t !ust be ad!itted that ancient riters gi"e differentety!ologies of the na!e& thus, a $oet in the @ahabharata M))).cli. FN deri"es it fro! narah, aters, and ayana!, going,understanding it to !ean one ho has the aters for his

resting%$laceC @anu M). 6-, ith @edhatithiKs co!!entaryN, acce$tingthe sa!e ety!ology, inter$rets it as the delling%$lace of all the;arasC and in the @ahabharata O)). cccli. F5, it is also e$lainedas the delling%$lace of !ankind. But these inter$retations are$lainly artificial concoctions.3

This theory really is not by any !eans as ild as at first sight it!ay see! to be. Di"ine saints are so!eti!es !entioned in the (ig%"edaand Brah!anas as being the creators of the uni"erse/3C and theya$$ear again and again in legend as euals of the gods, attainingdi"ine $oers by their !ystic insight into the sacrificial lore. Butthere is !ore direct e"idence than this.

/8ootnote & (=. O. ci. 2, 'B. =). i. 6, 6%2. 4f. 4har$entier,'u$arnasage, $. F1.3

)n the @ahabharata there are incor$orated to docu!ents of first%ratei!$ortance for the doctrines of the churches that orshi$$ed =ishnu.*ne of these is the Bhaga"ad%gita, or LordKs 'ong M=). ".%lii.NCthe other is the ;arayaniya, or Account of ;arayana MO)).ccc"i.%cccliii.N. Their teachings are not the sa!e in details,though on !ost !ain $oints they agreeC for they belong to differentsections of the one religious body. Lea"ing aside the Bhaga"ad%gitafor the !o!ent, e note that the ;arayaniya relates a story that thereere born four sons of Dhar!a, or (ighteousness, "iI. ;ara, ;arayana,Hari or =ishnu, and


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Arjuna and


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) ha"e $re"iously s$oken of the solitary $assage in the 4hhandogya:$anishad in hich


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and concentrate their hole soul on ra$turous adoration of the s$iritof God, hich shines there in daIIling brightness to the eye of$erfect faith. ;arayana there re"eals hi!self to ;arada, and setsforth to hi! the doctrine of =asude"a. According to this, ;arayana hasfour for!s, called !urtis or "yuhas. The first of these is=asude"a, ho is the highest soul and creator and inardly controlsall indi"idual souls. 8ro! hi! arose 'a!karshana, ho corres$onds tothe indi"idual soulC fro! 'a!karshana issued Pradyu!na, to ho!

corres$onds the organ of !ind, and fro! Pradyu!na ca!e forthAniruddha, re$resenting the ele!ent of self%consciousness. *bser"e in$assing that these are all na!es of heroes of legend& 'a!karshana is=asude"aKs brother Bala%ra!a, Pradyu!na as the son and Aniruddha thegrandson of =asude"a. ;arayana then goes on to s$eak of the creationof all things fro! hi!self and their dissolution into hi!self, and ofhis incarnations in the for! of the Boar ho lifted u$ on his tusk theearth hen sub!erged under the ocean, ;arasi!ha the @an%lion hodestroyed the tyrant Hiranya%kasi$u, the Darf ho o"erthre Bali,(a!a Bharga"a ho destroyed the


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Bhaga"ad%gita says nothing about the theory of e!anations or "yuhasin connection ith =asude"aC $robably its author kne the legends of'a!karshana, Pradyu!na, and Aniruddha, but he a$$arently did not knoor at least did not acce$t the "ie that these $ersons ere related assuccessi"e e!anations fro! =asude"a. ?e !ust therefore look round forsidelights hich !ay clear u$ the obscurities in the history of thischurch.

*ur first sidelight gli!!ers in the fa!ous gra!!ar of Panini, ho$robably li"ed in the fifth century B.4., or $erha$s early in thefourth century. Panini infor!s us M)=. iii. 51N that fro! the na!es of=asude"a and Arjuna the deri"ati"e nouns =asude"aka and Arjunakaare for!ed to denote $ersons ho orshi$ res$ecti"ely =asude"a andArjuna. Plainly then in the fifth century


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Gota!a%$uta MGauta!a%$utra in 'anskritN erected a Garuda%colu!n forthe LordKs te!$le in the telfth year fro! the coronation of


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/8ootnote & (. 4handa, ut su$ra, $. 65 f.3

)n another $assage Mon ))). i, N Pata jali describes dra!atic and!i!etic $erfor!ances re$resenting the killing of


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And no suddenly and !ost une$ectedly an utterly ne s$irit begins tobreathe in it. To the old teachings and legends are added ne ones ofa holly different cast. The old e$ic s$irit of gra"e and !anlychi"alry and godly isdo! is o"ershadoed by a ne $assion%%adorationof tender babyhood and anton childhood, a!orous ecstasies, a hecticfire of erotic ro!ance.

*f this ne s$irit there is no trace in the e$ic, ece$t in one or to

late inter$olations. But the Hari%"a!sa, hich as added as ana$$endi to the @ahabharata not "ery long before the fourth centuryA.D., is already instinct ith it. )t adds to the e$ic story of


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ca!e fro! the $eo$le ho are described in it, so!e tribe that $asturedtheir herds in the oodlands near @athura. Perha$s these herdsfolkere Abhiras, ancestors of the !odern Ahir tribes. )f so, it ould benatural that their cult should attract attentionC for so!eti!esAbhiras counted for so!ething in society, and e e"en find ashort%li"ed dynasty of Abhira kings reigning in ;asik in the thirdcentury A.D./53 Be this as it !ay, it see!s "ery likely that so!e$astoral tribe had a cult of a di"ine child blue or black of hue, and

$erha$s actually called by the!


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during his eile. 8inally co!es the :ttara%kanda, hich relates that(a!a, hearing so!e of the $eo$le of Ayodhya s$itefully castingas$ersions on the "irtue of 'ita during her i!$rison!ent in the $alaceof (a"ana, ga"e ay to foolish jealousy and banished her to theher!itage of =al!iki, here she ga"e birth to tin sons,


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the Aryans. True, there ere a"es of e!igration fro! Aryan centressouthard in early ti!esC but those that tra"elled as far as 4eylonent by sea, either fro! the coasts of Bengal or *rissa or Bo!bay.Besides, the e$edition of (a!a is ob"iously fabulous, for his ar!yas co!$osed not of Aryans but of a$es. All things considered, theresee!s to be !ost $lausibility in the third hy$othesis/F-3. 4ertainly(a!a as a local hero of Ayodhya, and $robably he as once a realkingC so it is likely enough that an old saga Mor sagasN attached

itself early to his !e!ory. And as his fa!e s$read abroad, $rinci$allyon the ings of =al!ikiKs $oe!, the honours of se!i%di"inity began tobe $aid to hi! in !any $laces beyond his nati"e land, and about thebeginning of our era he as recognised as an incarnation of =ishnusent to establish a reign of righteousness in the orld. )n 'outhern)ndia this cult of (a!a, like that of


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a collection of Ta!il $sal!s nu!bering about +,--- stanIas co!$osed bytel"e $oets called Al"ars, hich ere collected about 6--- A.D.Cand the orshi$ of K'i"a is eually ell e$ressed in the Tiru%!urai,co!$iled about the telfth century, of hich one section, the De"ara!,as $ut together about the sa!e ti!e as the ;al%ayira%$rabandha!. Boththe Tiru%!urai and the ;al%ayira%$rabandha! breathe the sa!e s$irit ofecstatic de"otion as the Bhaga"ata%$uranaC they are the utterances ofandering "otaries ho tra"elled fro! te!$le to te!$le and $oured

forth the $assionate ra$tures of their souls in lyrical $raise oftheir deities. Through these three !ain channels the strea! ofde"otion s$read far and ide through the land. Like !ost currents ofhat e call re"i"alis!, it usually had an erotic sideC and thelarger te!$les freuently ha"e attached to the! fe!ale staffs ofattendant "otaries and cor$s de ballet of "ery easy "irtue. But thisas$ect as far !ore !arked in neo%


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The scri$tures on hich (a!anuja took his stand ere !ainly the:$anishads, Brah!a%sutra, and Bhaga"ad%gitaC but he also acknoledgedas authoritati"e the Pa charatra 'a!hitas, in s$ite of theirdi"ergences in details of doctrine, and it is fro! the! that hischurch has deri"ed the orshi$ of 'ri or Laksh!i as consort of =ishnu,hich is a "ery !arked feature of their co!!unity and has gained forthe! the title of 'ri%"aishna"as. But (a!anuja as !uch !ore than ascholar and a riter of booksC he as also a !an of action, a

$ractical !ystic. Like 'a!kara, he organised a body of sannyasisor ascetic "otaries, into hich, hoe"er, he ad!itted only Brah!ans,hereas 'a!kara o$ened so!e of the sections of his de"otees tonon%Brah!ansC but on the other hand he as far !ore liberal than'a!kara in the choice of his congregations, for he endea"oured tobring !en of the loest castes, 'udras and e"en Pariahs, ithin theinfluence of his church, though he ke$t u$ the social barrier beteenthe! and the higher castes, and he fir!ly u$held the $rinci$le of theBhaga"ad%gita that it is by the $erfor!ance of religious and socialduties of caste, and not by knoledge alone, that sal"ation is !ostsurely to be on. He established schools and !onasteries, reorganisedthe orshi$ of the te!$les, usually in accordance ith the Pa charatrarules, and thus $laced his church in a $osition of such strength in

'outhern )ndia that its only serious ri"al is the church of 'i"a.

;i!barka, ho $robably flourished about the first half of the telfthcentury, $reached for the cult of


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Tulsi Das M62F%6FN, hose (a!a%charita%!anasa, a $oe! in EasternHindi on the story of =al!ikiKs (a!ayana, has beco!e the Bible of the;orth. The sa!e influences are "isible in the $oe!s of


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@eanhile, at any rate beteen the third and the sith centuries,there eisted a s!all fraternity ho regarded Brah!a as the 'u$re!e,and therefore as identical ith the abstract Brah!aC but although theyha"e left a record of their doctrines in the @arkandeya%$urana and thePad!a%$urana, they ha"e had little influence on )ndian religion ingeneral.

/8ootnote F+& Those are at Pushkar in (aj$utana, Dudahi in

Bundelkhand,


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and ater%$ot of Brah!a, the conch and discus of =ishnu, and thetrident and dru! of 'i"aN, hile he is acco!$anied by four dogs ofdifferent colours, su$$osed to re$resent the four =edas, and abull./F3 *bser"e that in all these ty$es Dattatreya is concei"ed asan e!bodi!ent of the three gods, hich is co!$arati"ely a later idea,for in the oldest "ersion of the legend he as si!$ly an incarnationof =ishnuC but as =ishnu as regarded not only as a !e!ber of theTrinity but also the 'u$re!e Being o"er and abo"e it, Dattatreya as

his re$resentati"e has co!e to include in his $ersonality the natureof all the trio. There is, !oreo"er, so!ething curious in hischaracter. His lo"e of ine and o!an is a singular trait, and isuite inco!$atible ith the nature of an ideal saint. )t s!ells ofreality, and strongly suggests that he as not a fig!ent of thereligious i!agination but an actual !anC and this is su$$orted by thetradition of his association ith


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credit as chair!an of the !unici$al board in his nati"e "illage. )f hehad done so!ething $rodigiously icked, one !ight ha"e e$ected hi! tobeco!e a local god at once, in accordance ith Dra"idian $recedentCbut he being hat he as, his $ost%!orte! career is rather curious.8or a legend gradually arose that his kindly s$irit haunted a certain$lace, and little by little it has gron until no there is a regularorshi$ of hi! in Eral, and $ilgri!s tra"el thither to recei"e hisblessings, sti!ulated by a li"ely literary $ro$aganda. He is

orshi$$ed under the na!e of The 4hair!an God, in affectionate!e!ory of his !unici$al career, and as 9agadisa, or Lord of the:ni"erse, a $hase of the god 'i"a.

4*;4L:')*;

4an e trace any unifor! $rinci$le running through the beildering"ariety of changes that e ha"e obser"edJ

4onsider the changes through hich =ishnu has $assed. At the beginninga s$irit of "aguely defined $ersonality, he a$$ears successi"ely as asa"iour%god, as the !ystic saint ;arayana, as the e$ic arriors


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sal"ation by surrendering their souls to hi!. ?e ha"e seen cases ofa$otheosis of the guru in !odern and !edie"al ti!esC reasoning fro!the knon to the unknon, e !ay be sure that it took $lace no lessregularly in ancient ages, and brought about !ost of the sur$risingchanges in the character of gods hich e ha"e noticed. 'o!eti!es thegurus ha"e only $reached so!e ne features in the characters of theirgodsC so!eti!es, as is the Hindu fashion, they ha"e also ehibited intheir on $ersons, their dress and eui$!ent, their original ideas of

di"inity, as, for ea!$le, Lakulisa ith his clubC and their sanctityand a$otheosis ha"e ratified their inno"ations in theology andiconology, hich ha"e s$read abroad as their congregations ha"e gron.Thus the gurus and their congregations ha"e !ade the history of theirdeities, recasting the gods e"er ane in the !ould of !anKs ho$es andstri"ings and ideals. There is !uch truth in the saying of theBrah!anas& )n the beginning the gods ere !ortal.

7 7 7 7 7

End of Project GutenbergKs Hindu Gods And Heroes, by Lionel D. Barnett

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