rJtHE PHILOSOPHY OFFINE ARTBYG. W. F. HEGELTRANSLATED, WITH NOTES, BYF. P. B. OSMASTON,B.A.AUTHOROF*'THEARTANDGENIUSOFTINTORET,""ANESSAYONTHEFUTUREOFPOETRY,"ANDOTHERWORKSVOL. IV i ;^-:i.::S1^4638LONDONG. BELLANDSONS, LTD.1920LONDON: PRINTEDATTHECHISWICKPRESSTOOKSCOURT,CHANCERYLANECONTENTSOFVOL. IVSUBSECTION IIITHEROMANTIC^KY^continuedCHAPTER IIIPoetryPAGEIntroduction3[Summaryandcontrastbetweenpoetry andtheotherpar- /ticulararts. Its relation to theothertworomanticarts.Absenceof all external sensuous presence. Poetryap-pealstoimaginativevision. Notsodirectas sense-per-ception. Advantageoverpaintingthroughits abilitytodisplay facts in their historical succession or naturalprocess. Far profounder andmoreextendedembraceofworldof ideathaninmusic; dueto itsgreaterpowerofdefinition inspeechandits useoftonemerelyasasub-ordinateinstrument. Thecontentofpoetryis theideal-/envisagementofimaginativecontent itself. Everythingjo'^madeintelligiblebylanguagemayformpartofcontent,-/ pysubjectto the conditionthat it is poetical. Analysisofwhat this conditionimplies. Theimagination of artist\ymustbetontributive; distinctionfrommere prosecon- i-^sciousnessand thinking. In its entireindependenceof thematerialof sense it maybedefined as theuniversalart. Thematerial is theimagination,and assuchcon-'\joint withall the arts. It is, however,not the onlyartopentophilosophicalreviewon this ground. Itmarks,however, the commencement of the disintegration ofArt, its bridgeof passage tothe notion of religionand"^philosophicalthought]3Subdivisionofsubject-matter17I. Poetical composition as distinguished from that ofProse19I. Thepoeticalandprosaiccomposition ... 20\{a)Theworldofnaturalorprosaicfactrelativelyex-viCONTENTSOFVOL. IVPAGEeluded. Primarily whatitdealswithistheinfinite(,1-"domainofSpiritandtheenergiesofits life] . 21(d) Distinction between poetical and prosaic con-ception 21[(a) Poeticalanteriortotheprosaicformofartisticspeech. It is the original imaginative graspof truth. Dates from first effort ofman atj!^self-expression. Endeavours to make that> ' expressionofahighervirtuethanmereprose 22(j8)The kind ofprose life from whichpoetry isseparate postulates a different kind of con-ception and speech. The finite categoriesofthe understanding applicable to the former.The ideal rationale of fact is aimed at byI'^poetry. Its affinity withand distinction frompurethought23(7)Differencebetweentherelation ofpoeticcon-ception to prosaic in early times and moremodern, where the prosaic form of life hasbecomestereotypedin adefinitesystem] . 26(c)The natureof thedifferentiationofpoetical act-ivity in differentagesandnations ... 26[(a)It has noparticularepochofuniquecelebra-tion. It embraces the collective Spirit ofman. It is conditioned by the outlook ofvariousnationsandepochs .... 27(/3)Some of these have closer affinity with itsessential spirit, e.^., the Oriental in com-parison with theWestern nations, if we ex-cludeGreece 27(7)Modern interest in Hellenic and certainpor-tions ofOrientalpoetry] 282. TheArt-productofpoetryandprose ... 29(a)Theartistic compositionofpoetrygenerally . 29[(a) It must possess intrinsic unity. The actionmust be conceived asthat of particularmenorwomen. There must be vital coalesenceI'^of characters, events, and actions. Unity inthe nature ofaprocess and a differentiationofpartswhichcoalescetherein ... 29(/3)Natureofthisorganicdifferentiationandsyn-thesis. Tendency of Art to particularization../* Delight in detail. Natureof its treatmentofsuchdetail. Result,a secure self-subsistency31(7)Substantive unitypreserved. Display of par-ticular features, despite all opposition, mustCONTENTSOFVOL. IV Vllcombine in a union of mysterious accord.The unity is essential andorganic. It is thesoul of the entirety. Parallel in musical tri-chord. Varied type of artistic form in theEpic,theDrama,andtheLyric] .{d) Historyand oratorycomparedwith the poeticalproduct[(a)The arts of history and oratory come intoclosestaffinity withpoeticalcomposition. His-tory implies great ends, cannot rest contentwith merechronicles. Herodotus, Thucydides,Xenophon,andTacitus. Products of the artof language, but not entirely free art. Thenatureof thehistorical contentprohibitsthisTheprosaicelementin thehistoricalageandthe historicaltreatmentdefined(/3)Oratory appears to becloserto the freedomofArt. TheoratorappealstothewholemanIt is directed totheenunciationofprinciplesIt is nonethe less almost whollyrelative totheruleofpractical utility. ReligiousoratoryIt is intheserviceofacollateralpurpose]{c)Thefreepoeticalworkof Art[(a)Theattitude ofthe poetin his work,to con-tingentand insignificant fact and local con-ditions, actions,events, etc.(/3)The end of Art not practical as in oratoryNoris it toedification. PoemscPoccasion(y)Itis anessentiallyinfinite(self-rounded)organ-ism. Permeated with a principle of unity.Independent of anyone particular conditionofLifeorNature]3.ThecreativeimpulseofthePoet[{a) Lessunderrestriction in respect tohis mediumTheproblemproposedinonerespectmoreeasy,and in another more difficult than that of theotherarts. Technicalcontrolofthe medium whichiseasier makesthe demandforimaginativepene-trationthegreater{b) Beingoperativeintherealmofimaginativeideaitself poetry has to guard against encroachinguponthespheresofreligion,philosophy,andtheordinaryconsciousnessassuch . . . .(c)To agreaterextentthanintheotherartsthepoethas transfused the external mode of envisage-ment,whichhe creates,with the vitalityof soul-rAGE343838424747495151"rr^^-^5253viiiCONTENTSOFVOL. IVFACElife. Mohammedanpoetry. Thecreativeenergymustbeabsolutelyfree fromall restrictions im-posedbythematerialhandled] ....53II. TheExpressionofPoetry561. ThepoeticalConception57(a) Poeticalconceptionin its origins , . .58[In its origin not consciously distinct from thev^"^prosaic or scientific consciousness. In generaltermsthepoeticimagination is plastic. Illustra-tion of differencebetween the concrete poeticalimageandtheabstractconcept] .... 58(d) Distinction between poetic mode ofconceptionandthatofprose. Languageof poetical metaphor\4"andimageryless accurate thanthedefinitionofprosaicfact 61(c) Exceptional difficulties which confront the poetof aworld wherethedistinctionbetweenordinaryprose life and imaginationis emphasised. Arti-ficial appearance of his creations. Difficulty ofretainingspontaneoussimplicityandfreshness .2. VerbalExpression63(a) Poeticalspeechgenerally64[Anothermodeofspeechnecessitatedbythefact\^thattheworldof poetry andartingeneralshould^\"notbeidenticalwiththatof ordinarylife, orthatofscienceandreligion]65(d)Themeansbywhichthis is realized ... 65[(a) Particularwordsand expressionsonlyproperto poetry. Entitled toborrowfromlanguageforms obsolete in ordinary speech. The in-ventionexercised in creating novelmodesofutterance . 66(/3)Therelativeorderof wordsadmitsof change;howthelicenceinthis respectmay beabusedand degenerate into rhetoric and declama-tion 66(y)Theperiodsofpoeticalconstructioncomposedin accordance with the ideality ofthe soul-experienceembodied] 66{c) Distinctionsin theuseofthesemeans . . 66[(a) Poetry in the age where poetry is the onerevealer ofspiritual truth. Force ofcreativepowerand simplicityof dictionmostobviousfeatures. Creationof a poeticdiction byDante 66(/3)Distinctionfromabovein anagewhereprosediction already elaborated. Expression ofCONTENTSOFVOL. IV ixrAGEpoetry becomesmoreelaborate andeventuallymoreself-conscious andrhetorical.ThepoetryofRome. Thesatire. Spanishpoetry . . 67(y)The nature of genuine poetical expression.Spontaneityaboveall essential] ... 693.Versification.[Onlyasuperficialview wouldbanishit. Itis impliedinthe demandthatthe mediumshouldbeelabor-atedbyArt andthattherealmenteredshouldbeotherthanevery-daylife] 70(a) RhythmicalVersification(that is, withoutrhyme)[(a)Made by time-duration and the movement.Startingpointinthenaturallengthandshort-nessofsyllables. Thedistinctions of thesoundof wordsin consonantsandvowelscontributethebasisofthis. Descriptionandillustration.Poetryregulatestheaccidentalinterchangeofvarious syllables and words. Time-duration.Natureof dactyl,anapaest,etc. It further regu-lates the particular time-relations inaseriesofverse-lines. Theiambicmetre,etc. Problemof time-beats in the metre of the ancients.No necessity as in music for abstract time-beat74(/3)Theaccent and caesura. Everytime-relationhasitsparticularaccent. Particularfeetoughtnot with abstract precision to be identicalwith beginningandconclusionof singlewords.Thecaesura checksthemonotonyof measure.Further independent verbal accent. Funda-mental influenceonthemeasureof thepoet-ical idea. Also a definite type of contentcorresponds with the entire character ofaparticular verse-measure. The use of hexa-meter,elegiacs,andiambicsin thisrespect .78(y)Rhythmical versification embraces theactualmusical sound of syllables and words. Thestem-syllable in the Greek and Latin lan-guages. Aspects of theGerman language inthisrespect. In modernlanguagestheelementof rhythmless roomfordisplay. Thisin itselfnecessitates the alternative of rhyme as aresistantagainstthetooexclusiveassertionofidealcontent] . . . . . . .81(d)Rhyme84[(a) Rhymeanecessaryfeatureofromanticpoetry.CONTENTSOFVOL. IVPAGECloser approximation to music. Reactionagainst the stringent character of Romanpoetry. Source of rhyme in Germanic lan-guages 86(/3)Differencebetweentwosystems. RhythmicalversificationsupremeinHellenicpoetry. Mostimportantchangeeffected thatofthevalidityof the national quantityin the oldersystem.This replaced by the intrinsic meaning ofsyllables andwords. French andItalian poetryan extreme example of the collapse of theformer system. Thenecessity ofrhymeandits characteranalysed 86(y)The types of modern romantic poetry. Itsalliteration, assonance, and ordinary rhyme.Scandinavian poetry. Notnecessary for as-sonantwords to come only at conclusion ofline. Rhyme is the fulfilment of alliterationand assonance. Pre-eminently the form oflyric poetry. Examples]92(c)Theunionof rhythmandrhyme .... 95[(a)Attemptmade in modern times to return tothenaturalquantityofsyllables. Notgener-allysuccessful. Overwhelming importanceinmodernverse of intelligible significance andtheaccentthusasserted95(/3)Not possible to retain theplasticconsistencyof themetrical mediumassecuredbyclassicalpoetry. Modernlanguagesdonotpossessthestablequantitativebasis96(7)Thecombinationequivalent totheabsorptionbymodern versification of the older system.Thesignificanceof theidentical repetitionofthesametime-measure. ModernimitationofSapphics and alcaics based on a contradic-tion]97III. TheSeveralGenericTypesofPoetry . , . 99IntroductionandDivisionofSubject ....100A. EpicPoetry 106I. GeneralcharacterofEpicpoetry . , . . 106{a) EpigramsandGnomes . . . . . 106(d) Philosophical didactic poems,Cosmogonies andTheogonies 108(c)ThegenuineEpopaea no[(a)The saga, the bible of a folk. Not everynationalbiblecanrankasEpos. Greekspos-CONTENTSOP^ VOL. IV xisess no ancient religious books resemblingHindooliterature iii(/3)Not necessarilycomposed in theheroic timeitself. Homer. Viewsexpressedwhichbelongto earliertimes 112(y)Position of the epic poet. His work a freecreation. Hemustfeel at home intheworldhe depicts. Objective independence of com-position. Theworkofoneartist] . . 1152. ParticularCharacteristicsoftrueEpos . . .118(a)ThegeneralWorld-conditionoftheEpos . .119[(a) Apositive social stateconjoined toprimitivesimplicity. Intuitive sense of right the sup-portofmoralorder. Vitalhumanassociationwithnatureandparticular objects possessed.Heroic condition, e.g., that of free individu-ality. Examples. Expressesentirehorizonofnationalcondition . . . . . .120(/3)Themirrormustbefofoneparticularpeople.The Hellenic spirit in Homer. A foreignlocale[not necessarily prejudicial to artisticeffect. Theremotenesstopresentideas ofthe"NiebelungenLied"125(y)Main event of poem must be a deliberatelyconceivedpurpose. It must implycollisions.The belligerentconditionmostpertinent. TheOdysseynot onlyanexception. Couragethefundamental interest. Justification of suchattitude] 128{b)TheindividualEpicaction . . ...'133[(a) Must beone of individual vitality. Mustap-propriate form of an event,andthe happen-ingof such. Analysis. ProblemofanabsoluteEpos. Mere biography not most completesubject-matter. "TheDivineComedy" onlypartiallyanexception134(/3)Questionof humanpersonalityimplied. Epiccharactermustbeatotality. Achilles,theCid,and other heroes, discussed. Circumstancesasactiveaspersons. Illustrations . . I39(y)Theform under which the intrinsic signific-anceofthe occurrence proclaimsitself, whetherasidealNecessityordisclosed spiritualforces.Destiny. What it defines. General tone ofsadness in theEpic. Differentmodes of ap-pearance. Poemsof Ossian,andothers. Lossxii CONTENTSOFVOL. IVPAGBof original freshness in Latin poetry. Vir-gil]. 143(^)TheEposasunifiedtotality152[(a)Theunityoftheassumedgeneralbackgroundand the individuals therein. Humanity dis-played in its entire collective relation of allinterests and occupations. The individualevent. Thecommencement ofthe Iliad andOdyssey153(j3)Thedifferencebetweentheepic modeof dis-closure andthatof the Lyric ordrama. Greaterextension of range. In the epic workchar-acter may give way to external condition.Objectivenatureofits exposition. Motivisa-tionof dramaandtheEpicentirely different.ExamplesfromHomerandmodernpoetry .157(y)NatureofunityofEpos. Thoughnotof mostimportanceessential to artistic result. Insist-enceuponfundamentalunityof theHomericpoems. Epic unitywithin a national whole.Distinction fromdramatic action. TheIdyll.ThenovelastheEpopaeaofmodernsociety]1643.ThehistoricaldevelopmentofepicPoetry . .172{a)TheOrientalEpos174[(a) EposofHindoosandPersians. ThesenseoftheunityoftheOneSubstance . ..174(/3)Contrast betweenHindooand PersianEpos.TheRamajanaandMaha-Bharata . .176(y)HebrewEpicpoetry]176{b) EpigpoetryofGreeceandRome . . .178[(a) Essential unity of Iliad and Odyssey. Thene phcsultraofattainment. Thecyclic poets 178(/3)RomanEpos cannotcompare in qualitywiththeGreekprototype]179{c)TheRomanticEpos.[The poemsof Ossian. TheEdda. Nationalchar-acter of epic poems of Middle Ages. "TheCid." Thepeculiarnatureof Dante's"DivineComedy." The poems relating to Charle-magne,KingArthur, etc. Therevolt againstChivalry in Ariosto and Cervantes. The"Lysiad" of Camoens. Milton's "ParadiseLost"andKlopstock's"Messias"] . .180B. LyricPoetry193I. Generalcharacteroflyricpoetry ....195{a)Thecontent oflyricpoetry 196CONTENTSOFVOL. IV xiiiPAGE[(a)Notmerelytranslationofcontentfromimme-diacyofexperience. Creationof objectpuri-fied from the incidental mood. Deliverancethuseffected. Self-expressionnotthedevelop-ment of objective action. Wehave the uni-versal as such. Theentire sphereofhumanbelief, religion, art, and to some extentscientific thoughtcomprised astheyfall intoapersonalviewoftheworld . . . .196{(i)Aspectofparticularity.The Eumenideschorusin the "Cranes" of Ibicus. TheElegy andEpistle197(y)Emphasis throughout on personal feeling.Parallel with genre painting. Contingencyofcontent. Growthofwholeintemperament] 197(d)Theformofthesame[(a)UnitydifferentfromthatofEpos. Mysteriousintimacyofpersonalmood. ApproximatestoEpos inheroicsongs,ballads,andromances.TheGreekAnthology I99(/3)Poems(Voccasion. Personalaspect. PindaricOdes. Goethe. Individualsoulsuppliedfocusof unityratherthanpositive reality . . 201(y)Point of departure an external occurrence veitherinpersonalexperienceorthatofothers.Elementofnarrativeasinsongsof Anacreon] 203(c)Theexternalcultureconditionof theLyric. . 206[(a)Different from that of Epic. Not limited toone particular epoch, but exceptionally dis-played inmoderntimes. Folk-songs andthelyricpoem207(/3)Possesses apower offree expansion into allkinds of subject-matter,afree recognitionof- imaginative conception no less than artistic- activity . . . . . . . . 210(y)The philosophical lyric poem. Afalse andagenuinestylecompared. Schiller'spoetry] . 2122. Particularaspectsof theLyric213(-'domainandconfigurativepowersofpoetry. >y^(y)Material of this mostvaried character is not, how-ever, madepoetical merelyby reason of the fact that it isin a generalwaythe content of idea. Ordinaryconscious-ness is able to elaborate precisely the same content in thefieldofideas, andto particularizeconceptswithoutcreatinganypoetical result. Werecognizedthis factwhenwecalledtheconceptofmindmerelythematerialor medium,whichonlyreceivesaformadapted for poetry, in so far as it par-takes ofanovel configurationbyvirtueof art. Inpreciselythesamewaymerecolourandtone in theirimmediacyarenotas suchthecolour or tone ofa painteror amusician.Wemayinageneralwaydescribethe distinctionbystatingj.^^that it is not the idea as such^ but the imagination ofthe, .t^,artist which creates a poetical content, under conditions,that is, in which the imagination grasps the same contentin such awaythat it is itself therewith associated in lan-guage, wordsandtheir morebeautifulconjunctionas humanspeech, justas in the other arts we find it present in thearchitectonicform; theplastic ofsculpture, thatadaptedtopainting, ormusicaltonesandharmony.Afurther necessarylimitation of the art's appearance isthis that the content must,on the one hand, not be em-braced in relations applicable to mere thinkings whetherthat ofscience orspeculativephilosophy, norfurther in theform of inarticulate emotion^ orwith a clarityand self-suf-ficiencywhich appeals exclusively to the organsof sense;^neither, inanotherdirection, mustit suffer theidea topassentirely into whatwemayin general terms describeas thecontingency, divisions, and relativity oifinite reality. Theimagination ofthe poet in this respect must maintain amiddlecoursebetweentheabstractuniversalityof purethink-V-ingandtheconcrete corporeality of material objects, in so,far asweareacquaintedwiththelatter intheproductionsoftheplastic arts. Furthermore such an art must generallyconformto therequirementswehave, in an early sectionofthiswork, insisted as essential toeveryart-product. In other1 I think this is themeaning of theexpression bloss dtiSierlich sinn-licherDeutlichkeitundGenauigkeit.;^12 THEPHILOSOPHYOFwords, the art itself mustfind in its content the adequate\ Ic? object of its appearance, must elaborate everything, whichit embraces, so farastheinterest appeals to theintelligencesimply,^ as an essentially independent and self-exclusiveworld. Onlyin so far as it doesthis is the demandof art,satisfied, andthecontentthereofbecomes,byvirtue of thespecificmodeof its manifestation, anorganicwhole, which. in its partspresentstheappearanceofalimited association(^andideal synthesis, while at the same time, as contrastedwiththeworldof accidental subordinations, its consistencyis oneof essential freedom, awhole madeexplicit throughitself.3.The last point to whichwe must in conclusiondrawattention in respect to this distinction between poetryandtheotherarts is 'connectedwith the different mode underwhichtheimaginationof thepoet substantiates its ideas intheobjectivemediumof its exposition. The arts hithertoconsideredwere entirely serious in their attachmentto thematerialofsense, amediuminwhich theythemselveswereoperative, in so far as theymerelybestowedontheir con-tent a form, which could be throughout accepted andelaborated by means of conglomerations of material sub-stance, whether bronze, marble, orwood, or the media ofcolourandtones."^ Inacertain sense, nodoubt, poetryalsohas to meeta conditionsomewhat similar. Thatis to say,inpoetical compositionwe must notoverlook thefact thatits results havetobe intelligible to mind bymeansof thecommunicationof humanspeech. Butweshallfindnonetheless that the situation in thetwocases is essentially altered.(a) Otherwise expressed, by reason of the importancepertaining to the material aspect in the plastic arts andmusic, wefind that, asaresult ofthedefinedrestrictions ofthis material, onlyalimitednumber of conceptionscan befully reproducedina particularizedform of reality such asstone, colour,andtone: thecontentthereforeandthepossi-bilities of artistic composition are narrowed within verydefinable limits. It was on account of this fact that wewere able to associate closelyand exclusively everyoneofHegel'sexpression is inreintheoreiischemInieresse.'Themediumofmusicis notof course strictly on all fourswiththeothers.FINEART13these specific artswithoneparticular formofartisticcreationpre-eminentlyadaptedto it. In thiswaythe form of sym-bolism was appropriate to architecture, the classical tosculpture, and the romantic to painting and music. It isno doubt true that the particular arts in both directionsfromandtoward their proper domain tended to pass overinto the other forms. Wetook account of this factwhenwefound it possible to refer toaclassic andromanticstyleofarchitecture, asymbolical andChristiantypeofsculpture,andevenusedthe term classic inconnectionwithpaintingandmusic. Departures such as these from the prevailingtypewere, however, merely experimental essayswhich pre-paredthewayin subordination to a newtype rather thanits culminatingeffort; orthey showedushow onearttendedtopassbeyondits true limits in seeking tograspa contentorarelation to its materialof atype thatonlyafurtherartdevelopmentcould adequately elaborate. Generallyspeak-ing, wehaveseen thatarchitecturehasleast resourceintheexpression of its content; in sculpture there is alreadyanincreaseofpossibility,whichisfurtherextendedtoitswidestrange^bypainting and music. Andthe reason of this isthatin proportionas theidealityandparticularizationunderall its aspectsbytheexternalmediumis mademoreexplicitthevariety of the contentand of theforms it receives alsoincreases.Poetry, on the other hand, casts itself free of all sub-ordination to the materialof sense, at least to this extent,that in the definition of externalor objectiveexpressionnoreason whatever remains why it should restrict itself tospecific content or any limitation to its power of com-positionandreproduction. It is thereforeexclusivelyunitedtonospecific art type; ratherwemaydefine it as the tmi-^Iversal art, which is capable of reclothing and expressingunder every conceivable mode every content that canpossiblyenterinto orproceedfromtheimaginationofman.Andit candothis becauseits material is nothingmoreorless thantheimagination itself, which is theuniversal rootandgroundofall theparticular artsandtheir specific types.Wehavealready, inanother connection, whenconcludingourdiscussion of the particular artistic types, comeacross1That is, underthe limits ofthesefour arts.14THEPHILOSOPHYOFwhatwas practically the same thing. Whatwe soughtfor,then, in our conclusion was that art in one of its typesshouldmakeitselfindependentofthatmodeof representa-tionproperlycalled specific, remainingtherebypredominantabovethe entire sphere inwhichsuch a totality of particu-larization is reproduced. Anelaboration so comprehensiveis among all the particular arts bytheverynature of thecase only possible to poetry. Its realization is effectedthrough the development of poetical creation in part bymeansof theactual reconstitution of everyparticulartype,andpartlybytheliberation ofthemodeofconceptionandits contentfromtheboundariesfixed for it intheessentiallyexclusive types of conception, whose character we haveseverallydefinedas symbolical, classical, andromantic.{b) Theaboveconsiderationswill furtherserve to justifythe position, which, in the course of ourinquiry, regardedasthedevelopmentofaphilosophy, wepreviouslyassignedto the art of poetry. In otherwords byreason of the factthat poetry is, to a degree quite impossible to any othermode of artistic production, concerned with the universalsimplyassuchinArt,wemightappeartohavesomereasonforinsistingthatitmarksthe commencementofaninvestiga-tion in the full sense of the word philosophical, andonlyfrom sucha starting pointcanweenter into the sphereofparticularization, in which we find the series of the otherarts as limited and determined by their specific sensuousmedium. Lookingback,however, at theresultarrivedat inour investigation of the particular art types we shall findthat the course of philosophical evolution consisted, first,in anincreased penetrationof the ideal content, and, fromanother pointof view, in thedemonstration that originallyArt sets forth in the search,then in the discovery of andfinally with an advance beyond that content compatiblewithits powers. Thisnotion of thebeautifulandArtmustenforceitself in the arts themselves. The starting-point ofourinquiry, therefore, wasarchitecture, in which we foundmerely an impulse toward the complete representation ofwhat pertains to Spirit in a material medium. This is somuchthecase that it is onlythroughsculpturethatart firstattains to agenuineinterfusionofidealitywiththemedium;andfurther that only in the arts of painting and music doFINEARTISwe reach the stage where, by virtue of the idealand sub-jective character of their content, we find the perfectedfusion effectednoless undertheaspectof conception thanthat of practical executioninthe medium accepted. Thisprocess culminates most decisively in poetry, by virtue ofthefact thattheverynatureof its objective realization canonlybe apprehended as an effort to drawapart from andcancel the material of sense rather than one of reproduc-tion whichdoesnotasyetventureto clotheitself andmovein the objective medium of sense-perception. In order,however,tomakethis liberation intelligible in philosophicalterms it is of importancethatwehave alreadydisposed ofthequestionwhatit is fromwhichart undertakesto liberateitself. Thisquestionstands incloserelation to thefact thatpoetry is essentiallycapableofembracingthe entirety ofin-telligible contentandartisticmodesofexpression. Wemayaddfurtherthatwehaveviewedthis as theacceptanceofatotality, which can only be interpreted philosophically astheabrogationof limitation in particularity. Our previousconsideration ofwhatwemeanbythings thatareone-sidedwouldbeinvolved in suchanexposition, the self- exclusivecharacter of such one-sidedness being cancelled bysuchatotality.It is onlythroughthecourse of such anexposition thatwe can effectively demonstrate that poetry is the specificart inwhicha point is reachedwhichmarks the beginningofthedisintegration ofart^itself, apointatwhichthephilo-sophicalconsciousnessdiscovers its bridgeofpassage to thenotion ofreligion as such, as also to the prose of scientificthought. Theboundarylines oftherealmofbeautyare, asve have already seen, ontheonehandthe prose of finite,:ondition and our ordinary conscious life, startingfromvhichArtmakesits effort inthedirection of truth, and,onheother,oftheloftier spheresofreligionandscience,fromvhich it passes overinto acomprehension of theAbsolute-tinmoreemancipatefromall materialassociation.Despitethereforethecompletenesswithwhichtheart;. :)etryreproduces, under amode ofobjectificationthatr>)st ideal, the entire totality of Beauty,neverthelessin-ence is able to discover even here too in this finalin ofart a residueofdefect. Wemayfor thispurposei6 THEPHILOSOPHYOFwithin our art-system directly contrast the poetic art withthat ofarchitecture. In other words architecture was stillunable to subordinate the external material to the idealcontent sufficiently to clothethe same in a form adequateto mind; poetry on the other hand carries the process ofnegating its sensuous medium so far that insteadoftrans-forming that which stands in opposition to gross spatialmatter, namely tone, as architecturedoes with its materialintoasignificant symbol, it ratherreduces it toamere signof no significance. Butbydoing so it destroys the fusionof spiritual ideality with external existence, so thoroughlythat to this extent it ceases to be compatible with theoriginal notion of Art. In other words it comes danger-ouslynearto bidding goodbye to theregion of sense alto-gether, remainingwhollyabsorbed in that of ideality. Thefairmeanbetweentheseextremesofarchitectureandpoetryis securedbysculpture, painting,andmusic. Everyone ofthese arts notmerely still reproduces the spiritual contentcompletelyin amediumborrowedfromtheobjectiveworld,but also leavesuswiththatwhich lies opento our senses,no less than our intelligence. For although painting andmusic, regarded as romantic arts, attach themselves to amediumalready more ideal, they do none the less supplythe immediacy of objective existence, which, however, inthis increase of ideality, shows indications of disappear-ance, while again from the opposite point of view theyprove themselves, through theirmediaof colourand tone,more profuse in fulness of particularization and manifoldconfiguration than is required fromthe material of sculp-ture.Nodoubttheart ofpoetry in its turn also endeavours,asa set- off to this defect, to place the objectiveworldbeforeuswithabreadthandvarietywhich even painting, at leastin a single composition, fails to secure: none the less thiscomprehensivenessremains throughoutmerelya realizationconfinedtoconsciousness itself; and, if it so happens thatpoetry, in response to ademand for more material artisti*"realization, attempts to increase the impression on oisenses, it is onlyable todo this byeitherborrowing theeffects frommusic and painting, in order to secure artismeansotherwiseforeignto it; or it is forced, if it seeksFINEART17retain its genuinecharacter, to employthese sister arts onlyinderasubordinaterelationofservice,whilethemain stress3 laidontheideas ofconscious life, the imaginationwhichppeals to the imagination, withwhich it is above all con-erned.This will suffice for discussion of the general relationunderwhich poetry is placed to the other arts. We shallnowproceed to a closer examination of the art of poetryitself, and with a view to this propose to co-ordinate the:ameasfollows.We have already seen that in poetry it is the ideal;:oncept itself from which we derive content no less than"^nedium. By reason, however, of the fact that we alreadyiind outside Art'sdomaintheworld ofidea tobethe mostobvious modeof conscious life, it is above everything elsemportantto distinguishtheconception oipoetryfrom thatiiprose. The art of poetry, however, is not complete inhis ideal world of the imagination alone. It is necessarythat it should clothe the same in expressivelanguage. Ithas therefore a twofold task confronting it. On the onehand it is called upon so to arrange this world of con-:-tructed ideathat it mayadmitofcompletetranslation into;;peech: on the other it must take care not to leave thisnedium oflanguage in the form appropriated by ordinary:onscious life. In otherwords suchmustbe treated poet-:cally in orderthattheexpressionofartmaybedistinguish-able inthe selection ofwords no less than their position,'ndeventheirsoundfromthatofordinaryprose.Furthermore,on account of the fact that, though poetryavails itselfoflanguageasameansofexpression, it securesbyfarthe mostunqualifiedfreedom from those conditionsandrestrictionsimposedonthe other arts byvirtue of theparticularization oftheirmaterial, it is possible for a poet-ical compositionin apre-eminentdegreeto elaborateeveryoneofthevariousmodes of expression, otherwiseadoptedr^Tectedbythe onesidedness incidental to theirapplica-to a particular art. The subdivision of suchmodesojession in all their variety is consequently by far the: completein theworksofpoetry,he further course of our investigation may now bejmizedas follows:i8 THEPHILOSOPHYOFFINEARTFirsts wehaveto elucidatewhat is in generaltermspoet-ical^ andthepoeticalcomposition in particular.Secondly^poetry will be examined as a means of ex-pression.Thirdly^ weshall dealwiththesubdivision ofthe art intoEpic, Lyric^ andDramaticpoetry.IPOETICAL COMPOSITION AS DISTINGUISHEDFROMTHATOFPROSEWEfindit difficultto recallasinglewriter amongall whohavewritten on thesubjectofpoetry whohasnotevadedtheattemptto describewhatis poeticalas such, let aloneacleardefinition. Andin fact if anyonebegins adiscussionupon poetry, regardedas an art, without previouslyhavinginvestigatedthenatureofthecontentandmodeofconcep-tion appropriate to Art in its most general terms, he willfind it an extremelydifficult mattertodeterminewherewemustlookfor that inwhichthe essentialcharacterofpoetryconsists. Toanexceptional degree is this failure to tacklethis problem visible in thosecaseswhere awritertakes ashis point of departure the actual execution in particularworksof art, and seeksto establish, bymeans of this con-noisseurship, somegeneralprinciplewhichhemayapplyasrelevant to everysortandkindofcomposition. Inthiswayworksof themostheterogeneouscharactercometo rankasgenuine poetry. If weonce start from such assumptions,andthen proceedto theinquirybyvirtue of what produc-tions of this nature can be reasonablyclassed together aspoemswe are at onceconfrontedwith the difficulty I haveabove adverted to. Happily our own position here is notthat of these inquirers. In the first place we have by nomanner of means arrived at the general notion of oursubject-matter through an examination of any particularexamples of its display; wehave onthecontrarysought toevolvetheactual constitution of thesamebyareferencetothe fundamentalnotion.^ Agreeablywith this it is not part^That is, the essential notion{Begriff)of Artgenerally.920 THEPHILOSOPHYOFofour demandthateverything inordinaryparlanceregardedas poetryshouldin our presentinquiry fall into thegeneralnotionwehaveaccepted. Atleastthis is certainlynotso inso far as thedecisionwhetheranyparticularwork is or isnotpoeticalisonlydeduciblefromthenotionitself. Further-moreit is unnecessarynowto expoundmorefullywhatweunderstandbythenotion of poetry. Todothiswe shouldsimplyhave to repeat again thecourse of ourinquiryintothenatureofBeautyandthe Idealasdeveloped in generaltermsin the first partof this work. Theintrinsiccharacterof what is poetical stands in general agreement with thegenericnotionof artistic beautyandthe art-product. Thatis to say, theimaginationof the poet is not, as is the casewiththe plastic arts andmusicbyreason of the nature ofthe materia^ through which they are reproductive, con-strained in its creative activity in many directions, andforced to acceptmanyothers of aonesidedorvery partialcompleteness; it is on the contrary merely subservient totheessentialrequirementsandgeneral principle ofanidealandartistic presentation.Fromthemanydifferent points of viewapplicable to ourpresentpurpose, I will attempt to emphasize merelythoseofmostimportance, as for example, ^r^/, thatwhichrelatestothe distinction betweenthemodeofcomposition employedrespectively bypoetryand prose\secondly^ thatwhichcon-trasts2^poetical workas completedwithoneofprose; and,finally,I proposetoadd a fewobservations relative to thesubjective faculty which creates, or, shall we say, thepoethimself.I. TheCompositionofPoetryandProse(a) Inso far as the content appropriate to poetical com-positionisconcernedwemay,relativelyspeakingatanyrate,exclude the external world of natural fact. It is spiritualinterests rather than the sun, mountains, landscape, or thebodily human form, and the like, which are its propersubject-matter. For, although it naturally embraces theelementof sensuousimpressionand perception, it remainsnonethe less, evenin this respect, anactivity of mind. Itsmainobject is anintuition ofideality, to which it stands asFINEART 21spiritualactivityincloserrelationandaffinitythanispossibleforexternal objects,as presentedintheirconcretesubstanceto the senses. The world of Nature therefore only entersinto the content of poetry in so far as mind discoverstherein astimulus oramaterial uponv/hich to exercise itsown energy; as, for example, where it is regarded as theenvironment of man, merely possessing essential worth inits relation to the ideality of conscious life, whichmoreovercanputforwardnoclaimto beitselftheindependentobjectof poetry. | Theobject, in short, which fully corresponds to !Jits appeal is the infinite realmofSpirit. Forthemediumoflanguage, the most plastic medium possessed immediatelybyconscious life, andtheone most competent to grasp itsinterests and movementsin their ideal vitality, preciselyasisthecasewiththe material oftheotherarts,suchasstone,colour,andtone,mustnecessarily andaboveall beemployedto express thatwhich it is most qualified to express. It isconsequentlythepre-eminent task ofpoetry to bringbeforeourvision theenergies ofthe life ofSpirit, all that surgestoand fro in human passion and emotion, or passes in tran-quillity acrossthe mind, that is the all-embracing realm ofhumanidea, action, exploit, fatality,theaffairs ofthisworldandthedivineProvidence. It hasbeenthemostuniversaland cosmopolitan instructor of the human raceand is sostill.Instructionand learningare together the knowledgeand experience of what is.* Stars, animals and plants areignorantoftheirlawit doesnotcomeintotheirexperience;butmanonlythen exists conformablyto theprincipleofhisbeing when he knows what he is and by what he is sur-rounded. He must recognize the powers by which he is'driven orinfluenced; andit is just suchaknowledgewhichj^/poetry, in its originalandvital ' form, supplies.'{b) It is, however, also a content of the same characterwhich belongs to man's ordi7iary conscious life. This tooinstructshimin general laws,assuchat leastareinterpretedbythemotleycrowdof humanhfe, in their distinction, co-ordination, and significance. Thequestion therefore arises,aspreviouslyobserved, as to the nature of the distinctionbetweenthemodeofconceptionseverallyadoptedbyprose^Substantiellen, i.e.^ theformthat mostcorrespondsto its essence.22 THEPHILOSOPHYOFandpoetry,asimilarityinthecontentofeachbeing assumedas possible.(a) Poetryis of greater antiquity than speech modelledjin the artistic form of elaborate prose. It is the originalimaginativegraspoftruth, aform ofknowledge,whichfailsj^jasyet to separatetheuniversal from its living existence iny/^^^^^'the particular object, which does not as yet contrast lawandphenomena, objectand means, orrelate theoneto theotherin subordination totheprocess of humanreason, but^(^[comprehendstheoneexclusively in theotherandbyvirtue^^^i^oftheother. Forthis reason it doesnotmerely, under themodeofimagery,expressacontentalreadyessentiallyappre-.^^^hendedin its universality; on the contrary it lingers, con-\vj^'formablyto its unmediated notion, in theunity of concretejj^life itself, whichhasnotas yet effectedsucha separationor'suchai association ofmererelationship.(aa) Under the above forms of envisualization, poetryposits all that it comprehends as an exclusive and conse-quentlyindependenttotality, which, despite its capacity fora rich content and an extensive range of condition, indi-viduals, actions, events, emotionsand ideas of every kind,nevertheless is forced to exhibit thesame in all their widecomplexity as an essentially self-determined whole, as dis-playedand motived bythe unity, whoseindividual expres-sion this orthatfactin its singularity actuallyis. Andcon-sequentlytheuniversal orrational principleisnotexpressedin poetry in its abstract universality, or in the complexuswhich lies open to philosophical exposition or under therelation of its varied aspects apprehended by science, butonthecontraryas avital union,inits phenomenalpresence,possessedwith soulandself-determined throughout; anditis further expressed in such a way that the all-embracingunity, the real soul of its vitality, is only suffered to beoperative in mysteriousguisefromwithin outwards.(/3/3)The character of this mode of apprehending, re-\jclothingand expressingfact is throughoutoneofconstruc-tion. It is notthe factitselfanditscontemplative^existence,\},%ybutreconstruction andspeech whicharetheobjectofpoetry.. \.^^^ Theoretisch. Hegeldoubtlesshas theGreekwordinhismind. Itis aBildun^for themindratherthanwithaviewtoaction. It assumescontemplationrather than volition.FINEART23Its entranceonthescenedatesfromthe first efforts ofman1/ -^at self-expression. Whatis expressed is simplymadeuseof^ato satisfy this desire. Theinstantman, in the midst of his\Ji^practical activitiesandimperativeduties,seeksto summarizethis effect for mind and to communicate himselfto others,thenwehavesomekindof artistic expression, someaccordwith what is poetical. To mention one from a host of^>(examples, there is that distichwhichweread in Herodotus^''referring to the slain heroes of Thermopylae. As for itscontent it is simply the fact, the bareannouncementthatfour thousand Peloponesians onacertain spot fought thebattle with three hundred myriads. The main interest is,however,thecompositionofaninscriptionwhichcommuni-cates to contemporarylife and posteritythe historical fact,and is there exclusively to do so. In other words, the iexpression of this fact is poetical; it testifies to itselfas a - ^'deed(ein noiely) which leaves the content in its simplicity,butexpresses the samewith adefinitepurpose. The language,^/in which theidea is embodied, is to that extent of suchj4^^.^increasedvaluethatanattemptismadetodistinguishitfrom ! (/^ordinaryspeech; wehaveadistich in lieu ofasentence.(yy)For this reason, even from the point of view of;language,poetrymakesaneffort tokeep its domainsingular\ fanddistinctfromordinaryparlance, andto accomplishthisjelevates its expression to ahighervirtuethan thatofmerely'articulate expression. We must, however, not only in thisparticular respect, but for the purposes of our present in-quiry generally, make an essential distinction between aprimitive poetry, which arises previous to the creation ofordinaryartificial prose,andthatmodeofpoeticalcomposi-tionandspeechthedevelopmentofwhichis effectedwherealreadytheconditions ofoureveryday life and prosaic ex-pression exist. The first is poetical without intention, inideanoless thanspeech; the latter,onthecontrary, is fullyconscious of the sphere, from which its task is to detachitself, in orderthat it mayestablish itself on the free basisofart. It is consequentlyquiteawareofthe distinctionandcontrastimpliedin its self-creation totheworldof prose.(/3)Secondly^ thekindoi proselife^fromwhichpoetryhasto separate itself, postulates an entirely different nature ofconceptionandspeech.24THEPHILOSOPHYOF(aa) In Other words, looked at fromonepoint of view,such a consciousness regards the wide expanse of realityaccording to that association ofcauseandeffect, objectandmeans, and all other categories of the modeof reflectionwhichdealswith^ni/econditions and the objective worldgenerally, that is, the limited categories of science or theunderstanding. It is a feature of such thought that everyparticular trait should at one momentappearwith a falsesubsistency, at another should be placed in the positionof l>are relation to something else, that as such it shouldbesoapprehendedin its relativityanddependence that nounity of a free nature whatever is possible, no unity, thatis, which remains essentially throughout, and in all itsbranches and separate filaments, a complete and free to-tality, nounity, in short, wherewe find that the individualaspects are simply the appropriate explication and pheno-menalpresenceofonecontentwhichconstitutes thepointoffocus, the soul that unites all together, andwhichalso findsits vital principle in this all-pervading centreofanimation.Rather the type ofconceptionweaboverefer toas that ofscience goes no further than the discovery of particularlaws in phenomena, and persists for this reason in theseparation, orbarerelation, ofthe particularexistencewithits generallaw, thelawsthemselves underthis viewtendingto harden fromeach otherin their isolate singularity; thattheirrelation is,in fact,conceivedexclusivelyunderexternalandfinite conditions.(/3/3)And,furthermore,man'sordinaryconsciousnesshasnothingtodowithwhatwecall theideal principle of asso-ciation, the essential coreoffacts, their bases, causes, ends,and so forth. It rests satisfied with the acceptance of themerefact thatsomethingexists orhappensas distinct fromsomethingelse; or,in otherwords,withitsinsignificantcon-tingency. It is nodoubttrue that theunityoflife is not,insuchacase,deliberately cancelledbyanyexpressseparation;that unity, I mean,inwhichtheintuitionofthepoetarreststheideal rationaleofthefact, itsexpressionanddeterminateexistence. What,however, is absent here, is just that flashof insight into this core ofreason and significance, whichbecomesconsequentlyforourintelligence athingessentiallyvacant, possessing no further claim on our minds to aFINEART25rational interest. Thecomprehensionof arational cosmosjand its relations is exchanged then and there for a mere'flux and contiguity of indifference, which it is true maypossess a large expanse of external animation, but whichnonethe less suffers the profounder impulseof reason^ toremain unsatisfied. Truevision, noless thansoul-Hfe in its?^full vigour, can only obtain satisfaction, where such are imade aware in phenomena, through feeling no less than*contemplation,ofthe realityinits essenceandtruthwhichiscompatible with such a world. The life which is a mereexternalshowis defunct to our deeper sense, if all that isideal and intrinsically rich in significance fails to shinethroughas the verysoul thereof.(yy)Thesedefects, thirdly,in theconceptionsofscienceand our ordinary conscious life speculative thought effaces.It stands, therefore, in onerespect in affinity with the im-agination of the poet. The cognizance of reason"^is notsolely,or evenmainly,concernedwithcontingentsingularity,nordoes it overlook in the phenomenal world theessenceof thesame. It doesnotrest satisfied withthe differentia-tionsand external relations properto the conceptions anddeductions of theunderstanding; it unites them in a freetotality, whichinthe apprehension of our finite faculty inpart fails topreserveitsself-consistency,andinpartis positedinarelationthatpossessesnosyntheticunity. Purethought,however, can have but one result, namely thoughts. Itevaporatesthemodeof reality in that of the pure notion.Andalthough it graspsand comprehendsactual things intheir essential separationandtheiractual existence, it doesalso nevertheless translate this particularityinto the idealelementoftheuniversal,in whichalone thoughtis athomewith itself. Consequently there arises, in contrast to theworldof phenomena,aworldthat is newin this sense,thatthoughthetruth of the Real is present, it is not displayedin reality itself as thepoweritself which gives it form andthe veritable soul therepf. Thinkingis simplyareconcilia-tion of truth with reality in Thought. The creations and^It is notquite clearwhetherHegelmeans byBcdiirfniss theneedof spiritual life, ortheprofounderdemand of reality. It mightstandforeither.^That is, the Vernunft.26THEPHILOSOPHYOFreconstruction,however, of the poet is a reconciUationunderthe modeofphenomenal reality itself, albeit such arealappearanceis merelyideallyconceived.(7)Wehave, therefore,twodistinct spheresofconscious-ness, that of poetryand prose. In former times, in whichthere is neither present a deliberate outlook on theworldelaborated, in respectto its religious beUefand its generalknowledge,undertheco-ordinated form of scientific ideasand cognition, nor an actual world of human conditionregulatedconformably to such a standard, poetry is con-fronted with a lighter task. Prose is not in such a caseopposed to it as an essentially independent field of idealand external existence, whichit has first to overcome. Itsproblem is forthemostpartsimplylimited to deepeningallthat is significant or transparent in the forms of ordinaryconsciousness. If, on the contrary, the prose of life hasalreadyappropriated within its mode of vision the entirecontent of conscious life, setting its seal on all and everypartof it, the art of poetry is forced toundertakethetaskofmeltingalldownagainandre-coiningthesameanew. Ineverydirection it finds itself involved in difficulties by theunresponsivenatureof prosaic existence. It has, in short,notonlyto wrest itselffromtheadherenceofordinarycon-sciousness to all that is indifferent and contingent, and toraisethe scientificapprehensionofthecosmosoffacttothelevel of reason's profounder penetration, or to translatespeculativethoughtintotermsof the imagination, giving abodytothesameinthesphereofintelligence itself; it hasfurther to convert in many ways the modeofexpressioftcommonto theordinary consciousnessinto thatappropriatetopoetry; and, despiteofall deliberate intention enforcedbysuchacontrastandsuchaprocess,tomakeit appearasthoughall suchpurposewasabsent, preservingthe originalreedomessential to all art.{c) Wehavenowsummarized in its mostgeneral termsthat in which the content of poetry consists. We havefurtherdistinguishedtheformof poetryfromthat of prose.In conclusion, it is of importance to drawattention to theparticularization which the art of poetry, to a degree un-attained bytheotherarts, whosedevelopmentis notnearlysorich in results,admits of. Wefind,nodoubt,architectureFINEART27illustrated in thearts ofveryvariedpeoples,andcontinuousthroughmanycenturies. Butofsculpture,at least,it is truethat it reaches its culminating point in the ancientworldofGreeceandRome,justas paintingandmusichavedonemorerecently in Christendom. Theart ofpoetrycelebratesits epochsofbrilliancyandbloomamongall nationsandinall ages almost that present anyreal artistic activity at all.It embracesthe collectiveSpirit ofmankind,andit is differ-entiatedthrougheverykindofvariation.(a) Furthermore,inasmuchas poetrydoesnotaccepttheuniversal in scientific abstractionfrom its object, but seekstorepresent whatis rational underthemodeofindividuality,^the specific traits of national character are essential to itsgrowth; thecontentandtheparticularmodeofits presenta-tionarein fact conditionedbythenature of these and thegeneraloutlook ineachcase. Wefind it consequentlyadapt-ingitselftoeveryvarietyof formandpeculiarity. Itmattersnot what the poetry may be, whether Oriental, Italian,Spanish, English, Roman, Hellenic, or German, each andall differ totally in their spirit, emotional impulse, generaloutlookandexpression.A similar distinctive variety asserts itself in particularepochs as they are favourable to the art of poetry or thereverse. The results secured, for example,by our Germanpoetrywereimpossible in theMiddleAges, or thetimes ofthe thirty years' war. The particular motives, whichin ourown day excite the greatest interest, are inseparable fromtheentire evolution ofcontemporary life. Andin the samewayevery age has its ownwider or more restricted, moreexaltedandliberal, or more depressed phase of emotionallife, in short its specific outlook on the world, which it istheexpressaimof poetryto bringhometo theartistic con-sciousness in the most intelligible and complete manner,inasmuch as language is the one medium capable of ex-pressing thehuman spirit whereverandin whateverform itmaybemanifested.(j3)Among these national characteristics, or views andopinions peculiar to particular epochs, some have closeraffinity with the poetic impulse than others. TheOriental^Das individualisi)te Vernunjlige, i.e., reason as realized in con-crete personality.28THEPHILOSOPHYOFconsciousness is, for example, in general more poetic thantheWestern mind, if we exclude Greece. In the East theprinciple predominantis always that of coherence, solidity,unity, substance. Anoutlook of this nature is intrinsicallymost penetrative, eventhoughit mayfail to reachthe free-domof theIdeal. OurWesternpointofview,especiallythatof modern life, is based on the endless breaking up anddivision of its boundless material into fragments, in virtueof which process, the extreme emphasis laid here on par-ticular facts, what is merelyfinite becomes substantive forthe imagination, and despite of this must be once moresubsumedunder theconverseaction of relativity. For theOrientalnothingpersistsasreallysubstantive,buteverythingappearsascontmgent, discovering its supremefocus, stabil-ityandfinaljustification in theOne,theAbsolute,towhichit is referred.(y)Bymeans of this diversity of national traits andtheevolutionary process of the centuries we find that what issharedbyall mankindalike, no less than all thatclaims tobeartistic, is drawnas acommonelementwithin thereachof other nations and epochs, intelligible and enjoyable tothesame. It is in this twofoldconnection that oflate yearsto an exceptional degree Hellenic poetry has roused theadmirationandimitationofmostdiverse nationalities. Andthis is sobecause in thecontent of it no less than in theartistic form it receives the simplyhuman is disclosedwithmostbeauty. Theliterature ofIndiaitself, however,despiteall the difficulties attendant on an outlook and artistic ex-pression so alien to our own, is not wholly outside oursympathy; and the boast is no empty one that in ourmodern era pre-eminentlyakeen sense for all that artandthehuman spirit embraces in everydirectionhas beguntounfold itself.Werewein our present investigation of this impulse to-ward individualization, pursued so persistently by poetry,undertheaspectswehave alreadydescribed, to restrict thesame to a general treatment of the art of poetry, such ageneralization, however established, could not fail to beabstractanddevoidofcontent. It is therefore of first im-portance, if our object be to consider poetry of a reallygenuine type, that we include in our survey the forms of-#FINEART^%the creative spirit as presented in their national form, theunique productofoneage; andfurtherwemust not over-look the individualitywhich creates, the soul of the poet.Such, then, are the main points of viewto which I woulddrawattentionbywayofageneralintroduction to poeticalcreationandconception.2. TheArt-ProductofPoetryandProsePoetryis not,however,exhaustedbytheimaginativeideaalone: it mustnecessarily proceedto make itself articulateandcompletein iki^ poetical workofart.Suchanobjectof studyopens a large field of investiga-tion. Wemay convenientlyarrangeandclassify the courseofourdiscussionas follows:Firsts we shall endeavour to point out what is of mostimportancerelatively to thepoeticalcompositiongenerally.Secondly^ we shall distinguish it fromthe principal typesof proseconiposition^ in so far as the same are compatiblewithartistic treatment.We shall then,yf/^a//^*, be in a position to deduce withsomecompletenessthenotionof\\\e,free art-product.(a) Inrespecttothepoetical workofartunderits genericaspect all that is necessary is once more to enforce ourprevious contention that it must, no less than any otherproduction of anunfettered imagination, receive the formand independence of an organicwhole. This demandcanonlyreceive satisfaction asfollows:(a) Inthefrstplacethatwhichconstitutes ahomogene-ous content, whether it be adefinite object of action andevent, ora specific emotionandpassion,mustbeforeevery-thingelsepossessintrinsic unity.(aa) All elsemustbeposftedunderrelationto thisbondof unity, andtherebycombinetoform a free andconcrete~P''coherenceofall parts. Thisis onlypossibleunderthecon-dition,thatthecontentselected is notconceivedas abstractuniversal, but as the action and emotion of men, as the^object andpassionwhichare actuallypresent in the mind,soul,andvolitionofdefiniteindividuals,arisingassuchfromthedistinctive basis ofanindividualnaturein eachcase.//u*soTHEPHILOSOPHYOFr^(/3/3)The universal, which is to receive representation,and the individuals, in whose character events andactionsthemanifestationofpoetryisassertedmustnotconsequentlyifall into fragments, orbeso relatedthatthe individuals areimerelyofservice asanabstractuniversal;bothaspectsmust! combinein vital coalescence. Inthe Iliad, forexample,thecontestofGreeksandTrojans,andthevictoryoftheformeris inseparablyboundupwith the wrath of Achilles, whichfor this reason becomes thecommonfocuswelding all to-gether. Nodoubtwealso find poeticalworks inwhichthefundamentalcontent is partlymore abstract in its general-ization,andalso partly is executedin awaythatexpressesauniversal of more significance. Dante's greatepicpoemisan illustration, which not only embraces the world divinethroughout,butdisplaysindividuals ofthemostvaried char-acterin their relation to the punishments of hell,purgatoryandtheblessedness of Paradise. Butevenherewefindnoentirely abstract separation,of the two points of view, nomererelation ofservicebetweentheparticular objects. Forin theChristianworldthefocus ofconscious life is notcon-ceived as nothing more thananaccident of Godhead,butas essentialandinfinite causeor enditself, so thatheretheuniversalpurpose,that is thedivinejustice incondemnationandsalvationcanverilyappearasimmanentfact,the eternalinterestandbeing of theindividual himself. In this divineworld the individual is throughout of pre-eminent import-ance. InthatoftheStatehecanof coursebesacrificed inorderto savetheuniversal,that is theState. Inhis relationtoGod,however,andin thekingdomof Godhe is essenti-allyandexclusivelytheend.(^^(yy)^^^^must, however, thirdly^ conceive the universal,whichsuppliesthecontentof humanemotionandactionasself-subsistent, intrinsically complete where it is, and con-stituting as such in itself a definitiveandexclusiveworld.When,forinstance,inourcontemporarylifementionismadeof any officer, official, general, professor, and so forth,andwetrytoimaginewhatkindofaction suchamanorperson-alityis likelytoattemptorcarryout underhisownparticularconditionsofenvironment, weplacebeforeourselvessimplyacontentof interestandactivity, whichin part is notitselfaroundedandself-substantivewhole, butonewhichstandsFINEART 31in infinitely manifold external connections, relations andconditions, in part also, if we regard it as abstract totality,onewhichcanreceivetheformofauniversalconceptin itsseparation from the individuality of the, in other respects,entirepersonality,asforinstancethatofpersonalobligation.Conversely we may have no doubt a content of sterlingcharacter,making, that is to say, anessentiallyindependentwhole, which, despite of this, andwithout furtherdevelop-mentandadvance, is completein onesentence. It is really~l|impossibleto saywhetheracontent of this naturebelongsjmoreproperly to poetryorprose. Thegrandaffirmation of'theoldTestament," Godsaid Let theirbeLightandtherewasLight," is at once in its penetration,no less than theprecisionofits embrace,^asmuchessentiallysublimepoetryas it is ordinaryprose. Ofa similarnatureis the command,"Iam the Lord thy God, thou shalt have no other godsbutme"jorthat," Honourthyfather andthymother." Thegolden epigrams of a Pythagoras and the wise sayings ofSolomonare ofthe sametype. Phrases, so rich in contentas theabove,havetheir origin in aworldwherethe distinc-tion between poetryand prose is as yet absent. We can,however, hardlyaffirm ofsuchthattheyareapoeticalwork^.\of art, even though many such phrases maybe combinedtogether. Theindependenceandroundingoffofagenuinepoeticalwork mustbe assumedat the same time tobe ofthe nature of a process, and a differentiation of parts: we a^assumeit thereforetobeaunity,thetruecharacterofwhich'^'^^is only madeexpHcitbyemphaticinsistenceuponits divers-/j^'^,ity. This process, absolutely essential in the plastic arts, 7^^^^-regarded at least according to the requirements of theirform, is also more generally of the greatest moment in apoeticalcomposition.(/3)This introduces us, then, to a second feature of theworkofart, namely,theorganicdifferentiation ofits severalparts, essential to it notmerelythat it maybe presentedasanorganic unity, but that the elaboration of all it impliesmayberenderedcomplete.(aa) Themostobviousreasonofthisnecessityis referable^Inseiner Gediegenheitund schlagendenFassung, Gediegenheithere=thoroughgrasp. Schlagenden maypossiblymeanarrestingcharacteroftheconceptionratherthandefinite, precise.32 THEPHILOSOPHYOFto the fact thatArtin generaltendsinstinctively to particu-larization. Theeffect ofthe scientific faculty is thatwhatisparticularandsingular fails to receive its completevindica-tion. Andthis is sonotmerelybecause theunderstandingapprehends themanifold, as suchtheoreticfaculty, startingfromits principles of generalization, causing the particularfact thereby to evaporate in its abstract deductions andcategories; but also because it makes this manifold sub-serve ends of purely practical import. Severe adherenceto that purelyrelative value, which strictly belongs to thenatureofthe process, appearsto the understanding as use-less and tedious. To the conception and composition ofiipoetryonthe contraryeverypart, everyphasein the result/Imustremainofessential interestandvital. It dallies there-forewith delight indetail,depicts thesame withenthusiasm,. and treats everypart as anindependent whole. Howevergreat,therefore,in additionthecontentmaybeofa poeticalwork in its central interest, the organic completeness isequally asserted in subordinate detail, precisely as in thehuman organism every member, every finger is roundedwith exquisite delicacy in its unified completeness, and asarule, wefind in Nature that every particular existence isenclosedwithinaperfectworldofits own. Theadvanceofpoetry is thereforemoreslowthanthatcompatiblewiththejudgmentsandconclusions of theunderstanding,wherewefind that, whether regardedtheoreticallyas science orwithreference to practicalconductandaction, themainstress isonthe final result, this ratherthanonthe pathbywhichitis reached. As for the degreein which poetryapproachesrealization in its tenderness for suchdetailwehave alreadypointedoutthat it is not its vocation to describewith ex-cessivediffusenesswhat is exterior in theformof its sensu-ous appearance. If it therefore undertakes extensive de-scriptions without making them reflect at the same timetheclaims andinterests of soul-life it becomes heavyandtedious. Above all it must takecare not to enter into de-liberate rivalry with the actual detail, in its exact complete-ness, presentedbynatural fact itself. Even paintingin thisrespect should aim at circumspection and restriction. Wehave therefore here and in the case of poetry a twofoldpointof view to consider. On the one handwe must re-FINEART^33member that the impression is onour mental vision; andon the other the art can only place before the mind theobject, which in Naturewe can surveyandcomprehendinasingleglancein aseries ofseparate traits. Forthis reasonit is important that poetry does not carry its elaborationof detail so far, thatthevision of thewhole in its entiretybecomesinevitablydisturbed,confused,orlost. Itisobvioustherefore that difficulties of an exceptional nature have tobeovercomewhenthe attempt is made to placeanactionor event of varied nature before ourvision, and where inactual life suchhappenin asinglemoment of time,and incloseconnectionwithsuchimmediacy,for all it candois topresent the same in a continuous series. As respects thisdifficulty, no less thanthe generalwayin which poetry, asalreadydescribed, approachesthedetail of Nature,wefindthedemandof the several generic types of the art differsveryconsiderably. Epic poetry, forinstance, attaches itselfto the particularity of the externalworldwithanemphasistotallydifferentfromthatof dramaticpoetry,withitsrapidityofforwardmovement, orfromthat oflyrical poetrywith itsexclusiveinsistenceontheideally significant.(/3/3)It is through an elaboration of this kind that theseveralparts ofacomposition securesuhsistency. Nodoubtthis appears to stand in direct contradiction to the unitywhich we established as a primarycondition: as a matterof fact theopposition is merely apparent. This independ-enceshould not, that is to say, assert itself in such a waythattheseveral parts areplacedin absoluteseparationfromeachother: it mustonthe contrary only be carried so farthat the several aspects and members of the whole areclearlyseenontheirownaccountto beasserted in thevitalformpeculiartoeach, and to stand ontheirown free basisof independence. If, on the contrary, this individualizedlifeisabsentfromtheseveralparts,thecompositionbecomes,precisely as Artgenerallycanonlyinvesttheuniversalwithdeterminateexistenceundertheformofactual particularity,coldanddefunct.(yy)Despite of thisself-subsistency,however,theseseveralparts must remain likewise in conjunction to the extentthat the one fundamental motive orpurpose, made explicitand manifest in and through them, must declare itselfIVD34THEPHILOSOPHYOFas the unitywhich pervades the whole, and in which thepartscoalesce and to which theyreturn. This is the con-dition of art, andpre-eminentlyso of poetry, where it fallsshort of its noblest reach, upon which it most readily iswrecked,andthework of art declines from the realm ofafree imagination into that of mere prose. To put it inanotherway, the connexion intowhichthe parts fall mustnot merely be oneoffinalcauseandeffect.Forintherelationof teleology the end is the universal as essentially pre-supposed and willed, which it is true succeeds in makingthe severalaspects tally with the process, yetemploysthemnonethe lessasmeansandto this extent robs them of allreally free stabilityand therebyof every sort ofvitality. Insuchacasethepartsmerely fall underarelationofpurposetooneend,whichisassertedimperiouslytothedisadvantageof all else, and which accepts the same in abstraction assubservient and subordinate to itself. The freedom andbeauty of art contradict flatly this servile relation of theabstractfacultyofscience.(y)On these grounds the unity, asserted in theseveralpartsofthe composition,mustbeofanothercharacter. Thedefinition of thismay bestated undertwo aspects of con-ception, asfollows.{aa) In \)ci.^firstplace,thevitalpresencewehavealreadyreferred to as peculiar to every part separately must bemaintained. If we direct our attention, however, to thatwhich in fact justifies theintroduction of any detail what-ever into the composition, we find the point of departureto be one fundamental idea which the same as a whole isundertaken to manifest or interpret. Consequently every-thing defined and particular must announce that as thesourceof its ownspecificappearance. Inotherwords, thecontent ofa poetical work must not be itself intrinsicallyabstract, butconcrete, onethatbyreason ofits ownwealthconducts us to a rich unravelment of its varied aspects.And when this variety,' even assuming that in its realiza-tion it falls to every appearance into plain contradictions,yet is asa matter of fact rooted in the essentially unifiedcontentwehaveadvertedto,in that casewemayaffirmthatby necessity the content itself, in a form agreeable to itsnotion and being, compriseswhat is fundamentally an ex-FINEART35elusiveandharmonioustotalityofparticular characteristics,whichit possessesas its own,andin thecontinuousexpatia-tion of which what it is in its real significance is in truthrenderedexplicit. It is onlytheseseveralparts,whichorigin-ally belongtothe content,andwhich consequentlyshouldbecarried into thecomposition under the mode of actualandessentially sound and vital existence. In this respect,therefore, despiteall appearance thedisplay of particularchar-acteristicspresentofopposition to others, theyarethrough-outcombined in a union of mysterious accord, rooted inits ownnature.{i^pt)Secondly^ since the composition is presented undertheformofnatural phenomena,theunitymust, in ordertopreserve the vital appearance of such reality, only be theideal bond,whichto all appearancewithoutintentionholdstogetherthepartsand includes them in an organic whole.It is just this animatingunionoforganic life whichalone isableto bringinto beingtrue poetryas contrastedwith theexpressedintentionofplainprose. Thatis to saywheneverparticularity exclusivelyappearsasmeanstoa definite end,it doesnotpossessandcannotconceivablypossessaninde-pendentanduniquevitality of its own; whatit doestestifyto,onthecontrary,is that it exists for thesakeofsomethingelse, thatis theendproposed. Purposeofthis typedeclaresits sovereigntyovertheobjective facts through which it isfulfilled. An artistic composition should, however, conferupon all that is particularwithin it, all in the expatiationof whichitdisplayscontinuouslythecentral andfundamentalcontentselected, the appearanceof an unfettered stability.Thisis absolutelynecessary,becausewhatweherecompriseunderthetermparticularity is just thatcontentitself underthemodeoftherealitywhichcorrespondswith it. We maythereforerecall toourmindstheanalogoustaskof specula-tivethought,whichin thesameway hasontheonesidetodevelop the particular to the point of self-subsistency orfreedomfromthat which is at firstanindefiniteuniversality;andlikewise, too, it is called onto demonstratehowwithinthis totalityofwhatis particular,in whichthatandthatonlyis divulged which essentially reposes in the universal, theunityis onthis veryaccountoncemoreasserted, andindeedthen and only then is truly concrete unity, established36THEPHILOSOPHYOFthroughits owndifferences andtheirmediation. Speculativephilosophy is thus, in thesameway,throughthemethodofdialectic above adverted to, responsible for works whichresemblein this respectthoseof poetry, containing,that is,byvirtueof thecontent,anessentialidentityof self-seclusive-ness and a revelation of differentiated material in accordwith it. Wemust, however, despite this similarity betweenthesetwoactivities, and apart from the obvious differencebetween the evolution of pure thinkingand creative art,draw attentiontoafurther essential distinction. Thededuc-tion of philosophy no doubt vindicates the necessity andactuality ofparticularity, butnonethe less, in virtue of thedialecticprocessin which thisaspectof reality is asserted,it is expresslydemonstratedofthis particularity andallofit,that it for the first timediscovers its truth and its stabilityin the concrete unity/ Poetry, on the contrary, does notproceedto any suchexpressdemonstration. Theconcordantunitymustnodoubtbecompletelyvindicated ineveryoneofits creations, andbeoperativethere in all their manifolddetail as the soul and vital core of the whole; but thispresence remains for Art an ideal bond which is impliedratherthanexpresslyposited, preciselyasthesoul is imme-diatelymadevitalinall thebodilymembers,withoutrobbingthe same of the appearance of an independent existence.We have the same truth illustrated bycolour and tone.Yellow, blue, green and red are different colours whichadmitof themostabsolutecontrast; but nonethe less, onaccountofthefact thatascolourtheyall essentially belongtoone totality, they maintain a harmony throughout; andit is not, moreover,necessarythatthis unionassuchshouldbeexpresslydeclaredin them. Inasimilarwaythe domin-ant,thethirdandthe fifth remain independentastones,andyet for all thatgive us the harmony of the trichord; or,rather, weshouldputit thattheyonly producethisharmonysolong aseachtone is permittedto assert itsownessentiallyfreeandcharacteristic sound.{yy)Inconnectionwiththis organicunityand articulatesynthesisof apoetical compositionwehave further to con-sider essentialfeaturesofdistinctionwhichare due to theparticular artisticformappropriatetothecompositionunder^Thatis, thenotion.FINEART37review, no less than the particular type of poetry in whichwediscoverthespecificcharacterofitsworkingout. Poetry,for example, of symbolic art is unable, owingto the moreabstract and indefinite traits which constitute its essentialandsignificant content, toattain toafully organicfusion inthe degree of transparency possible to the works of theclassical art-form. In symbolism generally, as we havealreadyestablished in the first part ofthis enquiry, thecon-junctionofgeneral significance andtheactualphenomenon,in associationwithwhich Art embodies its content, is of aless coherentcharacter: asaresult ofthis wefindthatwhatis particularinonedirection preservesagreaterconsistency;in another, as in thecaseoftheSublime,onlyso farassertsthis qualityin order, throughthe negation thus implied, torender more intelligible the ofie supreme power and sub-stance, ormerelytoadvance the process to a condition ofmysterious association of particular, but at the same timeheterogeneous no less than related traits and aspects ofnaturalandspiritual facts. Conversely,inthe romantictype,whereintheidealityoftruth reveals itselfinessentialprivacyto soul-Hfe only, wefind awider field for thedisplayofthedetailofrational reality in its self-subsistency; in this lattercasetheconjunctionofall partsandtheirunionmustneces-sarily be present, but the nature of their elaboration canneither beso clear orsecureas in theproducts of classicalart.In a similar way the Epic gives us a more extensivepictureoftheexternal world; it evenlingers bythewayinepisodicaleventsanddeeds,wherebytheunityof thewhole,owing to this increased isolation of the parts, appears tosuffer diminution. Thedrama, in contrast to this, requiresamorestrenuousconjunction,albeit, evenin thedrama,wefind thatromanticpoetrypermitstheintroduction ofatypeofvariety in thenatureofepisodeandanelaborateanalysisofcharacteristic traits in its presentationof soul-lifeno lessthanthatofexternal fact. Lyricpoetry, as it changes con-formably to the fluctuation of its types, adapts itself to amodeof presentmentofthe greatestvariety: atonetime itis bare narration; at another the exclusive expression ofemotionorcontemplation; atanotherit restricts its vision,in more tranquil advance, to thecentral unity which com-38THEPHILOSOPHYOFbines; at another it shifts hitherandthitherinunrestrainedpassion through a range of ideas and emotions apparentlydestitute of anyunityat all.This, then,must suffice us on the general question of apoetical composition.{b) Inordernow,this is our second main head in thepresent discussion,toexaminemorecloselythe distinctionwhichobtainsbetweentheorganic poemas aboveconsideredand the prose composition,wepropose to direct attentionto those specific typesofprosewhich,despite their obviouslimitations, donone the less comeinto closest affinitywithart. Such are, without question, the arts of history andoratory.(a) As regards history, there can be no doubt that wefindampleopportunityhereforoneaspectofgenuineartisticactivity.(aa) The evolution of human life in religion and civilsociety, theevents and destinies of the most famous indi-viduals and peoples, who have given emphasis to life ineither field bytheiractivity, all this presupposesgreatendsin thecompilationofsuchawork,orthecompletefailureofwhat it implies. The historical relation of subjects and acontentsuch as these admits of real distinction, thorough-ness and interest: and however much our historian mustendeavourto reproduceactual historical fact, it is nonetheless incumbent upon him to bring before our imaginativevision this motley contentofeventsandcharacters,tocreateanewandmakevivid thesame to our intelligence with hisowngenius.^ Inthecreation of suchamemorial he must,moreover, notrest satisfied withthe bareletter ofparticularfact; he must bring this material into a co-ordinated andconstructivewhole; he must collectivelyconceiveand em-brace single traits, occurrencesandactions undertheunify-ingconcept; withtheresult thaton the onehandwe haveflashed before us a clear picture of nationality, epoch oftime, externalconditionandthe spiritual greatnessorweak-ness of the individuals concerned in the very life andcharacterizationwhichbelongedtothem; and ontheother^Byausdent Geiste it is quitepossible that there is no referencetoindividualgenius. Inthat case the translation wouldbe"in termsofhumanintelligence," ue.^fromtheresourcesof humanreason.FINEART39that thebond of association, in which the various parts ofour picture stand to the ideal historical significance of apeopleoranevent, is assertedfromsuchwithout exception.It is in this sense that we, even in our own day, speak oftheart of Herodotus, Thucydides,Xenophon,Tacitus, andafewothers, andcannotceasetoadmire their narratives asclassical productsofthe art of humanlanguage.(/3/3)It is nevertheless true thateventhese fine examplesof historical composition do not belong to free Art. Wemay add that we should have no poetry even though weweretoassumewithsuchworkstheexternalformofpoetry,themeasureorrhyme ofverseand so forth. It is not ex-clusively the manner in which history is written, but thenature of its content^ whichmakes it prose. Let us lookatthis rathermoreclosely.Genuinehistory,both in respect toaimandperformance,onlybegins at the pointwhere theheroic age, whichin itsorigination it is the part of poetry and art to vindicate,ceases, for the reason thatwehavehere the momentwhenthedistinctoutlinesandproseofhfe,initsactualconditions,no less than the way they are conceivedand represented,comeintobeing. Herodotusdoesnotforinstancedescribethe Greek expedition to Troy, but the Persian wars, andtakes pains, in avarietyofways, with tedious researchandcareful reflection,tobasethenarrativeproposedongenuineknowledge. TheHindoos,indeedwemaysaythe Orientalsgenerally, with almostthe single exceptionof theChinese,donot possessthis instinct of prose sufficiently to producea genuine history. They invariably digress either into aninterpretation and reconstruction of facts of a purely re-ligious character, or such as are fantastic inventions. Theelement ofprose then native to the historical age of anyfolkmaybebrieflydescribedasfollows.In thefirstplace, in orderthatwe mayhave historywemust presuppose a common life, whether we consider thesameon its religious side, or that of a polity, with its law,institutions, andthe like, estabHshedontheir ownaccount,andpossessing originallyorintheirsubsequentmodificationavalidityas laws orconditionsofgeneralapplication.It is out of such acommon life, secondly^ that we markthe birth ofdefinite activities forthepreservation orchange40THEPHILOSOPHYOFof thesame,whichmaybeof universal import, andin factconstitute the end or motive of their continuance,and tocompleteandcarry into effect whichwehavetopresupposeindividuals fitted for such a task. These individuals aregreat and eminent in so far as they show themselves,through their effective personality, in co-operationwiththecommonend,whichunderliesthe ideal notion of the con-ditionswhichconfrontthem: theyare littlewhentheyfail torise in stature to thedemand thus made on their energy:they are depraved when, instead of facing as combatantsofthepracticalneeds ofthe times,^ theyare contentmerelyto give free rein to an individual force which is, with itsimplied caprice, foreign to all suchcommonends. Where,however,anyofsuchconditionsobtain we donothaveeithera genuinecontent oracondition of the world such as weestablished in the first partofourinquiryas essential to theart of poetry. Even in the case of personal greatness thesubstantiveaim of its devotion is to a large or less extentsomething given, presupposed, and enforced upon it, andto that extent theunity ofindividuality is excluded,whereintheuniversal, that is the entire personality should be self-identical,anendexclusivelyfor itself, anindependentwholein short. Forhowever muchtheseindividuals discovertheiraimsin theirownresources, it is forallthat notthefreedomor lack of it in their souls andintelligence, in otherwordsthe vital manifestation of their personality, buttheaccom-plished end, and its result as operative upon the actualworld already there, and essentially independent of suchindividuality,whichconstitutes theobjectofhistory. And,moreover,fromafurther point of viewwe find manifestedin the historical condition the play of contingency, thatbreachbetweenwhatis implicitly substantive andthe relat-ivity of particular events andoccurrences, no less than ofthe specific subjectivity of characters displayed in theirpersonalpassions, opinions and fortunes, which in thisprosaicmodeoflife presentfar moreeccentricityandvaria-tionthando thewonders of poetry, which through all di-versitymust remain constant to what is valid in all timesandplaces..Andfinally^in respect to the actual execution of affairs'ThisseemstobethemeaningofdieSachederZeit,FINEART41within thecognisance of historywefind here again the in-troduction of a prosaic element, if we contrast it withtheimpulseof genuinepoetry,partlyin thedivision assertedbypersonal idiosyncracy from a consciousness of laws, prin-ciples, maxims and so forth, which is thereby necessarilyabsorbedin theuniversalcondition orfact;andin partalsotherealization oftheends proposedinvolvemuch prepara-tionandarrangement, themeansto effectwhichextend far,andembracemanynecessaryorsubservientrelations,whichhavetobereadjustedandadapted,in ordertocarryoutthecourse proposed, with intelligence, prudence and prosaiccircumspection. Thework in short cannot be undertakenoffhand, butonlytoalarge extentafter extensiveintroduc-tion. Theresult ofthis is that the particularacts of execu-tion, which, it is hereassumed,come into effect for theonemain purpose, are often eitherwhollycontingent in respectto their content, and remain without ideal union, or areassertedundertheform ofapractical utility regulatedbyaminddominatedbytheaimsproposed; in other words,theydonot proceed unmediated from the core of free and in-dependentlife itself.^(yy)Thehistorian then has no right to expunge theseprosaic characteristics of his content, or to convert themintoothers morepoetical) his narrativemust embracewhatlies actuallybeforehimandin theshapehefinds it withoutamplification,'orat least poeticaltransformation. Howevermuch,therefore,itmay becomeapartofhis labourstomakethe ideal significance and spirit of an epoch, a people, orthe particular event depicted, the ideal focus and bondwhich holds all together in one coherent whole, he is notentitled to make either the conditions presented him, thecharacters or events, wholly subordinate to such a pur-pose, though he may doubtless remove from his surveywhatis whollycontingentandwithout serious significance;hemust,inshort,permitthemtoappearin alltheirobjectivecontingency,dependenceandmysteriouscaprice. Nodoubt^Lit., "They do not come forth from self-substantive and imme-diatelyfreevitality(Lebendigkeit)." Lebendikeitis heretheidealandcreativeforce orbondofsoul-lifeasabovedescribed.^TheGermanwordwould implyherean interpretation ofsymbolicorat least ideal significance,42THEPHILOSOPHYOFin biographythefullanimation of personalityand an inde-pendent unity is conceivably possible, because in such aworkthe individual, no less than all which proceeds fromhimandis operativein moulding suchafigure, is through-outthefocusofthecomposition. Ahistorical character is,however, exclusively one of two opposed extremes. Foralthoughwededuceaunityofsubjectfromthe same, nonethelessfromanotherpointofviewvariouseventsandtrans-actions obtrude, which in part are without any essentialideal connection,and in part come into contact with suchindividuality without any free co-operation on the part ofthe same,and to this extent involve the same within thecontingencyofsuchanexternalcondition. So,forexample,Alexander is without question a personality, pre-eminentabove all others of his epoch, and onewhich, in virtue ofits unique forces, falling astheydoinaccordwith contem-porary world conditions, becomes engaged in the Persianinvasion. The continent of Asia none the less, whichAlexander vanquishes, is in the capricious variety of itsnationalities a whole united by no necessary bond.* His-toricaleventspassbeforehimasthebarepanoramaof purelyobjective phenomena. And, finally, ifthe historian addstohis surveyhisprivatereflectionsasaphilosopher,attemptingtherebyto grasptheabsolutegroundsfor suchevents,risingto the sphere of thatdivine being, beforewhich all that iscontingentvanishes and a loftier mode of necessity is un-veiled, he is none the less debarred, in reference to theactualconformation of events, from that exclusive right ofpoetry, namely, to accept this substantive resolutionas thefact of most importance. To poetry alone is the libertypermittedto disposewithoutrestriction ofthe material sub-mittedin suchawaythat it becomes,even regardedontheside ofexternalcondition, conformablewith ideal truth.(/3)Secondly^oratoryappearsto haveacloseraffinitywiththefreedomofart.(aa) For although the orator avails himself of the op-portunityforandcontentofhis effort outof actualHfe anddefinite circumstances and opinions, all that he utters^This I presume is the general meaning of the sentence: Asieftaber, das er besiegty ist in der vielfachen Willkiihr seiner Einze/nenVolkerschaftennureinzufdlliges Ganzes,FINEART43remainsnone the less, in thefirstplace, subject to his freechoice. Hispersonalaimsandviewsareimmanenttherein,in virtue of which he can make the same a complete andliving expression of his personality. And,secondly^ thede-velopment of the subject of his oration and the mode ofdeliverydependsentirelyonhimself, so thattheimpressionhe makes is as thoughwereceived in his speechawhollyindependent expression of mind. And,finally^it is hisvocation not merely to address himself to the trained orordinaryintelligence of his hearers, buttoworkupontheirentire humanity, their emotions, no less than their judg-ment. The substance of whathehas to sayandinwhichhestrives toawakeinterest, is notmerelytheabstractaspectofit, noris it this aspectofhis main purpose, in the fulfil-ment ofwhich he invites co-operation, but rather for themost part also a definite and very real thing. For thisreasonthesubstance of the orator's address, while embrac-ing what is essentially substantive in its character, oughtequallyto grasp his general principleunder theform of itsspecific manifestation, and render the same intelligible toconscious life in the full concrete sense of the term. Theorator then mustnotmerelysatisfy ourunderstandingwiththecogencyofhis deductionsandconclusions,buthas it inhispowertoaddressthesoul itself, torousehumanpassionandcarry it captive, to absorb the whole attention, and bysuchmeans,throughall theavenuesofspirit, to ravish andconvincehis audience.(/3/3)Despite, however, such considerations, looked atrightlywefindthat it is just in the arts of oratory thatthisapparent freedom is almostwhollysubordinateto the ruleof practical utility. In other words what confers uponpublic speaking its unique motive force is not implied inthe particular purpose, to promote which the speech ismade; we must refer it to the general principle, the laws,rules, axiomswhichthe particularcase suggests, andwhichare alreadyessentiallypresent in this form of universality,partly, as actual laws of the State, partly too as ethical,juristicorreligious maxims,emotions,dogmas,andso forth.Theparticularcircumstanceandend,whichwefindhereasthe point of departure, and this universal are in every re-spect separate from each other, and this separation is the44THEPHILOSOPHYOFrelation maintained throughout. No doubt the orator in-tends to make these two aspects unite: what, however, inpoetry,inso faraspoetryis really present,attests asalreadyfromthe first accomplished, is present in oratorymerelyasthe personalaim of theorator, the fulfilment ofwhichliesoutsidethespeech itselfaltogether.Theonlyalternativewe have left us is a process of sub-sumatiojt) wherebythephenomenon,theactualand definedthing, here the concrete case or end, is not unravelled inimmediateunitywiththeuniversalas such,and freelyfromits own substance, but only receives validity by virtue ofits dependenceupongeneral principlesandin itsrelationtolegislative acts, morality, customs, and the like, which ontheirownaccount possess independent stabiHty. It is notthespontaneouslifeofthe factin its concretemanifestation,buttheprosaicdivision betweennotion and reality, amererelation of both to eachotherandameredemandfor theirunion, which constitutes the fundamental type under con-sideration.Suchaprocess of thought is frequentlyadopted by thereligiousteacher. Forhimreligious doctrines,intheir widestconnotation,andthe principlesofmoralityorofphilosophy,political orotherwise, whichfollow in their train, are in factpreciselytheobjectwheretohecan refercasesofeverycon-ceivablevariety; andtheyarethis forthereasonthat thesedoctrines haveto beaccepted, believed and recognized bythe religious consciousnessas essentiallyand in their ownworththesubstanceofall particularappearance. Nodoubtthepreachermayat thesametimeappealto ourheart,maysufferthedivinelaws to unveilfromthedepthofsoul-lifeastheir source, and face to face with his audience may referthem to such a source. But it is not in their absolutelyindividualguise thathemustnecessarilypresentand assertthem; onthe contrary, he must bring effective universalityto consciousness under precisely this form of commands,promisesandmaximsoffaith. Theoratoryofcourtsoflawis even a betterillustration. Here we find in addition thetwofoldpointofview, that whileontheone hand all turnsmost obviously on the particular case, yet conversely thesubsumationofthis caseto generalconsiderationsand lawsis equallya necessity. As regards thefirstaspect, we mayFINEART45remarkthatthe element of proseis already implied in theenforcedinvestigationoftheactual factsandthecollocationand able reconstruction of all singular circumstances andaccidents; aprocesssuch as this atonceopensoureyes tothe poverty involved in this investigation of the truth ofsuchalegal case,nolessthanthetediousingenuity engagedin its display,if wecontrastit at leastwiththefreecreationsofpoetry. Wehavein fact to carryouranalysis ofthecon-crete facts toayet furtherpoint. Suchmustnotmerelybetracedin aseries thatdoesjustice to all features, but everyoneofsuchfeatures,noless thanthewholecase,havetobereferredbackto thestatuteacceptedfromthe first as ofin-dependentvalidity. At the same time, evenin this prosaicaffair, westill haveconsiderablescopeforanimpressionontheheartandemotions. Forit is possible so topresenttheTightness orwrongnessof the caseunder discussion to theimagination that we are no longer bound to acquiesceinthe bare knowledgeof the facts and a general conviction;onthecontrary,thecasein its entirety is capableofbecom-ing, by virtue of the style adopted in its exposition, somarked with the characteristicsof personality to everyonewho hears it, that no one can fail to discover there apersonal interest as of something which concerns him-self.Secondly.,intheoratoricalart, artistic deliveryandelabora-tion is not thatwhichconstitutes the ulti