hİbrİd ve elektrİklİ araÇlar - abdullah demir...okuma parçası: kÜresel isinma ve İklİm...

HİBRİD VE ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR

«Her ter ih ir vazgeçiştir»

A dullah DEMİR, Yrd. Doç. Dr.

GİRİŞ

TEMEL BİLGİLER

“EKTÖRÜN DURUMU

Türkiye'de ise 2015 yılı on aylık

dö e de, 85 kW altı 15 adet,

121 kW üstü ise 76 adet olmak

üzere 91 adet elektrikli

otomobil satışı gerçekleşti / AA http://www.haberturk.com/ekonomi/otomobil/haber/1150121

-elektrikli-otomobil-sayisi-artiyor

2015’i ilk 11 ayı da Avrupa otomobil

pazarı da 76.301 adet elektrikli araç satıldığı açıkla dı. Fra sız elektrikli araç irliği Avere tarafı da

açıkla a verilere göre, bu dö e ki satış

raka ı geçe yılı ay ı dö e i e göre

%48,5 ora ı da yüksel iş durumda.

Norveç, Fransa, Birleşik Krallık ve Almanya

ise en fazla satışı gerçekleştirdiği ülkeler

oldu.

Verilere göre bu dö e ki elektrikli araç

satışları ı %75’i bu dört ülkede gerçekleşti. Türkiye Otomotiv Distri ütörleri Der eği verilerine göre ise ay ı dö e de Türkiye'de

102 elektrikli araç satışı gerçekleşti. http://yesilekonomi.com/elektrikli-araclar/2015te-avrupada-80-binin-uzerinde-

elektrikli-arac-satildi - 02 Ocak 2016

YAKIT/ENERJİ VE TAHRİK “İ“TEMLERİ

Electric Vehicle

Enerji Kay akları E erji Taşıyı ıları Tahrik Sistemleri

Yakıt Hü resi/Pili Hidrojen

Gaz Yakıtlar

Gaz ICE

Biokütle

Doğal Gaz

Kö ür

Nükleer

Diğer Kay aklar (Gü eş, Rüzgar, Hidro)

Elektrik

Elektrikli Araç

Pil /

Akü

Ele

ktr

ikle

nm

e

Plug-In Hibrid ICE

Konvansiyonel ICE: Benzin / Dizel

Petrol (petrol, gaz) “ıvı Yakıtlar

ICE Hibrid

EKOLOJİK “ORUNLAR

OZON OLUŞUMU

KAYNAKLARIN TÜKENME“İ İKLİM DEĞİŞİMİ VE KURAKLIK A“İT YAĞMURLARI

In 2014, average new car

emissions in the European

Union were 123.4 g

CO2/km. http://www.acea.be/industry-topics/tag/category/co2-

emissions/P32

ACAE - European Automobile Manufacturers Association

PARİ“ İKLİM ZİRVE“İ - COP21

Paris’teki iklim konferansı yeni bir k“resel anlaşmayla sona erdi. Anlaşma, iklim değişikliğiyle m“cadele için yol haritası niteliğinde. 2020 yılında y“r“rl“ğe girmesi beklenen anlaşma sanayi devriminden bu yana gerçekleşen ortalama sıcaklıktaki artışın 1,5 ile 2°C arasında sınırlandırılmasını kabul ediyor. Bu konuda iklim bilimcilerinin uyarıları dikkate alındı. Anlaşmanın t“m d“nya “lkelerini iklim için yeniden bir araya getirmesi de bir başka olumlu sonuç oldu. Birleşmiş Milletler’in çağrısıyla seragazı emisyonlarını azaltmak için 180’den fazla “lke tarafından verilen taahh“tler ise bu amaca ulaşmak için yeterli değil. Mevcut taahh“tler yerine getirildiği takdirde, bizleri y“zyıl sonunda 2,7°C ila 3,7°C arasında daha sıcak bir d“nya bekliyor. 1,5°C hedefinin tutturulması için ise 2020 yılına kadar emisyonlarda d“ş“ş eğiliminin başlaması ve “lkelerin taahh“tlerini geliştirmesi gerekiyor.

http://www.atlasdergisi.com/gundem/paris-iklim-zirvesi-sona-erdi.html

Note: Conference of Parties (COP) / COP21, also known as the 2015 Paris Climate Conference

Okuma Parçası: KÜRESEL ISINMA VE İKLİM DEĞİŞİKLİĞİ

• Ne kadar çok karbondioksit o kadar çok sıcaklık demektir. • K“resel ısınma, sera gazı olan karbondioksitin salınımının artmasından

dolayı d“nyanın ortalama sıcaklığının y“kselmesi demektir. • G“neşteki patlamalar, d“nyanın yör“ngesindeki sapmalar, volkanik

patlamalar ve tektonik hareketler nedeniyle D“nya 150 bin yılda bir yaklaşık 1 derece ısınıyor ya da soğuyordu. Böylece iklimler değişiyordu. Oysa 1850 den sonra 150 bin yılda yaşanan 1 derecelik artış 150 yılda gerçekleşti. Yani d“nya 1000 kat hızlı ısındı. Bunun adı ani iklim değişikliği. Ekolojik sistem bu duruma ayak uyduramıyor. Havadaki karbon miktarı ve kalış s“resi giderek artıyor. Dedemin dedesinin yaktığı çöp“n karbondioksiti hâlâ havada!

• Yani k“resel ısınma ile yağışlar azalmayacak yere d“ş“ş şekli ve bölgesi değişecek.

• Havanın hafızası yok, 7 yıl oldu T“rkiye ye bir kuraklık yapayım demiyor! • Kuraklık başka bir şey su kıtlığı başka... T“rkiye gibi yarı kurak bir coğrafyada,

İstanbul gibi daracık bir bölgede su havzalarının kapasitesinin 5-6 katı n“fus yerleştirirseniz, 2 kat yağış olsa bile su kıtlığı yaşanır. İklim değişikliği ve hava durumu su kıtlığının son nedenidir. Yanlış arazi planlaması, sanayi bölgelerinin yanlış seçilmesi, su havzalarının yerleşime açılması ya da kirletilmesi su kıtlığının asıl nedenidir. Yağmurlar iklim değişikliğinden dolayı azaldı, yağan yağmuru da hasat edemiyoruz.

Mikdat Kadıoğlu: Kanal, . köpr“ ve havalimanı İstanbul'un iklimini etkilemez!, K“bra Par/Habert“rk Gazetesi, 7 Şubat , Pazartesi

Okuma Parçası: KÜRESEL ISINMA VE İKLİM DEĞİŞİKLİĞİ

Mikdat Kadıoğlu: Kanal, . köpr“ ve havalimanı İstanbul'un iklimini etkilemez!, K“bra Par/Habert“rk Gazetesi, 7 Şubat , Pazartesi

• 1960’lı yıllarla 2000’li yılları karşılaştırdığımız zaman D“nyada meteorolojik felaketlerin 3 kat arttığını gör“yoruz.

• İstanbul’da, o kadar çok beton yüzey var ki dev projelerin

iklim değişikliğine etkisi fazla olmaz.

• Şehirlerin iklimini 3 şey etkiler. Aşırı tozlar, şehir ısı adası ve yağmur. • İstanbul’da klasik hava kirliliği yok, inşaatlardan çıkan tozların

ve egzozlardan çıkan fotokimyasalların etkisiyle modern hava

kirliliği var. Binaların çektiği ısıyla şehrin “st“nde bir kubbe oluşuyor ve kar yağdığında aşağı inemeden eriyor. Ayrıca şehrin “st“ne gelen yağmur bulutları havadaki toz partik“llerinin etkisiyle aşırı tohumlanıyor, yağmur taneleri k“ç“l“yor ve yağış azalıyor.

MEVCUT TEKNOLOJİ İLE YAKIT EKONOMİSİ VE EMİSYON AZALTIMI

CO2 emisyonu [g/km]

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

• ACAE (European

Automobile Manufacturers Association)

hedefi

Üzeri de Çalışıla Tek olojiler %

Optimize edil iş motorlar 3-10

Düşük yuvarlanma direncine sahip lastik teknolojisi 2

Aerodinamik 2

Hacim küçült e 10

Termodinamik yö eti i 5-7

Start stop sistemi 3-10

Toplam 25-40

Fehre, N., Schneider, H., “Hybrids and Electric Vehicles: Hype or sustainable investment? The truth about market potential and investment ideas”, Industrials/Global Autos – Equities, 13 October 2009.

2035’de Hala araçlardaki

otorları %50’si de fazlası içte ya alı

otor…

2010 98%

The mass-specific and volume-specific heat

values and densities of various fossil fuels

Ber d Heißi g | Meti Ersoy Eds. ; Chassis Ha d ook - Fundamentals, Driving Dynamics, Components, Mechatronics, Perspectives With 970 figures and 75 tables; 1st Edition 2011

Notlar: MPG = mil/gal 1 gal = 4,54 litre (UK) 1 gal = 3,78 litre (US) 1 barrel petroluen = 42 gal = 158,99 litre (ham petrol) [US] 1 mil= 1609 m

Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives , ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.

In 2009, the US government announced its new CAFE standard, requiring that all car manufacturers achieve an average fuel economy of 35 MPG by 2020. This is equivalent to 6.7 l/100 km.

CAFE - Corporate Average Fuel Economy = Birleşik Ortalama Yakıt Verimliliği, Kurumsal Ortalama Yakıt Ekonomisi NHTSA - National Highway Traffic Safety Administration = Ulusal Otoyol Trafik G“venliği Yönetimi/İdaresi/Komisyonu

www.popularmechanics.com

http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/a7015/obama-announces-54-6-mpg-cafe-standard-by-2025/

What is an EPA rating? • Conditions

– Drive cycle: e.g. city or highway cycle, real-world, or constant speed

– Test temperature

– Start: (warm or cold) Fuel: convert to gasoline-equivalent

– Test mass: (accounts for passengers and cargo)

• MPGe rating

Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009

Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Combined Fuel Economy

The fuel economy of conventional vehicles is evaluated by fuel consumption (liters) per 100 km, or miles per gallon. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency sets the methods for fuel economy certification. There are usually two numbers, one for city driving and one for highway driving. There is an additional fuel economy number that evaluates the combined fuel economy by combining the 55% city and 45% highway MPG numbers [6–8]:

For pure EVs, the fuel economy is best described by electricity consumption for a certain range, for example, watt hour/mile or kWh/100 km. For example, a typical passenger car consumes 120–250 Wh/mile. In order to compare the fuel efficiency of EVs with conventional gasoline or diesel vehicles, the energy content of gasoline is used to convert the numbers. Since 1 gallon of gasoline contains 33.7 kWh energy (http://www.eere.doe.gov), the equivalent fuel economy of an EV can be expressed as

Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Combined Fuel Economy

Therefore, a passenger car that consumes 240 Wh/mile will have an equivalent gasoline mileage of 140 MPG from the energy point of view.

Notlar: MPG = mil/gal 1 gal = 4,54 litre (UK) 1 gal = 3,78 litre (US) 1 barrel petroluen = 42 gal = 158,99 litre (ham petrol) [US] 1 mil= 1609 m

HATIRLATMA:

Yakıt Tüketimi Yakıt t“ketim testleri/değerleri, genellikle 2004/3/EC ile d“zeltilmiş AB Direktifi

80/1268/EEC'ye göre yapılmaktadır. Ayrıca AB’nin RL 1999/100/CE normuna göre de değerler verilmektedir. Araçların teknik özelliklerinin belirtildiği broş“r ya da kullanıcı el kitaplarındaki şehir içi, şehir dışı ve ortalama yakıt tüketim değerlerinin hangi

direktiflere göre tespit edildiği genellikle ilgili böl“mde dipnot olarak belirtilmektedir.

80/1268/EEC direktifi yakıt tüketimi değerleri: Laboratuar ortamında ve

belirli koşullarda yapılan testlerde elde edilen, l/100 km mertebesinde sonuçları göstermektedir. Bu direktife göre:

Şehir içi yakıt tüketimi, laboratuar ortamında soğuktan çalıştırılmış motor ile 4 km'lik

teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 50 km/h ve ortalama 19 km/h hızla ölç“lm“ş yakıt t“ketim değerlerdir. Şehir dışı yakıt tüketimi ise şehir içi ölç“m“nden hemen sonra gerçekleştirilen, 7 km'lik

teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 120 km/h hıza ulaşacak şekilde, yarı zamanlı sabit hız ve yarı zamanlı değişken hızla ölç“lm“ş yakıt t“ketim değerleridir. Karma/Birleşik tüketim değeri ise şehir içi ve şehir dışı testlerinin kat edilen mesafe ölç“s“yle ağırlıklı ortalaması alınarak hesaplanmaktadır. Karma yakıt t“ketimi; otomobil yaklaşık %37 normal şehir içi trafikte ve yaklaşık %63 şehir dışı trafikte kullanılarak elde edilir.

TAŞIT TEKNOLOJİLERİNDEKİ ARAYIŞLAR

D“nyamızın doğal yapısının korunmasına yönelik zorlamalar, otomobil “reticilerini performanstan öd“n vermeden daha çevreci arayışlara doğru itmektedir. Bu arayışlar içerisinde; daha küçük silindir hacmi ile daha az sürtünme ve ağırlık, daha az hareketli kütleler, turbo besleme sayesinde torkun geniş devir bandına yayılması, çift beslemeyle (turbo ve kompresör) turbo boşluğunun azaltılması ya da tamamen yok edilmesi, değişken supap zamanlaması, dur-kalk sistemleri, farklı malzemelerle ağırlık azaltılması, gelişmiş direk enjeksiyon sistemleri, motorda sürtünmelerin azaltılması, düşük sürtünmeli yağlayıcılar, silindirlerin devre dışı bırakılması, kamsız supap işletimi, otomatikleştirilmiş manüel şanzıman uygulamaları ve 8-10 ileri kademeli manüel vites kutularının kullanımı, entegre marş-alternatör üniteleri, ultra fakir karışımlı direk enjeksiyonlu motorlar, araçta uzman/akıllı ısı yönetimi, dizel motorlarda piezo-enjektör kullanımı ve bir çevrimde birden çok enjeksiyon (split injection) gibi konular “zerinde yoğun çalışmalar y“r“t“lmektedir [1].

ALTERNATİF YAKITLI ARAÇLARIN BAŞARI“INDAKİ KI“ITLAR

Kay ak: Joseph Ro , The ar a d fuel of the future , E ergy Poli y 006 609–2614.

Alternatif teknolojili taşıtlar için yüksek ilk yatırım maliyeti (High first cost for vehicle)

Sınırlı yakıt depolama durumları [On-board fuel storage issues (i.e. Limited range)]

Emniyet ve yükümlülük konuları (Safety and liability concerns) Yüksek yakıt dolum maliyetleri [High fueling cost (compared to

gasoline)] Sınırlı dolum/şarj istasyonları [Limited fuel stations: chicken and egg

problem] Mevcut trendlerdeki gelişmeler [better, cleaner gasoline vehicles].

GELİŞMİŞ ARAÇ TAHRİK TEKNOLOJİ “TRATEJİ“İ

Geliştiril iş Yakıt Ekonomisi ve

Emisyonlar

E erji Çeşitliliği

Hidroje Yakıt Pili - Elektrik

Batarya-Elektrikli Araçlar

(E-Flex)

Hibrid-Elektrikli Araçlar (Plug-

i Araçlar dahil)

İçte Ya alı Motor ve Şa zı a Geliş eleri

Zaman

Petrol (Konvensiyonel ve Alternatif Kaynaklar)

Biyoyakıtlar (Ethanol E85, Biyodizel)

Elektrik (Konvensiyonel ve Alternatif Kaynaklar)

Hidrojen

2009-2020

Şekil : 2025 Vizyo u ağla ı da elektrikleştir e dere esi.

’de tü ye i araçları

%10 plug-in

fonksiyonlu olacak

HİBRİD ARAÇLAR

HİBRİD ARAÇLAR

Uluslararası Elektroteknik Komisyonunun Teknik Komitesi (Elektrikli yol araçları tarafından verilen tanıma göre: Hibrid elektrikli araç, enerjinin iki ya da daha fazla enerji deposundan sağlandığı ve bu enerji depolarından en az bir tanesinin elektrik enerjisi verdiği bir araç olarak ifade edilmiştir.

Honda Insight

Hibrid elektrikli araç daha çok hem içten yanmalı motorun İYM hem de elektrikli motorun

kullanıldığı araç olarak kabul edilmektedir.

HİBRİT ARAÇLAR

Interdisciplinary Nature of HEVs HEVs involve the use of electric machines, power electronics converters, and batteries, in addition to conventional ICEs and mechanical and hydraulic systems. The interdisciplinary nature of HEV systems can be summarized as in Figures. The HEV field involves engineering subjects beyond traditional automotive engineering, which was mechanical engineering oriented. Power electronics, electric machines, energy storage systems, and control systems are now integral parts of the engineering of HEVs and PHEVs. In addition, thermal management is also important in HEVs and PHEVs, where the power electronics, electric machines, and batteries all require a much lower temperature to operate properly, compared to a non-hybrid vehicle’s powertrain components. Modeling and simulation, vehicle dynamics, and vehicle design and optimization also pose challenges to the traditional automotive engineering field due to the increased difficulties in packaging the components and associated thermal management systems, as well as the changes in vehicle weight, shape, and weight distribution.


HİBRİD ARAÇLAR - Interdisciplinary Nature of HEVs

The general nature and required engineering field by HEVs


HİBRİD ARAÇLAR

Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives , ISBN 978-0-470-

74773-5, 2011.

When compared to gasoline-powered cars, EVs and HEVs: • were more expensive than

gasoline cars due to the large battery packs used;

• were less powerful than gasoline cars due to the limited power from the onboard battery;

• had limited range between each charge;

• and needed many hours to recharge the onboard battery. / Chapter -1 Honda Insight

HİBRİD ARAÇLAR

Heydar Ali Palizban PhD, Hybrid and Electric Vehicles - An overview, Feb 28, 2009

A short history of hybrid & electric cars

1825 Steam Engine Car, British inventor Goldsworthy 85 miles round trip took 10 hours (14 km/h)

1870 First electric car was build in Scotland

1897 The London Electric Cab Company used a 40-cell battery and 3

horsepower electric motor, Could be driven 50 miles between charges

1898 The German Dr. Porsche, at age 23, Built the world's first front-

wheel-drive Porsche's second car was a hybrid, using an internal combustion

engine to spin a generator that provided power to electric motors located in the wheel hubs. On battery alone, the car could travel nearly 40 miles

HİBRİD ARAÇLAR

Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives , ISBN 978-0-

470-74773-5, 2011.

History: The world’s automotive history turned to a new page in 1997 when the first modern hybrid electric car, the Toyota Prius, was sold in Japan. This car, along with Honda s Insight and Civic HEVs, has been available in the United States since 2000. These early HEVs marked a radical change in the types of cars offered to the public: vehicles that take advantage of the benefits of both battery EVs and conventional gasoline-powered vehicles. At the time of writing, there are more than 40 models of HEVs available in the marketplace from more than 10 major car companies. / [Chapter 1]

HİBRİD ARAÇLAR

Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives ,

ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.

State of the Art of HEVs • In the past 10 years, many HEVs have been deployed by the major

automotive manufacturers. • It is clear that HEV sales have grown significantly over the last 10

years. In 2008, these sales had a downturn which is consistent with conventional car sales that dropped more than 20% in 2008 from the previous year.

• Another observation is that most HEV sales belong to Toyota, which manufactured the earliest modern HEV, the Prius, and also makes most of the models available (including the Lexus).

• In the case of the Toyota Prius, the comparison is made to the Toyota Corolla. It can be seen that the price of HEVs is generally 40% more than that of their base models. The increase in fuel economy in HEVs is also significant, in particular for city driving.

HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN “INIFLANDIRILMA“I


For example, a HEV with a motor rated at 50 kW and an engine rated at 75 kW will have a hybridization ratio of 50/(50+75) kW= 40%. A conventional gasoline-powered vehicle will have a 0% hybridization ratio and a battery EV will have a hybridization ratio of 100%. A series HEV will also have a hybridization ratio of 100% due to the fact that the vehicle is capable of being driven in EV mode.

Hibridleşme Sınıfları: • Mikro Hibrid 12 V • Mild (Hafif) Hibrid

100 – 200 V • Tam Hibrid 200 – 300

V • Plug-in Hibrid 250 –

650 V


Elektrikli Hibrid Araç Tipi

Gerilim

Tipi

Diğer Açıklamalar/Özellikleri

Mikro hibrid

D“ş“k

Gerilim

Yakıt tasarrufu için işlevsiz durumda motorun

kapatılması Dur-Kalk . AGM Mikro Hibrid

Uygulama.

Yarı hibrid

D“ş“k –

Orta

Gerilim

Dur-Kalk motora ek olarak, rejeneratif fren ve

ivmelenme (itki) desteği.

Tam/Ful hibrid Y“ksek

Gerilim

T“m Yarı (EV özelliklerine ek olarak yalnız

elektrikli çalışma mesafesi ve opsiyonlu

elektrikli s“r“ş.

Plug-in hibrid (PHEV) Y“ksek

Gerilim

T“m Ful hibrid özelliklerine ilaveten 40 km yalnız

elektrikli s“r“ş. 120 V elektrik çıkışı ile batarya şarjı.

Araç tipi Mikro hibrid Yarı hibrid G“çl“ hibrid

Tam

elektrikli

Elektrikselleşme derecesi

<~%5 <~%15 >~%15 =%100

ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE

MILLER CYCLE ENGINE

Otto motorlardan farkı olarak, Miller çevrimi motorlarda, 4 zamanlı motorlardaki sıkıştırma s“recinde ortaya çıkan enerji kaybı daha d“ş“kt“r. Patenti Amerikalı m“hendis Ralph Miller tarafında 1940 yılında alınmıştır. İlk örnekleri gemilerde ve g“ç “retim istasyonlarında kullanılmıştır.

ÖRNEK UYGULAMA: MILLER CYCLE ENGINE

Miller Cycle | Sequential Valve Timing (S-VT) | Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)

http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/982-miller-cycle-sequential-valve-timing-s-vt-continuously-variable-transmission-cvt/

Mazda’s naturally-aspirated MZR 1.3L Miller-cycle engine delays the closure of the intake valves to improve the thermal efficiency (high expansion ratio). Sequential-valve timing (S-VT) is also employed to optimize intake valve timing and ensure sufficient torque for cruising and accelerating.




MILLER CYCLE ENGINE

Miller Cycle | Sequential Valve Timing (S-VT) | Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)






http://m.searchautoparts.com/motorage/training/old-engine-designs-are-new-again


http://liquidpiston.com/technology/hehc-cycle/ Note: High Efficiency Hybrid Cycle (HEHC)

http://www.hybridcars.com/efficient-liquidpiston-engine-looks-outdo-diesels-and-other-ic-engines-54729/


Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation

The Atkinson cycle engine is definitely not a new design having been invented in 1882. Because the cycle has advantages when applied to hybrids, the 1882 invention is enjoying a period of popularity. See Figure, which shows the various strokes of a four-stroke engine with intermediate positions as well. Key features of Atkinson cycle are a long expansion stroke which allows extraction of more energy. The short compression stroke reduces pumping losses. The design allows retaining and designing any compression ratio desired. The results are improved engine efficiency which is provided at the expense of power.


That is the good news; now for the bad news. Due to the reduced charge, discussed presently, the power is reduced compared to the same engine of equal displacement. Charge is the maximum mass of fuel plus air in the cylinder; usually this mass occurs when the piston is at TDC and all valves are (nearly) closed ready for expansion stroke. Some relevant definitions: as crankshaft angle passes through 0°, the piston pauses and stops; hence the word dead to describe top dead center (TDC). Closing all valves for improved regenerative braking. Engine operation is analogous to lowloss motion of a spring with a mass, m. The minimum loss for an engine is attained with all valves closed.

Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation Lowloss: Az kayıplı



An open intake valve is like leaving the door open; the charge leaks out. Compression is delayed creating a shortened compression stroke, which is one feature of the Atkinson cycle (see sketch C). Sketch F shows full expansion stroke, which is another feature of the Atkinson cycle. Figure provides an excellent way to understand reduced pumping losses from the Atkinson cycle as applied to a four-stroke engine. The pressure traces enclose two areas, I and II.


Analysis shows that the area enclosed in I is proportional to the energy produced by the engine. Since the test equipment that yields the pressure–volume curves is known as an indicator, the energy of I is termed indicated energy. Area II involves moving the gases in and out of the cylinder; this is called pumping. Hence, the term pumping loss is applied to II. The net output of energy from the engine is Net energy = Indicated energy - Pumping loss Considerable confusion exists in the popular press about pumping loss.



FIGURE: Pressure shown as function of volume within cylinder as piston moves from TDC to BDC. The four strokes are D–E, compression; E–A–B, expansion; B–C, exhaust; and C–D, intake. Pressures within a cylinder are measured as engine is operating at part throttle. The magnitude of pumping loss depends on the throttle setting. Consider the ratio of pumping loss divided by net work done by the engine. At full throttle, the pumping loss ratio is 1%–3%. At partial throttle, the pumping loss ratio is much larger being 30%–40%.



In Figure, pa is the ambient pressure. Point D, which is below ambient pressure, is a partial vacuum. Also point D is equal to manifold pressure. In the Otto cycle, the intake valve closes at D, and the charge is being compressed. Notice the pressure curve going upward toward point E. However, with the Atkinson cycle the intake valve remains open. As the piston moves toward TDC from BDC, the pressure remains equal to that at point D. When the intake valve closes, the pressure increases and the curve heads off toward E. Area II is reduced in size by the slice, which is gray shaded. Pumping losses are less.

Figure also shows the shortened compression stroke and the comparatively long expansion stroke. The long expansion stroke yields a greater extraction of energy from the fuel.



Jacob Reagan, Atkinson Cycle Engines

Biggest disadvantage is

reduction in power density

(power/unit volume) arising

from the reduction in air

intake


OZETLE: • Atkinson çevriminin temel özelliği uzun iş ve kısa

sıkıştırma stroklarıdır. İş strokunun uzun olması daha fazla enerjinin açığa çıkmasına sebep olurken, kısa sıkıştırma stroke ise pompalama kayıplarını azaltmaktadır.

• Emme supabının geç kapanması termik verimi arttırmaktadır (the thermal efficiency (high expansion ratio).

• Bu çevrimin en büyük dezavantajı ise emme havasındaki azalmadan kaynaklanan güç yoğunluğundaki (power density, power/unit volume) azalmadır.

Architectures of HEVs

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Architectures of HEVs A HEV is a combination of a conventional ICE-powered vehicle and an EV. It uses both an ICE and an electric motor/generator for propulsion. The two power devices, the ICE and the electric motor, can be connected in series or in parallel from a power flow point of view.


http://globaldensoproducts.com/engine-management/electric-hybrid-vehicle-components/

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Architectures of HEVs (cont.) When the ICE and motor are connected in series, the HEV is a series hybrid in which only the electric motor is providing mechanical power to the wheels. When the ICE and the electric motor are connected in parallel, the HEV is a parallel hybrid in which both the electric motor and the ICE can deliver mechanical power to the wheels.


http://oica.net/wp-content/uploads/2007/07/hybrid-diagram-large.gif

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Architectures of HEVs (cont.) In a HEV, liquid fuel is still the source of energy. The ICE is the main power converter that provides all the energy for the vehicle. The electric motor increases system efficiency and reduces fuel consumption by recovering kinetic energy during regenerative braking, and optimizes the operation of the ICE during normal driving by adjusting the engine torque and speed. The ICE provides the vehicle with an extended driving range therefore overcoming the disadvantages of a pure EV.


http://www.global-greenhouse-warming.com/hybrid-electric-vehicle.html

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Architectures of HEVs (cont.) In a series HEV or PHEV, the ICE drives a generator (referred to as the I/G set). The ICE converts energy in the liquid fuel to mechanical energy and the generator converts the mechanical energy of the engine output to electricity. An electric motor will propel the vehicle using electricity generated by the I/G set. This electric motor is also used to capture the kinetic energy during braking. There will be a battery between the generator and the electric motor to buffer the electric energy between the I/G set and the motor.


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Architectures of HEVs (cont.) In a parallel HEV or PHEV, both the ICE and the electric motor are coupled to the final drive shaft through a mechanical coupling mechanism, such as a clutch, gears, belts, or pulleys. This parallel configuration allows both the ICE and the electric motor to drive the vehicle either in combined mode, or separately. The electric motor is also used for regenerative braking and for capturing the excess energy from the ICE during coasting.


http://www.plugin.org.nz/FAQs

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Series HEV In this HEV, the ICE is the main energy converter that converts the original energy in gasoline to mechanical power. The mechanical output of the ICE is then converted to electricity using a generator. The electric motor moves the final drive using electricity generated by the generator or electricity stored in the battery. The electric motor can receive electricity directly from the engine, or from the battery, or both. Since the engine is decoupled from the wheels, the engine speed can be controlled independently of vehicle speed. This not only simplifies the control of the engine, but, most importantly, can allow operation of the engine at its optimum speed to achieve the best fuel economy. It also provides flexibility in locating the engine on the vehicle. There is no need for the traditional mechanical transmission in a series HEV.


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Fig. 1: The architecture of a series HEV

G“ç Çevirici (İnvertör): İnvertör, doğru akımı (DC) alternatif akıma (AC) çeviren elektriksel bir güç çeviricisidir. İnvertör çıkışında “retilen AC g“ç, kullanılan transformatörlere, anahtarlama ve kontrol devrelerine bağlı olarak herhangi bir gerilimde ve frekansta olabilir.

The alternator actually produces alternating current. The vehicle's electrical system, on the other hand, requires direct current to recharge the battery and operate the electrical equipment. Ref. Bosch


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Series HEV (Cont.) Based on the vehicle operating conditions, the propulsion components on a series HEV can operate with different combinations: • Battery alone: When the battery has sufficient energy, and the vehicle power

demand is low, the I/G set is turned off, and the vehicle is powered by the battery only.

• Combined power: At high power demands, the I/G set is turned on and the battery also supplies power to the electric motor.

• Engine alone: During highway cruising and at moderately high power demands, the I/G set is turned on. The battery is neither charged nor discharged. This is mostly due to the fact that the battery’s state of charge (SOC) is already at a high level but the power demand of the vehicle prevents the engine from turning, or it may not be efficient to turn the engine off.

• Power split: When the I/G is turned on, the vehicle power demand is below the I/G optimum power, and the battery SOC is low, then a portion of the I/G power is used to charge the battery.

• Stationary charging: The battery is charged from the I/G power without the vehicle being driven.

• Regenerative braking: The electric motor is operated as a generator to convert the vehicle’s kinetic energy into electric energy and charge the battery.


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Series HEV (cont.) In this case, as shown in Figure 2, there are four electric motors, each one installed inside each wheel. Due to the elimination of transmission and final drive, the efficiency of the vehicle system can be significantly increased. The vehicle will also have all-wheel drive (AWD) capability. However, controlling the four electric motors independently is a challenge.

Fig. 2: Hub motor configuration of a series HEV

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Parallel HEVs In this configuration, the ICE and the electric motor can both deliver power in parallel to the wheels. The ICE and the electric motor are coupled to the final drive through a mechanism such as a clutch, belts, pulleys, and gears. Both the ICE and the motor can deliver power to the final drive, either in combined mode, or each separately. The electric motor can be used as a generator to recover the kinetic energy during braking or absorbing a portion of power from the ICE.

Figure 3: The architecture of a parallel HEV


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Parallel HEVs (cont.) The parallel hybrid needs only two propulsion devices, the ICE and the electric motor, which can be used in the following mode: • Motor-alone mode: When the battery has sufficient energy,

and the vehicle power demand is low, then the engine is turned off, and the vehicle is powered by the motor and battery only.

• Combined power mode: At high power demand, the engine is turned on and the motor also supplies power to the wheels.

• Engine-alone mode: During highway cruising and at moderately high power demands, the engine provides all the power needed to drive the vehicle. The motor remains idle. This is mostly due to the fact that the battery SOC is already at a high level but the power demand of the vehicle prevents the engine from turning off, or it may not be efficient to turn the engine off.


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Parallel HEVs (cont.) • Power split mode: When the engine is on, but the vehicle power

demand is low and the battery SOC is also low, then a portion of the engine power is converted to electricity by the motor to charge the battery.

• Stationary charging mode: The battery is charged by running the motor as a generator and driven by the engine, without the vehicle being driven.

• Regenerative braking mode: The electric motor is operated as a generator to convert the vehicle’s kinetic energy into electric energy and store it in the battery. Note that, in regenerative mode, it is in principle possible to run the engine as well, and provide additional current to charge the battery more quickly (while the propulsion motor is in generator mode) and command its torque accordingly, that is, to match the total battery power input. In this case, the engine and motor controllers have to be properly coordinated.


Seri hibrid sistemde tekerlere tahrik g“c“n“ sağlayan bir elektrik motoru vardır. İYM generatöre bağlıdır ve elektrik enerjisinin oluşturulmasını sağlayarak bataryalarda enerji depolanmasına katkıda bulunur. Bataryalarda depo edilen elektrik enerjisi ise elektrik motoruna verilir ve tahrik tekerlerine gerekli olan g“ç iletilir. İYM ve tekerlekler arasında mekanik bir g“ç iletimi mevcut değildir. Paralel hibrid sistemde ise tahrik için gerekli olan g“ç, birden fazla enerji kaynağından sağlanır. İYM, transmisyon aracılığı ile tekerlere doğrudan g“ç iletir. Bunun yanında bataryalarda depo edilen elektrik enerjisi ise elektrik motoru yolu ile tekerlere iletilir. Seri sistemin dezavantajları: Bu sistemde İYM, jeneratör ve elektrik motoru olmak “zere “ç tahrik ekipmanına ihtiyaç duyulur: • Elektrik motoru gerekli olan azami g“c“ karşılayacak şekilde, özellikle y“ksek eğimler

için tasarlanır. Fakat araç çoğunlukla azami g“c“n altında çalışmaktadır. • Tahrik ekipmanları, batarya kapasitesinin birinci seviyede dikkate alınarak menzil ve

performans için azami g“c“ karşılayacak şekilde boyutlandırılır. • G“ç sistemi ağır ve maliyeti daha y“ksektir. Paralel hibrid sistemin dezavantajları: • Gerekli olan g“ç iki farklı kaynaktan sağlandığı için burada enerji yönetimi önem

arz eder. • İYM ve elektrik motorundan gelen g“c“n tahrik tekerlerine d“zg“n olarak

iletilebilmesi için karmaşık mekanik elemanlara ihtiyaç duyulur. • Sessiz çalışma modu sağlamamaktadır.

Elektrikli Araçlar, Enerji Sistemleri ve Çevre Araştırma Enstitüsü, GEBZE - 2003

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Series–Parallel HEVs In comparison to a series HEV, the series–parallel HEV adds a mechanical link between the engine and the final drive, so the engine can drive the wheels directly. When compared to a parallel HEV, the series–parallel HEV adds a second electric motor that serves primarily as a generator. Because a series–parallel HEV can operate in both parallel and series modes, the fuel efficiency and drivability can be optimized based on the vehicle’s operating condition. The increased degree of freedom in control makes the series–parallel HEV a popular choice. However, due to increased components and complexity, it is generally more expensive than series or parallel HEVs.


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Series–Parallel HEVs

Figure 4: The architectures of a series–parallel HEV


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Complex HEVs Complex HEVs usually involve the use of planetary gear systems and multiple electric motors (in the case of four/all-wheel drive). One typical example is a four-wheel drive (4WD) system that is realized through the use of separate drive axles, as shown in Figure 5. The generator in this system is used to realize series operation as well as to control the engine operating condition for maximum efficiency. The two electric motors are used to realize all-wheel drive, and to realize better performance in regenerative braking. They may also enhance vehicle stability control and antilock braking control by their use.


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Complex HEVs

Figure 5: The electrical four-wheel drive system using a complex architecture


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Hybridization Ratio Some new concepts have also emerged in the past few years, including full hybrid, mild hybrid, and micro hybrid. These concepts are usually related to the power rating of the main electric motor in a HEV. For example, if the HEV contains a fairly large electric motor and associated batteries, it can be considered as a full hybrid. On the other hand, if the size of the electric motor is relatively small, then it may be considered as a micro hybrid. Typically, a full hybrid should be able to operate the vehicle using the electric motor and battery up to a certain speed limit and drive the vehicle for a certain amount of time. The speed threshold is typically the speed limit in a residential area. The typical power rating of an electric motor in a full hybrid passenger car is approximately 50–75 kW. The micro hybrid, on the other hand, does not offer the capability to drive the vehicle with the electric motor only. The electric motor is merely for starting and stopping the engine. The typical rating of electric motors used in micro hybrids is less than 10 kW.


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Hybridization Ratio A mild hybrid is in between a full hybrid and a micro hybrid. An effective approach for evaluating HEVs is to use a hybridization ratio to reflect the degree of hybridization of a HEV. In a parallel hybrid, the hybridization ratio is defined as the ratio of electric power to the total powertrain power. For example, a HEV with a motor rated at 50 kW and an engine rated at 75 kW will have a hybridization ratio of 50/(50+75) kW= 40%. • A conventional gasoline-powered vehicle will have a 0%

hybridization ratio and • a battery EV will have a hybridization ratio of 100%. • A series HEV will also have a hybridization ratio of 100% due to

the fact that the vehicle is capable of being driven in EV mode.


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Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamental, Pearson Automotive, 2010.

Different vehicle manufacturers use various hybrid technologies. • Micro Hybrid • Mild Hybrid • Medium Hybrid • Full Hybrid • A mild hybrid with a lower voltage system (36–50

volts) is capable of increasing fuel economy and reducing exhaust emissions but is not capable of using the electric motor alone to propel the vehicle.

• A medium hybrid uses a higher voltage than a mild hybrid (140–150 volts) and offers increased fuel economy over a mild hybrid design but is not capable of operating using the electric motor alone.

• A full or strong hybrid uses a high-voltage system (250–650 volts) and is capable of operating using the electric motor(s) alone and achieves the highest fuel economy improvement of all types of hybrids.

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autocaat.org

http://autocaat.org/Technologies/Hybrid_and_Battery_Electric_Vehicles/HEV_Levels/

Reading Text

State of Charge (SOC) A key parameter in the electric vehicle is the SOC of the battery. The SOC is a measure of the residual capacity of a battery. To define it mathematically, consider a completely discharged battery. Typically, the battery SOC is maintained between 20 and 95%. A common mistake that people may make about a battery’s charge is that when a battery goes dead, the voltage goes from 12 to 0 V (for a 12 V battery). In reality a battery’s voltage varies between 12.6 V with a SOC of 100% to approximately 10.5 V with a SOC of near 0%. It is advised that the SOC should not fall below 40%, which corresponds to a voltage of 11.9 V. All batteries have a SOC vs. voltage curve which can be either looked up from the manufacturer’s data or determined experimentally. An example of an SOC vs. voltage curve of a lead acid battery is shown in Figure. Note that for a lithium-ion battery, the curve may be much flatter, especially for the mid-SOC range of 40–80%.


Figure: Example SOC vs. voltage curve for a 12 V battery


Reading Text

What is the difference between an AC motor and a DC motor? / July 29, 2011 | Q&A

While both A.C. and D.C. motors serve the same function of converting electrical energy into mechanical energy, they are powered, constructed and controlled differently. 1 The most basic difference is the power source. A.C. motors are powered from alternating current (A.C.) while D.C. motors are powered from direct current (D.C.), such as batteries, D.C. power supplies or an AC-to-DC power converter. D.C wound field motors are constructed with brushes and a commutator, which add to the maintenance, limit the speed and usually reduce the life expectancy of brushed D.C. motors. A.C. induction motors do not use brushes; they are very rugged and have long life expectancies. The final basic difference is speed control. The speed of a D.C. motor is controlled by varying the armature winding s current while the speed of an A.C. motor is controlled by varying the frequency, which is commonly done with an adjustable frequency drive control. 2

1.Saeed Niku. Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, Applications. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011. Page 280 ↩ 2.Robert S. Carrow. Electrician’s technical reference: Variable frequency drives. Delmar Thomson Learning, 2001. Page 45 ↩ Published by Ohio Electric Motors: http://www.ohioelectricmotors.com/what-is-the-difference-between-an-ac-motor-and-a-dc-motor-673#ixzz2ezsrNvI3

http://www.ohioelectricmotors.com/what-is-the-difference-between-an-ac-motor-and-a-dc-motor-673#fn-673-1

http://www.ohioelectricmotors.com/what-is-the-difference-between-an-ac-motor-and-a-dc-motor-673#fn-673-2

http://www.ohioelectricmotors.com/what-is-the-difference-between-an-ac-motor-and-a-dc-motor-673#fnref-673-1

http://www.ohioelectricmotors.com/what-is-the-difference-between-an-ac-motor-and-a-dc-motor-673#fnref-673-2

ÖN BİLGİ: ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI

Topologies for electric wheel drives in road vehicles

R. Fischer, “ haeffler’s wheel hub drives, 2014


• Traction motors integrated into the transmission dominate in the hybrid and electric vehicles currently produced.

• Conventional electric drives are currently designed as center drives.

• The electric motor can be used in combination with a lightweight differential to control the distribution of torque to individual wheels. This type of electric axle is particularly suitable for sporty electric vehicles and vehicles suitable for covering long distances with a plug-in hybrid drive.

R. Fischer, “ haeffler’s wheel hub drives, 2014

ÖN BİLGİ: Wheel Hub Drive

Wheel hub drives are particularly attractive for small, highly maneuverable city

vehicles with battery-electric drive. The use of a wheel hub drive has various

advantages for drivers:

• Usable space is gained in the vehicle body. No engine compartment is required,

which means new body designs are possible.

• The wheel turning angle can be increased because drive shafts are not required.

Maneuverability is significantly improved from the customer’s perspective. This

also applies when the vehicle has a driven rear axle because targeted assisted

steering with torque vectoring can be operated on road surfaces with a low friction

coefficient.

• Driving pleasure and safety are increased because the control quality of the drive is

higher than that of central drive systems because power is transmitted directly

without a transmission and side shafts. These conventional target values of

automobile development will be decisive for achieving customer acceptance of

small city cars. In our opinion, electric vehicles will not be marketable on solely

rational grounds – small traffic area and a good CO2 footprint.

• Driving will be significantly simpler: For example, when starting on ice only the

maximum transmissible torque is applied even if the accelerator pedal is fully

depressed.

• Last but not least, passive safety is also increased because conventional drive units

with high masses fitted in the engine compartment will no longer enter the vehicle

interior if a frontal impact occurs [2]. R. Fischer, “ haeffler’s wheel hub drives, 2014


R. Fischer, Schaeffler’s wheel hub drives, 4

Cross-section through the drive positioned close to the wheel from the FAIR project

Design of Schaeffler’s wheel hub drive


Elektrikli araç tahrik sistemlerinde başlıca 4

elektrik motoru kullanılmaktadır. • DC motor

• Asenkron motor

• S“rekli mıknatıslı motor

• Anahtarlamalı rel“ktans motoru

Özg“r ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

EV’lerde Kullanılan Elektrik Motorları • Asenkron Motor (Induction Motor)

• S“rekli Mıknatıslı Fırçasız Senkron Motor (BLSM)

• S“rekli Mıknatıslı Fırçasız DA Motoru (BLDCM)

• Anahtarlamalı Rel“ktans Motoru (SRM)

• Induction machines

• permanent magnet (PM)

synchronous machines

• PM brushless DC machines and

• switched reluctance machines

(SRMs)

HİBRİD VE ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR

«Her ter ih ir vazgeçiştir»

Abdullah DEMİR, Yrd. Doç. Dr.

Hibrid Elektrikli Araç Uygulamalarına Örnekler

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Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles

And Applications With Practical Perspectives , ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.

Table 1: Partial list of HEVs available in the United States

HİBRİD ARAÇLARA - ÖRNEKLER

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Figure: The powertrain layout of the Toyota Prius (EM, Electric Machine; PM, Permanent Magnet)

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The Toyota Prius Toyota produced the world’s first mass-marketed modern HEV in 1997, the Prius, as shown in Figure. The worldwide sales of the Prius exceeded 1 million units in 2009. It uses a planetary gear set to realize continuous variable transmission (CVT). Therefore, conventional transmission is not needed in this system. As shown in Figure, the engine is connected to the carrier of the planetary gear while the generator is connected to the sun gear. The ring gear is coupled to the final drive, as is the electric motor. The planetary gear set also acts as a power/torque split device. During normal operations, the ring gear speed is determined by the vehicle speed, while the generator speed can be controlled such that the engine speed is in its optimum efficiency range. The 6.5 Ah, 21 kW nickel metal hydride battery pack is charged by the generator during coasting and by the propulsion motor (in generation mode) during regenerative braking. The engine is shut off during low-speed driving. The same technology has been used in the Camry hybrid, the Highlander hybrid, and the Lexus brand hybrids. However, the Highlander and the Lexus brand hybrids add a third motor at the rear wheel. The drive performance, such as for acceleration and braking, can thus be further improved.

E (Wh) = V × C = 201.6 V × 6.5 Ah = 1310 Wh = 1.31 kWh

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Figure: The Toyota Prius (2010 model)

Hybrid 2010 Model 3rd Generation,

2009 Toyota Motor Corporation

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The Honda Civic The Honda Civic hybrid has an electric motor mounted between the ICE and the CVT, as shown in Figure. The electric motor either provides assistance to the engine during high power demand, or splits the engine power during low power demand.

http://www.autoevolution.com/news/2013-honda-civic-hybrid-revealed-photo-gallery-video-52402.html

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Figure: The powertrain layout of the Honda Civic hybrid

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The Ford Escape The Escape hybrid from the Ford Motor Company (Figure) is the first hybrid in the SUV category. The Escape hybrid adopted the same planetary gear concept as the Toyota system.

http://www.autoblog.com/2010/05/11/2010-ford-escape-hybrid-review/

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Figure 11: The Ford Escape Hybrid SUV

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The Two-Mode Hybrid

The GM two-mode hybrid transmission was initially developed by GM (Alison) in 1996, and later advanced by GM, Chrysler, BMW, and Mercedes-Benz with a joint venture named Global Hybrid Cooperation in 2005. The GM two-mode hybrids use two planetary gear sets and two electric machines to realize two different operating modes, namely, high-speed mode and low-speed mode.

http://www.allpar.com/cars/chrysler/aspen.html

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Figure: The Chrysler Aspen Two-mode Hybrid

http://www.allpar.com/cars/chrysler/aspen.html

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Diesel Hybrids HEVs can also be built around diesel vehicles. All topologies explained earlier, such as series, parallel, series–parallel, and complex HEVs, are applicable to diesel hybrids. Due to the fact that diesel vehicles can generally achieve higher fuel economy, the fuel efficiency of hybridized diesel vehicles can be even better when compared to their gasoline counterparts. Vehicles such as delivery trucks and buses have unique driving patterns and relatively low fuel economy. When hybridized, these vehicles can provide significant fuel savings. Hybrid trucks and buses can be series, parallel, series–parallel, or complex structured and may run on gasoline or diesel. Diesel locomotives are a special type of hybrid. A diesel locomotive uses a diesel engine and generator set to generate electricity. It uses electric motors to drive the train. Even though a diesel locomotive can be referred to as a series hybrid, in some architectures there is no battery for the main drive system to buffer energy between the I/G set and the electric motor. This special configuration is sometimes referred to as simple hybrid. In other architectures, batteries are used and can help reduce the size of the generator, and can also be used for regenerative energy capture. The batteries, in this case, can also be utilized for short-term high current due to torque needs, without resorting to a larger generator.

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Other Approaches to Vehicle Hybridization

The main focus of this presentation is on HEVs, that is, electric–gasoline or electric–diesel hybrids. However, there exist other types of hybridization methods that involve other types of energy storage and propulsion, such as compressed air, flywheels, and hydraulic systems.

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Other Approaches to Vehicle Hybridization (Cont.) A typical hydraulic hybrid is shown in Figure 6. Hydraulic systems can provide a large amount of torque, but due to the complexity of the hydraulic system, a hydraulic hybrid is considered only for large trucks and utility vehicles where frequent and extended period of stops of the engine are necessary.

Figure 6: A parallel hydraulic hybrid vehicle (LP, Low Pressure)

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Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs HEVs can overcome some of the disadvantages of battery-powered pure EVs and gasoline powered conventional vehicles. These advantages include optimized fuel economy and reduced emissions when compared to conventional vehicles, and increased range, reduced charging time, and reduced battery size (hence reduced cost) when compared to pure EVs. However, HEVs and PHEVs still face many challenges, including higher cost when compared to conventional vehicles; electromagnetic interference caused by high-power components; and safety and reliability concerns due to increased components and complexity, packaging of the system, vehicle control, and power management: • Power electronics and electric machines: The subject of power

electronics and electric motors is not new. However, the use of power electronics in a vehicle environment poses significant challenges. Environmental conditions, such as extreme high and low temperatures, vibration, shock, and transient behavior are very different from what electric motors and power electronic converters have been used to. Challenges in power electronics in a HEV include packaging, size, cost, and thermal management.

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Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs (Cont.) • Electromagnetic interference: High-frequency switching and high-

power operation of power electronics and electric motors will generate abundant electromagnetic noise that will interfere with the rest of the vehicle system if not dealt with properly.

• Energy storage systems: Such systems are a major challenge for HEVs and PHEVs. The pulsed power behavior and energy content required for the best performance are typically difficult for conventional batteries to satisfy. Life cycle and abuse tolerance are also critical for vehicle applications. At the present time, nickel metal hydride batteries are used by most HEVs and lithium-ion batteries are targeted by PHEVs. Ultracapacitors have also been considered in some special applications where power demand is a major concern. Flywheels have also been investigated. The limitations of the current energy storage systems are unsatisfactory power density and energy density, limited life cycle, high cost, and potential safety issues.

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Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs (Cont.) • Regenerative braking control: Recovering the kinetic energy during

braking is a key feature of HEVs and PHEVs. However, coordinating regenerative braking with the hydraulic/frictional braking system presents a major challenge as far as safety and braking performance are concerned.

• Power management and vehicle control: HEVs involve the use of multiple propulsion components that require harmonious coordination. Hence, power management is a critical aspect of vehicle control functions in a HEV. A optimized vehicle controller can help achieve better fuel efficiency in a HEV.

• Thermal management: Power electronics, electric machines, and batteries all require a much lower operating temperature than a gasoline engine. A separate cooling loop is necessary in a HEV.

• Modeling and simulation, vehicle dynamics, vehicle design, and optimization: Due to the increased number of components in a HEV, packaging of the components in the same space is a challenge. Associated vehicle dynamics, vehicle design, and modeling and simulation all involve major challenges.

EK OKUMA İNCELEME KISMI

Bosch Automotive Handbook, 2002

Reading Text The main difference among the various configurations is the series, parallel or mixed interconnection of the power sources. In the series configuration (1) the individual drive components are connected in series, whereas in the parallel configuration (2) the drive power of both drive sources is mechanically added. The letters M and G indicate whether the electric drive is operating in "motor" or "generator" mode. Because the diesel engine in the series configuration is mechanically decoupled from the vehicle drive, the diesel engine can be operated at a constant speed, i.e. at its optimum operating point in terms of efficiency and emissions. Despite the advantages of the series configuration, its disadvantage is that energy must be converted several times. Including battery storage efficiency, the mechanical efficiency between the diesel engine and the powered axle is hardly greater than 55 %. The parallel hybrid configuration (2) has the advantage that when operated in the mode which incorporates an IC engine, it is just as efficient as the engine in a conventional vehicle. In configuration 2, the change-speed transmission required by the diesel-engine drive is also part of the electric drive branch. In this type of drive the speed of the electric motor therefore must be varied only within a specific range above a basic speed, in a manner similar to the way in which the diesel engine is operated. Moreover, in this configuration the electric drive also profits from the torque conversion by the downstream transmission, as a result of which the electric motor must only be dimensioned for low drive torque. This leads to an equivalent reduction in motor mass which is roughly proportional to motor torque.

The mixed configuration (3) represents a combination of configurations 1 and 2, and corresponds to a splitter transmission with an infinitely-variable transmission ratio. On the one hand, the power of the IC engine is mechanically transmitted directly to the driving wheels, while on the other, the rotation of the IC engine is decoupled from the rotation of the driving wheels by the speed overlay in the planetary gear.

Bosch Automotive Handbook, 2002

Hybrid drive configurations 1 Series configuration, 2 Parallel configuration, 3 Mixed configuration VM - IC engine, EL - Electric drive (operated as a motor or alternator/generator), BA - Battery or external power supply, SG - Manually shifted transmission.

M and G indicate whether the electric drive is operating in "motor" or "generator" mode

ÖZETLE: HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN KONFİGÜRA“YONU

(a) Series (electrically coupling), (b) parallel (mechanical coupling), (c) series–parallel (mechanical and electrical coupling, (d) complex (mechanical and electrical coupling).


FIGURE: A drawing of the power flow in a typical series hybrid vehicle.




FIGURE: This diagram shows the components included in a typical series hybrid design. The solid-line arrow indicates the transmission of torque to the drive wheels. The dotted-line arrows indicate the transmission of electrical current.



FIGURE: The power flow in a typical parallel hybrid vehicle.



FIGURE: Diagram showing the components involved in a typical parallel-hybrid vehicle. The solid-line arrows indicate the transmission of torque to the drive wheels, and the dotted-line arrows indicate the flow of electrical current.



FIGURE: A series-parallel hybrid design allows the vehicle to operate in electric motor mode only or in combination with the internal combustion engine.

hİbrİd ve elektrİklİ araÇlar - abdullah demir...okuma parçası: kÜresel isinma ve İklİm...

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