Springer Handbookof Nanotechnology

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HandbookSpringerof Nanotechnology

Bharat Bhushan (Ed.)

3rd revised and extended editionWith DVD-ROM, 1577 Figures and 127 Tables

EditorProfessor Bharat BhushanNanoprobe Laboratoryfor Bio- and Nanotechnology and Biomimetics (NLB2)Ohio State University201 W. 19th AvenueColumbus, OH 43210-1142USA

ISBN: 978-3-642-02524-2 e-ISBN: 978-3-642-02525-9DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-02525-9Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2010921002

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62/3180/YL 5 4 3 2 1 0

VForeword by Neal Lane

In a January 2000 speech at the California Institute ofTechnology, former President W.J. Clinton talked aboutthe exciting promise of nanotechnology and the impor-tance of expanding research in nanoscale science andengineering and, more broadly, in the physical sciences.Later that month, he announced in his State of the UnionAddress an ambitious US$ 497 million federal, multia-gency national nanotechnology initiative (NNI) in thefiscal year 2001 budget; and he made the NNI a topscience and technology priority within a budget that em-phasized increased investment in US scientific research.With strong bipartisan support in Congress, most of thisrequest was appropriated, and the NNI was born. Often,federal budget initiatives only last a year or so. It is mostencouraging that the NNI has remained a high priorityof the G.W. Bush Administration and Congress, reflect-ing enormous progress in the field and continued stronginterest and support by industry.

Nanotechnology is the ability to manipulate indi-vidual atoms and molecules to produce nanostructuredmaterials and submicron objects that have applica-tions in the real world. Nanotechnology involves theproduction and application of physical, chemical andbiological systems at scales ranging from individualatoms or molecules to about 100 nm, as well as theintegration of the resulting nanostructures into largersystems. Nanotechnology is likely to have a profoundimpact on our economy and society in the early 21stcentury, perhaps comparable to that of informationtechnology or cellular and molecular biology. Scienceand engineering research in nanotechnology promisesbreakthroughs in areas such as materials and manu-facturing, electronics, medicine and healthcare, energyand the environment, biotechnology, information tech-nology and national security. Clinical trials are alreadyunderway for nanomaterials that offer the promise ofcures for certain cancers. It is widely felt that nanotech-nology will be the next industrial revolution.

Nanometer-scale features are built up from their el-emental constituents. Micro- and nanosystems compo-nents are fabricated using batch-processing techniquesthat are compatible with integrated circuits and range insize from micro- to nanometers. Micro- and nanosys-tems include micro/nanoelectro-mechanical systems(MEMS/NEMS), micromechatronics, optoelectronics,microfluidics and systems integration. These systems

Prof. Neal LaneMalcolm Gillis UniversityProfessor,Department of Physicsand Astronomy,Senior Fellow,James A. Baker III Institutefor Public PolicyRice UniversityHouston, Texas

Served in the Clinton Admin-istration as Assistant to thePresident for Science and Tech-nology and Director of the WhiteHouse Office of Science andTechnology Policy (19982001)and, prior to that, as Director ofthe National Science Foundation(19931998). While at the WhiteHouse, he was a key figure inthe creation of the NNI.

can sense, control, and activate onthe micro/nanoscale and can func-tion individually or in arrays to gen-erate effects on the macroscale. Dueto the enabling nature of these sys-tems and the significant impact theycan have on both the commercialand defense applications, industryas well as the federal governmenthave taken special interest in seeinggrowth nurtured in this field. Micro-and nanosystems are the next logicalstep in the silicon revolution.

The discovery of novel mater-ials, processes, and phenomena atthe nanoscale and the developmentof new experimental and theoreti-cal techniques for research providefresh opportunities for the develop-ment of innovative nanosystems andnanostructured materials. There isan increasing need for a multidis-ciplinary, systems-oriented approachto manufacturing micro/nanodeviceswhich function reliably. This can only be achievedthrough the cross-fertilization of ideas from differentdisciplines and the systematic flow of information andpeople among research groups.

Nanotechnology is a broad, highly interdisciplinary,and still evolving field. Covering even the most im-portant aspects of nanotechnology in a single bookthat reaches readers ranging from students to activeresearchers in academia and industry is an enormouschallenge. To prepare such a wide-ranging book onnanotechnology, Prof. Bhushan has harnessed his ownknowledge and experience, gained in several indus-tries and universities, and has assembled internationallyrecognized authorities from four continents to writechapters covering a wide array of nanotechnology top-ics, including the latest advances. The authors comefrom both academia and industry. The topics includemajor advances in many fields where nanoscale scienceand engineering is being pursued and illustrate how thefield of nanotechnology has continued to emerge andblossom. Given the accelerating pace of discovery andapplications in nanotechnology, it is a challenge to cap-

VI

ture it all in one volume. As in earlier editions, professorBhushan does an admirable job.

Professor Bharat Bhushans comprehensive bookis intended to serve both as a textbook for universitycourses as well as a reference for researchers. The firstand second editions were timely additions to the litera-ture on nanotechnology and stimulated further interestin this important new field, while serving as invaluableresources to members of the international scientific andindustrial community. The increasing demand for up-to-date information on this fast moving field led to this

third edition. It is increasingly important that scientistsand engineers, whatever their specialty, have a solidgrounding in the fundamentals and potential applica-tions of nanotechnology. This third edition addressesthat need by giving particular attention to the wideningaudience of readers. It also includes a discussion of thesocial, ethical and political issues that tend to surroundany emerging technology.

The editor and his team are to be warmly congrat-ulated for bringing together this exclusive, timely, anduseful nanotechnology handbook.

VII

Foreword by James R. Heath

Nanotechnology has become an increasingly popularbuzzword over the past five years or so, a trend that hasbeen fueled by a global set of publicly funded nano-technology initiatives. Even as researchers have beenstruggling to demonstrate some of the most fundamentaland simple aspects of this field, the term nanotechnol-ogy has entered into the public consciousness througharticles in the popular press and popular fiction. Asa consequence, the expectations of the public are highfor nanotechnology, even while the actual public defini-tion of nanotechnology remains a bit fuzzy.

Why shouldnt those expectations be high? The late1990s witnessed a major information technology (IT)revolution and a minor biotechnology revolution. TheIT revolution impacted virtually every aspect of lifein the western world. I am sitting on an airplane at30 000 feet at the moment, working on my laptop, asare about half of the other passengers on this plane.The plane itself is riddled with computational and com-munications equipment. As soon as we land, many ofus will pull out cell phones, others will check e-mailvia wireless modem, some will do both. This picturewould be the same if I was landing in Los Angeles, Bei-jing, or Capetown. I will probably never actually printthis text, but will instead submit it electronically. Allof this was unthinkable a dozen years ago. It is there-fore no wonder that the public expects marvelous thingsto happen quickly. However, the science that laid thegroundwork for the IT revolution dates back 60 yearsor more, with its origins in fundamental solid-statephysics.

By contrast, the biotech revolution was relativelyminor and, at least to date, not particularly effective.The major diseases that plagued mankind a quarter cen-tury ago are still here. In some third-world countries, theaverage lifespan of individuals has actually decreasedfrom where it was a full century ago. While the costsof electronics technologies have plummeted, health carecosts have continued to rise. The biotech revolution mayhave a profound impact, but the task at hand is substan-tially more difficult than what was required for the ITrevolution. In effect, the IT revolution was based on theadvanced engineering of two-dimensional digital cir-

Prof. James R. Heath

Department of ChemistryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, California

Worked in the group of NobelLaureate Richard E. Smalley atRice University (198488) andco-invented Fullerene mol-ecules which led to a revolutionin Chemistry including therealization of nanotubes.The work on Fullerene mol-ecules was cited for the 1996Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Laterhe joined the University ofCalifornia at Los Angeles (19942002), and co-founded andserved as a Scientific Directorof The California NanosystemsInstitute.

cuits constructed from relativelysimple components extended solids.The biotech revolution is really de-pendent upon the ability to reverseengineer three-dimensional analogsystems constructed from quite com-plex components proteins. Giventhat the basic science behind biotechis substantially younger than thescience that has supported IT, itis perhaps not surprising that thebiotech revolution has not reallybeen a proper revolution yet, and itlikely needs at least another decadeor so to come into fruition.

Where does nanotechnology fitinto this picture? In many ways,nanotechnology depends upon theability to engineer two- and three-dimensional systems constructed fromcomplex components such as macro-molecules, biomolecules, nanostruc-tured solids, etc. Furthermore, interms of patents, publications, andother metrics that can be used to gauge the birth andevolution of a field, nanotech lags some 1520 years be-hind biotech. Thus, now is the time that the fundamentalscience behind nanotechnology is being explored anddeveloped. Nevertheless, progress with that science ismoving forward at a dramatic pace. If the scientificcommunity can keep up this pace and if the publicsector will continue to support this science, then it ispossible, and even perhaps likely, that in 20 years wemay be speaking of the nanotech revolution.

The first edition of Springer Handbook of Nanotech-nology was timely to assemble chapters in the broadfield of nanotechnology. Given the fact that the secondedition was in press one year after the publication of thefirst edition in April 2004, it is clear that the handbookhas shown to be a valuable reference for experiencedresearchers as well as for a novice in the field. Thethird edition has one Part added and an expanded scopeshould have a wider appeal.

IX

Preface to the 3rd Edition

On December 29, 1959 at the California Institute ofTechnology, Nobel Laureate Richard P. Feynman gaveat talk at the Annual meeting of the American PhysicalSociety that has become one of the 20th century clas-sic science lectures, titled Theres Plenty of Room atthe Bottom. He presented a technological vision of ex-treme miniaturization in 1959, several years before theword chip became part of the lexicon. He talked aboutthe problem of manipulating and controlling things ona small scale. Extrapolating from known physical laws,Feynman envisioned a technology using the ultimatetoolbox of nature, building nanoobjects atom by atomor molecule by molecule. Since the 1980s, many in-ventions and discoveries in fabrication of nanoobjectshave been testament to his vision. In recognition ofthis reality, National Science and Technology Council(NSTC) of the White House created the InteragencyWorking Group on Nanoscience, Engineering and Tech-nology (IWGN) in 1998. In a January 2000 speech atthe same institute, former President W.J. Clinton talkedabout the exciting promise of nanotechnology and theimportance of expanding research in nanoscale scienceand technology, more broadly. Later that month, heannounced in his State of the Union Address an am-bitious US$ 497 million federal, multi-agency nationalnanotechnology initiative (NNI) in the fiscal year 2001budget, and made the NNI a top science and technol-ogy priority. The objective of this initiative was to forma broad-based coalition in which the academe, the pri-vate sector, and local, state, and federal governmentswork together to push the envelop of nanoscience andnanoengineering to reap nanotechnologys potential so-cial and economic benefits.

The funding in the US has continued to increase.In January 2003, the US senate introduced a bill toestablish a National Nanotechnology Program. On De-cember 3, 2003, President George W. Bush signedinto law the 21st Century Nanotechnology Researchand Development Act. The legislation put into lawprograms and activities supported by the NationalNanotechnology Initiative. The bill gave nanotechnol-ogy a permanent home in the federal governmentand authorized US$ 3.7 billion to be spent in the fouryear period beginning in October 2005, for nanotech-nology initiatives at five federal agencies. The fundswould provide grants to researchers, coordinate R&D

across five federal agencies (National Science Foun-dation (NSF), Department of Energy (DOE), NASA,National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)), estab-lish interdisciplinary research centers, and acceleratetechnology transfer into the private sector. In addition,Department of Defense (DOD), Homeland Security,Agriculture and Justice as well as the National Insti-tutes of Health (NIH) also fund large R&D activities.They currently account for more than one-third of thefederal budget for nanotechnology.

European Union (EU) made nanosciences and nan-otechnologies a priority in Sixth Framework Program(FP6) in 2002 for a period of 20032006. They haddedicated small funds in FP4 and FP5 before. FP6 wastailored to help better structure European research andto cope with the strategic objectives set out in Lis-bon in 2000. Japan identified nanotechnology as one ofits main research priorities in 2001. The funding lev-els increases sharply from US$ 400 million in 2001 toaround US$ 950 million in 2004. In 2003, South Ko-rea embarked upon a ten-year program with aroundUS$ 2 billion of public funding, and Taiwan has com-mitted around US$ 600 million of public funding oversix years. Singapore and China are also investing ona large scale. Russia is well funded as well.

Nanotechnology literally means any technologydone on a nanoscale that has applications in thereal world. Nanotechnology encompasses productionand application of physical, chemical and biologicalsystems at scales, ranging from individual atoms ormolecules to submicron dimensions, as well as theintegration of the resulting nanostructures into largersystems. Nanotechnology is likely to have a pro-found impact on our economy and society in theearly 21st century, comparable to that of semiconduc-tor technology, information technology, or cellular andmolecular biology. Science and technology researchin nanotechnology promises breakthroughs in areassuch as materials and manufacturing, nanoelectronics,medicine and healthcare, energy, biotechnology, infor-mation technology and national security. It is widelyfelt that nanotechnology will be the next industrialrevolution.

There is an increasing need for a multidisciplinary,system-oriented approach to design and manufactur-

Xing of micro/nanodevices which function reliably. Thiscan only be achieved through the cross-fertilizationof ideas from different disciplines and the system-atic flow of information and people among researchgroups. Reliability is a critical technology for manymicro- and nanosystems and nanostructured materials.A broad based handbook was needed, and the firstedition of Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology waspublished in April 2004. It presented an overview ofnanomaterial synthesis, micro/nanofabrication, micro-and nanocomponents and systems, scanning probe mi-croscopy, reliability issues (including nanotribologyand nanomechanics) for nanotechnology, and indus-trial applications. When the handbook went for sale inEurope, it was sold out in ten days. Reviews on thehandbook were very flattering.

Given the explosive growth in nanoscience andnanotechnology, the publisher and the editor decidedto develop a second edition after merely six monthsof publication of the first edition. The second edition(2007) came out in December 2006. The publisher andthe editor again decided to develop a third edition af-ter six month of publication of the second edition. Thisedition of the handbook integrates the knowledge fromnanostructures, fabrication, materials science, devices,and reliability point of view. It covers various industrialapplications. It also addresses social, ethical, and polit-ical issues. Given the significant interest in biomedicalapplications, and biomimetics a number of additionalchapters in this arena have been added. The third edi-tion consists of 53 chapters (new 10, revised 28, and asis 15). The chapters have been written by 139 interna-tionally recognized experts in the field, from academia,

national research labs, and industry, and from all overthe world.

This handbook is intended for three types of read-ers: graduate students of nanotechnology, researchers inacademia and industry who are active or intend to be-come active in this field, and practicing engineers andscientists who have encountered a problem and hopeto solve it as expeditiously as possible. The handbookshould serve as an excellent text for one or two semestergraduate courses in nanotechnology in mechanical en-gineering, materials science, applied physics, or appliedchemistry.

We embarked on the development of third editionin June 2007, and we worked very hard to get all thechapters to the publisher in a record time of about 12months. I wish to sincerely thank the authors for offer-ing to write comprehensive chapters on a tight schedule.This is generally an added responsibility in the hec-tic work schedules of researchers today. I depended ona large number of reviewers who provided critical re-views. I would like to thank Dr. Phillip J. Bond, Chief ofStaff and Under Secretary for Technology, US Depart-ment of Commerce, Washington, D.C. for suggestionsfor chapters as well as authors in the handbook. Last butnot the least, I would like to thank my secretary Cate-rina Runyon-Spears for various administrative dutiesand her tireless efforts are highly appreciated.

I hope that this handbook will stimulate further in-terest in this important new field, and the readers of thishandbook will find it useful.

February 2010 Bharat BhushanEditor

XI

Preface to the 2nd Edition

On 29 December 1959 at the California Institute ofTechnology, Nobel Laureate Richard P. Feynman gaveat talk at the Annual meeting of the American PhysicalSociety that has become one of the 20th century clas-sic science lectures, titled Theres Plenty of Room atthe Bottom. He presented a technological vision of ex-treme miniaturization in 1959, several years before theword chip became part of the lexicon. He talked aboutthe problem of manipulating and controlling things ona small scale. Extrapolating from known physical laws,Feynman envisioned a technology using the ultimatetoolbox of nature, building nanoobjects atom by atomor molecule by molecule. Since the 1980s, many inven-tions and discoveries in the fabrication of nanoobjectshave been a testament to his vision. In recognition ofthis reality, the National Science and Technology Coun-cil (NSTC) of the White House created the InteragencyWorking Group on Nanoscience, Engineering and Tech-nology (IWGN) in 1998. In a January 2000 speech atthe same institute, former President W. J. Clinton talkedabout the exciting promise of nanotechnology andthe importance of expanding research in nanoscale sci-ence and, more broadly, technology. Later that month,he announced in his State of the Union Address anambitious $497 million federal, multiagency nationalnanotechnology initiative (NNI) in the fiscal year 2001budget, and made the NNI a top science and technol-ogy priority. The objective of this initiative was to forma broad-based coalition in which the academe, the pri-vate sector, and local, state, and federal governmentswork together to push the envelope of nanoscience andnanoengineering to reap nanotechnologys potential so-cial and economic benefits.

The funding in the U.S. has continued to increase.In January 2003, the U. S. senate introduced a bill toestablish a National Nanotechnology Program. On 3December 2003, President George W. Bush signed intolaw the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and De-velopment Act. The legislation put into law programsand activities supported by the National Nanotechnol-ogy Initiative. The bill gave nanotechnology a perma-nent home in the federal government and authorized$3.7 billion to be spent in the four year period begin-ning in October 2005, for nanotechnology initiatives atfive federal agencies. The funds would provide grantsto researchers, coordinate R&D across five federal

agencies (National Science Foundation (NSF), Depart-ment of Energy (DOE), NASA, National Institute ofStandards and Technology (NIST), and EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA)), establish interdisciplinaryresearch centers, and accelerate technology transfer intothe private sector. In addition, Department of Defense(DOD), Homeland Security, Agriculture and Justice aswell as the National Institutes of Health (NIH) wouldalso fund large R&D activities. They currently accountfor more than one-third of the federal budget for nano-technology.

The European Union made nanosciences and nan-otechnologies a priority in the Sixth Framework Pro-gram (FP6) in 2002 for the period of 2003-2006. Theyhad dedicated small funds in FP4 and FP5 before. FP6was tailored to help better structure European researchand to cope with the strategic objectives set out in Lis-bon in 2000. Japan identified nanotechnology as one ofits main research priorities in 2001. The funding levelsincreased sharply from $400 million in 2001 to around$950 million in 2004. In 2003, South Korea embarkedupon a ten-year program with around $2 billion of pub-lic funding, and Taiwan has committed around $600million of public funding over six years. Singapore andChina are also investing on a large scale. Russia is wellfunded as well.

Nanotechnology literally means any technologydone on a nanoscale that has applications in thereal world. Nanotechnology encompasses productionand application of physical, chemical and biologicalsystems at scales, ranging from individual atoms ormolecules to submicron dimensions, as well as theintegration of the resulting nanostructures into largersystems. Nanotechnology is likely to have a pro-found impact on our economy and society in theearly 21st century, comparable to that of semiconduc-tor technology, information technology, or cellular andmolecular biology. Science and technology researchin nanotechnology promises breakthroughs in areassuch as materials and manufacturing, nanoelectronics,medicine and healthcare, energy, biotechnology, infor-mation technology and national security. It is widelyfelt that nanotechnology will be the next industrialrevolution.

There is an increasing need for a multidisciplinary,system-oriented approach to design and manufactur-

XII

ing of micro/nanodevices that function reliably. Thiscan only be achieved through the cross-fertilizationof ideas from different disciplines and the system-atic flow of information and people among researchgroups. Reliability is a critical technology for manymicro- and nanosystems and nanostructured materials.A broad-based handbook was needed, and thus the firstedition of Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology waspublished in April 2004. It presented an overview ofnanomaterial synthesis, micro/nanofabrication, micro-and nanocomponents and systems, scanning probe mi-croscopy, reliability issues (including nanotribologyand nanomechanics) for nanotechnology, and industrialapplications. When the handbook went for sale in Eu-rope, it sold out in ten days. Reviews on the handbookwere very flattering.

Given the explosive growth in nanoscience andnanotechnology, the publisher and the editor decided todevelop a second edition merely six months after publi-cation of the first edition. This edition of the handbookintegrates the knowledge from the nanostructure, fabri-cation, materials science, devices, and reliability pointof view. It covers various industrial applications. It alsoaddresses social, ethical, and political issues. Given thesignificant interest in biomedical applications, a numberof chapters in this arena have been added. The sec-ond edition consists of 59 chapters (new: 23; revised:27; unchanged: 9). The chapters have been written by154 internationally recognized experts in the field, fromacademia, national research labs, and industry.

This book is intended for three types of readers:graduate students of nanotechnology, researchers in

academia and industry who are active or intend to be-come active in this field, and practicing engineers andscientists who have encountered a problem and hopeto solve it as expeditiously as possible. The handbookshould serve as an excellent text for one or two semestergraduate courses in nanotechnology in mechanical en-gineering, materials science, applied physics, or appliedchemistry.

We embarked on the development of the second edi-tion in October 2004, and we worked very hard to get allthe chapters to the publisher in a record time of about 7months. I wish to sincerely thank the authors for offer-ing to write comprehensive chapters on a tight schedule.This is generally an added responsibility to the hec-tic work schedules of researchers today. I dependedon a large number of reviewers who provided criti-cal reviews. I would like to thank Dr. Phillip J. Bond,Chief of Staff and Under Secretary for Technology, USDepartment of Commerce, Washington, D.C. for chap-ter suggestions as well as authors in the handbook. Iwould also like to thank my colleague, Dr. Zhenhua Tao,whose efforts during the preparation of this handbookwere very useful. Last but not the least, I would liketo thank my secretary Caterina Runyon-Spears for vari-ous administrative duties; her tireless efforts are highlyappreciated.

I hope that this handbook will stimulate further in-terest in this important new field, and the readers of thishandbook will find it useful.

May 2005 Bharat BhushanEditor

XIII

Preface to the 1st Edition

On December 29, 1959 at the California Institute ofTechnology, Nobel Laureate Richard P. Feynman gavea talk at the Annual meeting of the American Physic-al Society that has become one classic science lectureof the 20th century, titled Theres Plenty of Roomat the Bottom. He presented a technological visionof extreme miniaturization in 1959, several years be-fore the word chip became part of the lexicon. Hetalked about the problem of manipulating and con-trolling things on a small scale. Extrapolating fromknown physical laws, Feynman envisioned a technologyusing the ultimate toolbox of nature, building nanoob-jects atom by atom or molecule by molecule. Sincethe 1980s, many inventions and discoveries in fabri-cation of nanoobjects have been a testament to hisvision. In recognition of this reality, in a January 2000speech at the same institute, former President W. J.Clinton talked about the exciting promise of nanotech-nology and the importance of expanding research innanoscale science and engineering. Later that month,he announced in his State of the Union Address anambitious $ 497 million federal, multi-agency nationalnanotechnology initiative (NNI) in the fiscal year 2001budget, and made the NNI a top science and technologypriority. Nanotechnology literally means any technol-ogy done on a nanoscale that has applications in thereal world. Nanotechnology encompasses productionand application of physical, chemical and biologicalsystems at size scales, ranging from individual atomsor molecules to submicron dimensions as well as theintegration of the resulting nanostructures into largersystems. Nanofabrication methods include the manipu-lation or self-assembly of individual atoms, molecules,or molecular structures to produce nanostructured ma-terials and sub-micron devices. Micro- and nanosystemscomponents are fabricated using top-down lithographicand nonlithographic fabrication techniques. Nanotech-nology will have a profound impact on our economyand society in the early 21st century, comparable tothat of semiconductor technology, information technol-ogy, or advances in cellular and molecular biology.The research and development in nanotechnology willlead to potential breakthroughs in areas such as ma-terials and manufacturing, nanoelectronics, medicineand healthcare, energy, biotechnology, informationtechnology and national security. It is widely felt

that nanotechnology will lead to the next industrialrevolution.

Reliability is a critical technology for many micro-and nanosystems and nanostructured materials. Nobook exists on this emerging field. A broad basedhandbook is needed. The purpose of this handbookis to present an overview of nanomaterial synthe-sis, micro/nanofabrication, micro- and nanocomponentsand systems, reliability issues (including nanotribologyand nanomechanics) for nanotechnology, and indus-trial applications. The chapters have been written byinternationally recognized experts in the field, fromacademia, national research labs and industry from allover the world.

The handbook integrates knowledge from the fab-rication, mechanics, materials science and reliabilitypoints of view. This book is intended for three typesof readers: graduate students of nanotechnology, re-searchers in academia and industry who are active orintend to become active in this field, and practicingengineers and scientists who have encountered a prob-lem and hope to solve it as expeditiously as possible.The handbook should serve as an excellent text for oneor two semester graduate courses in nanotechnologyin mechanical engineering, materials science, appliedphysics, or applied chemistry.

We embarked on this project in February 2002, andwe worked very hard to get all the chapters to thepublisher in a record time of about 1 year. I wish tosincerely thank the authors for offering to write compre-hensive chapters on a tight schedule. This is generallyan added responsibility in the hectic work schedules ofresearchers today. I depended on a large number of re-viewers who provided critical reviews. I would like tothank Dr. Phillip J. Bond, Chief of Staff and Under Sec-retary for Technology, US Department of Commerce,Washington, D.C. for suggestions for chapters as wellas authors in the handbook. I would also like to thankmy colleague, Dr. Huiwen Liu, whose efforts during thepreparation of this handbook were very useful.

I hope that this handbook will stimulate further in-terest in this important new field, and the readers of thishandbook will find it useful.

September 2003 Bharat BhushanEditor

XV

Editors Vita

Dr. Bharat Bhushan received an M.S. in mechanical en-gineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technol-ogy in 1971, an M.S. in mechanics and a Ph.D. in me-chanical engineering from the University of Colorado atBoulder in 1973 and 1976, respectively, an MBA fromRensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, NY in 1980,Doctor Technicae from the University of Trondheim atTrondheim, Norway in 1990, a Doctor of Technical Sci-ences from the Warsaw University of Technology atWarsaw, Poland in 1996, and Doctor Honouris Causafrom the National Academy of Sciences at Gomel,Belarus in 2000. He is a registered professional en-gineer. He is presently an Ohio Eminent Scholar andThe Howard D. Winbigler Professor in the College ofEngineering, and the Director of the Nanoprobe Labo-ratory for Bio- and Nanotechnology and Biomimetics(NLB) at the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.His research interests include fundamental studies witha focus on scanning probe techniques in the interdisci-plinary areas of bio/nanotribology, bio/nanomechanicsand bio/nanomaterials characterization, and applica-tions to bio/nanotechnology and biomimetics. He is aninternationally recognized expert of bio/nanotribologyand bio/nanomechanics using scanning probe mi-croscopy, and is one of the most prolific authors. He isconsidered by some a pioneer of the tribology and me-chanics of magnetic storage devices. He has authored 6scientific books, more than 90 handbook chapters, morethan 700 scientific papers (h factor 45+; ISI HighlyCited in Materials Science, since 2007), and more than60 technical reports, edited more than 45 books, andholds 17 US and foreign patents. He is co-editor ofSpringer NanoScience and Technology Series and co-editor of Microsystem Technologies. He has given morethan 400 invited presentations on six continents andmore than 140 keynote/plenary addresses at major in-ternational conferences.

Dr. Bhushan is an accomplished organizer. He or-ganized the first symposium on Tribology and Me-

chanics of Magnetic Storage Sys-tems in 1984 and the first inter-national symposium on Advancesin Information Storage Systems in1990, both of which are now heldannually. He is the founder of anASME Information Storage and Pro-cessing Systems Division foundedin 1993 and served as the found-ing chair during 19931998. His biography has beenlisted in over two dozen Whos Who books in-cluding Whos Who in the World and has receivedmore than two dozen awards for his contributions toscience and technology from professional societies,industry, and US government agencies. He is alsothe recipient of various international fellowships in-cluding the Alexander von Humboldt Research Prizefor Senior Scientists, Max Planck Foundation Re-search Award for Outstanding Foreign Scientists, andthe Fulbright Senior Scholar Award. He is a foreignmember of the International Academy of Engineer-ing (Russia), Byelorussian Academy of Engineeringand Technology and the Academy of Triboengineer-ing of Ukraine, an honorary member of the Societyof Tribologists of Belarus, a fellow of ASME, IEEE,STLE, and the New York Academy of Sciences,and a member of ASEE, Sigma Xi and Tau BetaPi.

Dr. Bhushan has previously worked for the R&DDivision of Mechanical Technology Inc., Latham, NY;the Technology Services Division of SKF IndustriesInc., King of Prussia, PA; the General Products Divi-sion Laboratory of IBM Corporation, Tucson, AZ; andthe Almaden Research Center of IBM Corporation, SanJose, CA. He has held visiting professor appointmentsat University of California at Berkeley, University ofCambridge, UK, Technical University Vienna, Aus-tria, University of Paris, Orsay, ETH Zurich and EPFLLausanne.

XVII

List of Authors

Chong H. AhnUniversity of CincinnatiDepartment of Electricaland Computer EngineeringCincinnati, OH 45221, USAe-mail: chong.ahn@uc.edu

Boris AnczykowskinanoAnalytics GmbHMnster, Germanye-mail: anczykowski@nanoanalytics.com

W. Robert AshurstAuburn UniversityDepartment of Chemical EngineeringAuburn, AL 36849, USAe-mail: ashurst@auburn.edu

Massood Z. AtashbarWestern Michigan UniversityDepartment of Electricaland Computer EngineeringKalamazoo, MI 49008-5329, USAe-mail: massood.atashbar@wmich.edu

Wolfgang BacsaUniversity of Toulouse III (Paul Sabatier)Laboratoire de Physique des Solides (LPST),UMR 5477 CNRSToulouse, Francee-mail: bacsa@ramansco.ups-tlse.fr;bacsa@lpst.ups-tlse.fr

Kelly BaileyUniversity of AdelaideCSIRO Human NutritionAdelaide SA 5005, Australiae-mail: kelly.bailey@csiro.au

William Sims BainbridgeNational Science FoundationDivision of Information, Science and EngineeringArlington, VA, USAe-mail: wsbainbridge@yahoo.com

Antonio BaldiInstitut de Microelectronica de Barcelona (IMB)Centro National Microelectrnica (CNM-CSIC)Barcelona, Spaine-mail: antoni.baldi@cnm.es

Wilhelm BarthlottUniversity of BonnNees Institute for Biodiversity of PlantsMeckenheimer Allee 17053115 Bonn, Germanye-mail: barthlott@uni-bonn.de

Roland BennewitzINM Leibniz Institute for New Materials66123 Saarbrcken, Germanye-mail: roland.bennewitz@inm-gmbh.de

Bharat BhushanOhio State UniversityNanoprobe Laboratory for Bio- andNanotechnology and Biomimetics (NLB)201 W. 19th AvenueColumbus, OH 43210-1142, USAe-mail: bhushan.2@osu.edu

Gerd K. BinnigDefiniens AGTrappentreustr. 180339 Munich, Germanye-mail: gbinnig@definiens.com

Marcie R. BlackBandgap Engineering Inc.1344 Main St.Waltham, MA 02451, USAe-mail: marcie@alum.mit.edu;marcie@bandgap.com

Donald W. BrennerDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringRaleigh, NC, USAe-mail: brenner@ncsu.edu

XVIII List of Authors

Jean-Marc BrotoInstitut National des Sciences Appliquesof ToulouseLaboratoire Nationaldes Champs Magntiques Pulss (LNCMP)Toulouse, Francee-mail: broto@lncmp.fr

Guozhong CaoUniversity of WashingtonDept. of Materials Science and Engineering302M Roberts HallSeattle, WA 98195-2120, USAe-mail: gzcao@u.washington.edu

Edin (I-Chen) ChenNational Central UniversityInstitute of Materials Science and EngineeringDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringChung-Li, 320, Taiwane-mail: ichen@ncu.edu.tw

Yu-Ting ChengNational Chiao Tung UniversityDepartment of Electronics Engineering& Institute of Electronics1001, Ta-Hsueh Rd.Hsinchu, 300, Taiwan, R.O.C.e-mail: ytcheng@mail.nctu.edu.tw

Giovanni CherubiniIBM Zurich Research LaboratoryTape Technologies8803 Rschlikon, Switzerlande-mail: cbi@zurich.ibm.com

Mu ChiaoDepartment of Mechanical Engineering6250 Applied Science LaneVancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canadae-mail: muchiao@mech.ubc.ca

Jin-Woo ChoiLouisiana State UniversityDepartment of Electricaland Computer EngineeringBaton Rouge, LA 70803, USAe-mail: choi@ece.lsu.edu

Tamara H. CooperUniversity of AdelaideCSIRO Human NutritionAdelaide SA 5005, Australiae-mail: tamara.cooper@csiro.au

Alex D. CorwinGE Global Research1 Research CircleNiskayuna, NY 12309, USAe-mail: corwin@ge.com

Maarten P. de BoerCarnegie Mellon UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering5000 Forbes AvenuePittsburgh, PA 15213, USAe-mail: mpdebo@andrew.cmu.edu

Dietrich DehlingerLawrence Livermore National LaboratoryEngineeringLivermore, CA 94551, USAe-mail: dehlinger1@llnl.gov

Frank W. DelRioNational Institute of Standards and Technology100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8520Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8520, USAe-mail: frank.delrio@nist.gov

Michel DespontIBM Zurich Research LaboratoryMicro- and Nanofabrication8803 Rschlikon, Switzerlande-mail: dpt@zurich.ibm.com

Lixin DongMichigan State UniversityElectrical and Computer Engineering2120 Engineering BuildingEast Lansing, MI 48824-1226, USAe-mail: ldong@egr.msu.edu

Gene DresselhausMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyFrancis Bitter Magnet LaboratoryCambridge, MA 02139, USAe-mail: gene@mgm.mit.edu

List of Authors XIX

Mildred S. DresselhausMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyDepartment of Electrical Engineeringand Computer ScienceDepartment of PhysicsCambridge, MA, USAe-mail: millie@mgm.mit.edu

Urs T. DrigIBM Zurich Research LaboratoryMicro-/Nanofabrication8803 Rschlikon, Switzerlande-mail: drg@zurich.ibm.com

Andreas EbnerJohannes Kepler University LinzInstitute for BiophysicsAltenberger Str. 694040 Linz, Austriae-mail: andreas.ebner@jku.at

Evangelos EleftheriouIBM Zurich Research Laboratory8803 Rschlikon, Switzerlande-mail: ele@zurich.ibm.com

Emmanuel FlahautUniversit Paul SabatierCIRIMAT, Centre Interuniversitaire de Rechercheet dIngnierie des Matriaux, UMR 5085 CNRS118 Route de Narbonne31062 Toulouse, Francee-mail: flahaut@chimie.ups-tlse.fr

Anatol FritschUniversity of LeipzigInstitute of Experimental Physics IDivision of Soft Matter PhysicsLinnstr. 504103 Leipzig, Germanye-mail: anatol.fritsch@uni-leipzig.de

Harald FuchsUniversitt MnsterPhysikalisches InstitutMnster, Germanye-mail: fuchsh@uni-muenster.de

Christoph GerberUniversity of BaselInstitute of PhysicsNational Competence Center for Researchin Nanoscale Science (NCCR) BaselKlingelbergstr. 824056 Basel, Switzerlande-mail: christoph.gerber@unibas.ch

Franz J. GiessiblUniversitt RegensburgInstitute of Experimental and Applied PhysicsUniversittsstr. 3193053 Regensburg, Germanye-mail: franz.giessibl@physik.uni-regensburg.de

Enrico GneccoUniversity of BaselNational Center of Competence in ResearchDepartment of PhysicsKlingelbergstr. 824056 Basel, Switzerlande-mail: enrico.gnecco@unibas.ch

Stanislav N. GorbMax Planck Institut fr MetallforschungEvolutionary Biomaterials GroupHeisenbergstr. 370569 Stuttgart, Germanye-mail: s.gorb@mf.mpg.de

Hermann GruberUniversity of LinzInstitute of BiophysicsAltenberger Str. 694040 Linz, Austriae-mail: hermann.gruber@jku.at

Jason HafnerRice UniversityDepartment of Physics and AstronomyHouston, TX 77251, USAe-mail: hafner@rice.edu

Judith A. HarrisonU.S. Naval AcademyChemistry Department572 Holloway RoadAnnapolis, MD 21402-5026, USAe-mail: jah@usna.edu

XX List of Authors

Martin HegnerCRANN The Naughton InstituteTrinity College, University of DublinSchool of PhysicsDublin, 2, Irelande-mail: martin.hegner@tcd.ie

Thomas HelblingETH ZurichMicro and NanosystemsDepartment of Mechanicaland Process Engineering8092 Zurich, Switzerlande-mail: thomas.helbling@micro.mavt.ethz.ch

Michael J. HellerUniversity of California San DiegoDepartment of BioengineeringDept. of Electrical and Computer EngineeringLa Jolla, CA, USAe-mail: mjheller@ucsd.edu

Seong-Jun HeoLam Research Corp.4650 Cushing ParkwayFremont, CA 94538, USAe-mail: seongjun.heo@lamrc.com

Christofer HieroldETH ZurichMicro and NanosystemsDepartment of Mechanicaland Process Engineering8092 Zurich, Switzerlande-mail: christofer.hierold@micro.mavt.ethz.ch

Peter HinterdorferUniversity of LinzInstitute for BiophysicsAltenberger Str. 694040 Linz, Austriae-mail: peter.hinterdorfer@jku.at

Dalibor HodkoNanogen, Inc.10498 Pacific Center CourtSan Diego, CA 92121, USAe-mail: dhodko@nanogen.com

Hendrik HlscherForschungszentrum KarlsruheInstitute of Microstructure TechnologyLinnstr. 576021 Karlsruhe, Germanye-mail: hendrik.hoelscher@imt.fzk.de

Hirotaka HosoiHokkaido UniversityCreative Research Initiative SouseiKita 21, Nishi 10, Kita-kuSapporo, Japane-mail: hosoi@cris.hokudai.ac.jp

Katrin HbnerStaatliche Fachoberschule Neu-Ulm89231 Neu-Ulm, Germanye-mail: katrin.huebner1@web.de

Douglas L. IrvingNorth Carolina State UniversityMaterials Science and EngineeringRaleigh, NC 27695-7907, USAe-mail: doug_irving@ncsu.edu

Jacob N. IsraelachviliUniversity of CaliforniaDepartment of Chemical Engineeringand Materials DepartmentSanta Barbara, CA 93106-5080, USAe-mail: jacob@engineering.ucsb.edu

Guangyao JiaUniversity of California, IrvineDepartment of Mechanicaland Aerospace EngineeringIrvine, CA, USAe-mail: gjia@uci.edu

Sungho JinUniversity of California, San DiegoDepartment of Mechanicaland Aerospace Engineering9500 Gilman DriveLa Jolla, CA 92093-0411, USAe-mail: jin@ucsd.edu

Anne JourdainInteruniversity Microelectronics Center (IMEC)Leuven, Belgiume-mail: jourdain@imec.be

List of Authors XXI

Yong Chae JungSamsung Electronics C., Ltd.Senior Engineer Process Development TeamSan #16 Banwol-Dong, Hwasung-CityGyeonggi-Do 445-701, Koreae-mail: yc423.jung@samsung.com

Harold KahnCase Western Reserve UniversityDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringCleveland, OH , USAe-mail: kahn@cwru.edu

Roger KammMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyDepartment of Biological Engineering77 Massachusetts AvenueCambridge, MA 02139, USAe-mail: rdkamm@mit.edu

Ruti KaponWeizmann Institute of ScienceDepartment of Biological ChemistryRehovot 76100, Israele-mail: ruti.kapon@weizmann.ac.il

Josef KsUniversity of LeipzigInstitute of Experimental Physics IDivision of Soft Matter PhysicsLinnstr. 504103 Leipzig, Germanye-mail: jkaes@physik.uni-leipzig.de

Horacio KidoUniversity of California at IrvineMechanical and Aerospace EngineeringIrvine, CA, USAe-mail: hkido@uci.edu

Tobias KielingUniversity of LeipzigInstitute of Experimental Physics IDivision of Soft Matter PhysicsLinnstr. 504103 Leipzig, Germanye-mail: Tobias.Kiessling@uni-leipzig.de

Jitae KimUniversity of California at IrvineDepartment of Mechanicaland Aerospace EngineeringIrvine, CA, USAe-mail: jitaekim@uci.edu

Jongbaeg KimYonsei UniversitySchool of Mechanical Engineering1st Engineering Bldg.Seoul, 120-749, South Koreae-mail: kimjb@yonsei.ac.kr

Nahui KimSamsung Advanced Institute of TechnologyResearch and DevelopmentSeoul, South Koreae-mail: nahui.kim@samsung.com

Kerstin KochRhine-Waal University of Applied ScienceDepartment of Life Science, Biologyand NanobiotechnologyLandwehr 447533 Kleve, Germanye-mail: kerstin.koch@hochschule.rhein-waal.de

Jing KongMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyDepartment of Electrical Engineeringand Computer ScienceCambridge, MA, USAe-mail: jingkong@mit.edu

Tobias KrausLeibniz-Institut fr Neue Materialien gGmbHCampus D2 266123 Saarbrcken, Germanye-mail: tobias.kraus@inm-gmbh.de

Anders KristensenTechnical University of DenmarkDTU Nanotech2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmarke-mail: anders.kristensen@nanotech.dtu.dk

XXII List of Authors

Ratnesh LalUniversity of ChicagoCenter for Nanomedicine5841 S Maryland AvChicago, IL 60637, USAe-mail: rlal@uchicago.edu

Jan LammerdingHarvard Medical SchoolBrigham and Womens Hospital65 Landsdowne StCambridge, MA 02139, USAe-mail: jlammerding@rics.bwh.harvard.edu

Hans Peter LangUniversity of BaselInstitute of Physics, National Competence Centerfor Research in Nanoscale Science (NCCR) BaselKlingelbergstr. 824056 Basel, Switzerlande-mail: hans-peter.lang@unibas.ch

Carmen LaTorreOwens Corning Science and TechnologyRoofing and Asphalt2790 Columbus RoadGranville, OH 43023, USAe-mail: carmen.latorre@owenscorning.com

Christophe LaurentUniversit Paul SabatierCIRIMAT UMR 5085 CNRS118 Route de Narbonne31062 Toulouse, Francee-mail: laurent@chimie.ups-tlse.fr

Abraham P. LeeUniversity of California IrvineDepartment of Biomedical EngineeringDepartment of Mechanicaland Aerospace EngineeringIrvine, CA 92697, USAe-mail: aplee@uci.edu

Stephen C. LeeOhio State UniversityBiomedical Engineering CenterColumbus, OH 43210, USAe-mail: lee@bme.ohio-state.edu

Wayne R. LeifertAdelaide Business CentreCSIRO Human NutritionAdelaide SA 5000, Australiae-mail: wayne.leifert@csiro.au

Liwei LinUC BerkeleyMechanical Engineering Department5126 EtcheverryBerkeley, CA 94720-1740, USAe-mail: lwlin@me.berkeley.edu

Yu-Ming LinIBM T.J. Watson Research CenterNanometer Scale Science & Technology1101 Kitchawan RoadYorktown Heigths, NY 10598, USAe-mail: yming@us.ibm.com

Marc J. MadouUniversity of California IrvineDepartment of Mechanical and Aerospaceand Biomedical EngineeringIrvine, CA, USAe-mail: mmadou@uci.edu

Othmar MartiUlm UniversityInstitute of Experimental PhysicsAlbert-Einstein-Allee 1189069 Ulm, Germanye-mail: othmar.marti@uni-ulm.de

Jack Martin66 Summer StreetFoxborough, MA 02035, USAe-mail: jack.martin@alumni.tufts.edu

Shinji MatsuiUniversity of HyogoLaboratory of Advanced Scienceand Technology for IndustryHyogo, Japane-mail: matsui@lasti.u-hyogo.ac.jp

List of Authors XXIII

Mehran MehreganyCase Western Reserve UniversityDepartment of Electrical Engineeringand Computer ScienceCleveland, OH 44106, USAe-mail: mxm31@cwru.edu

Etienne MenardSemprius, Inc.4915 Prospectus Dr.Durham, NC 27713, USAe-mail: etienne.menard@semprius.com

Ernst MeyerUniversity of BaselInstitute of PhysicsBasel, Switzerlande-mail: ernst.meyer@unibas.ch

Robert ModliskiBaolab MicrosystemsTerrassa 08220, Spaine-mail: rmodlinski@gmx.com

Mohammad MofradUniversity of California, BerkeleyDepartment of BioengineeringBerkeley, CA 94720, USAe-mail: mofrad@berkeley.edu

Marc MonthiouxCEMES - UPR A-8011 CNRSCarbones et Matriaux Carbons,Carbons and Carbon-Containing Materials29 Rue Jeanne Marvig31055 Toulouse 4, Francee-mail: monthiou@cemes.fr

Markus MorgensternRWTH Aachen UniversityII. Institute of Physics B and JARA-FIT52056 Aachen, Germanye-mail: mmorgens@physik.rwth-aachen.de

Seizo MoritaOsaka UniversityDepartment of Electronic EngineeringSuita-CityOsaka, Japane-mail: smorita@ele.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp

Koichi MukasaHokkaido UniversityNanoelectronics LaboratorySapporo, Japane-mail: mukasa@nano.eng.hokudai.ac.jp

Bradley J. NelsonSwiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems8092 Zurich, Switzerlande-mail: bnelson@ethz.ch

Michael NosonovskyUniversity of Wisconsin-MilwaukeeDepartment of Mechanical Engineering3200 N. Cramer St.Milwaukee, WI 53211, USAe-mail: nosonovs@uwm.edu

Hiroshi OnishiKanagawa Academy of Science and TechnologySurface Chemistry LaboratoryKanagawa, Japane-mail: oni@net.ksp.or.jp

Alain PeigneyCentre Inter-universitaire de Recherchesur lIndustrialisation des Matriaux (CIRIMAT)Toulouse 4, Francee-mail: peigney@chimie.ups-tlse.fr

Oliver PfeifferIndividual Computing GmbHIngelsteinweg 2d4143 Dornach, Switzerlande-mail: oliver.pfeiffer@gmail.com

Haralampos PozidisIBM Zurich Research LaboratoryStorage TechnologiesRschlikon, Switzerlande-mail: hap@zurich.ibm.com

Robert PuersKatholieke Universiteit LeuvenESAT/MICASLeuven, Belgiume-mail: bob.puers@esat.kuleuven.ac.be

XXIV List of Authors

Calvin F. QuateStanford UniversityEdward L. Ginzton Laboratory450 Via PalouStanford, CA 94305-4088, USAe-mail: quate@stanford.edu

Oded RabinUniversity of MarylandDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringCollege Park, MD, USAe-mail: oded@umd.edu

Franisco M. RaymoUniversity of MiamiDepartment of Chemistry1301 Memorial DriveCoral Gables, FL 33146-0431, USAe-mail: fraymo@miami.edu

Manitra RazafinimananaUniversity of Toulouse III (Paul Sabatier)Centre de Physique des Plasmaset leurs Applications (CPPAT)Toulouse, Francee-mail: razafinimanana@cpat.ups-tlse.fr

Ziv ReichWeizmann Institute of Science HaNesi HaRishonDepartment of Biological ChemistryRehovot 76100, Israele-mail: ziv.reich@weizmann.ac.il

John A. RogersUniversity of IllinoisDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringUrbana, IL, USAe-mail: jrogers@uiuc.edu

Cosmin RomanETH ZurichMicro and Nanosystems Department of Mechanicaland Process Engineering8092 Zurich, Switzerlande-mail: cosmin.roman@micro.mavt.ethz.ch

Marina RuthsUniversity of Massachusetts LowellDepartment of Chemistry1 University AvenueLowell, MA 01854, USAe-mail: marina_ruths@uml.edu

Ozgur SahinThe Rowland Institute at Harvard100 Edwin H. Land BlvdCambridge, MA 02142, USAe-mail: sahin@rowland.harvard.edu

Akira SasaharaJapan Advanced Instituteof Science and TechnologySchool of Materials Science1-1 Asahidai923-1292 Nomi, Japane-mail: sasahara@jaist.ac.jp

Helmut SchiftPaul Scherrer InstituteLaboratory for Micro- and Nanotechnology5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerlande-mail: helmut.schift@psi.ch

Andr SchirmeisenUniversity of MnsterInstitute of PhysicsWilhelm-Klemm-Str. 1048149 Mnster, Germanye-mail: schirmeisen@uni-muenster.de

Christian SchulzeBeiersdorf AGResearch & DevelopmentUnnastr. 4820245 Hamburg, Germanye-mail: christian.schulze@beiersdorf.com;christian.schulze@uni-leipzig.de

Alexander SchwarzUniversity of HamburgInstitute of Applied PhysicsJungiusstr. 1120355 Hamburg, Germanye-mail: aschwarz@physnet.uni-hamburg.de

List of Authors XXV

Udo D. SchwarzYale UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering15 Prospect StreetNew Haven, CT 06520-8284, USAe-mail: udo.schwarz@yale.edu

Philippe SerpEcole Nationale Suprieure dIngnieursen Arts Chimiques et TechnologiquesLaboratoire de Chimie de Coordination (LCC)118 Route de Narbonne31077 Toulouse, Francee-mail: philippe.serp@ensiacet.fr

Huamei (Mary) ShangGE Healthcare4855 W. Electric Ave.Milwaukee, WI 53219, USAe-mail: huamei.shang@ge.com

Susan B. SinnottUniversity of FloridaDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering154 Rhines HallGainesville, FL 32611-6400, USAe-mail: ssinn@mse.ufl.edu

Anisoara SocoliucSPECS Zurich GmbHTechnoparkstr. 18005 Zurich, Switzerlande-mail: socoliuc@nanonis.com

Olav SolgaardStanford UniversityE.L. Ginzton Laboratory450 Via PalouStanford, CA 94305-4088, USAe-mail: solgaard@stanford.edu

Dan StrehleUniversity of LeipzigInstitute of Experimental Physics IDivision of Soft Matter PhysicsLinnstr. 504103 Leipzig, Germanye-mail: dan.strehle@uni-leipzig.de

Carsten StberUniversity of LeipzigInstitute of Experimental Physics IDivision of Soft Matter PhysicsLinnstr. 504103 Leipzig, Germanye-mail: stueber@rz.uni-leipzig.de

Yu-Chuan SuESS 210Department of Engineering and System Science 101Kuang-Fu RoadHsinchu, 30013, Taiwane-mail: ycsu@ess.nthu.edu.tw

Kazuhisa SueokaGraduate School of Information Scienceand TechnologyHokkaido UniversityNanoelectronics LaboratoryKita-14, Nishi-9, Kita-ku060-0814 Sapporo, Japane-mail: sueoka@nano.isthokudai.ac.jp

Yasuhiro SugawaraOsaka UniversityDepartment of Applied PhysicsYamada-Oka 2-1, Suita565-0871 Osaka, Japane-mail: sugawara@ap.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp

Benjamin SullivanTearLab Corp.11025 Roselle StreetSan Diego, CA 92121, USAe-mail: bdsulliv@TearLab.com

Paul SwansonNexogen, Inc.Engineering8360 C Camino Santa FeSan Diego, CA 92121, USAe-mail: pswanson@nexogentech.com

XXVI List of Authors

Yung-Chieh TanWashington University School of MedicineDepartment of MedicineDivision of Dermatology660 S. Euclid Ave.St. Louis, MO 63110, USAe-mail: ytanster@gmail.com

Shia-Yen TehUniversity of California at IrvineBiomedical Engineering Department3120 Natural Sciences IIIrvine, CA 92697-2715, USAe-mail: steh@uci.edu

W. Merlijn van SpengenLeiden UniversityKamerlingh Onnes LaboratoryNiels Bohrweg 2Leiden, CA 2333, The Netherlandse-mail: spengen@physics.leidenuniv.nl

Peter VettigerUniversity of NeuchtelSAMLABJaquet-Droz 12002 Neuchtel, Switzerlande-mail: peter.vettiger@unine.ch

Franziska WetzelUniversity of LeipzigInstitute of Experimental Physics IDivision of Soft Matter PhysicsLinnstr. 504103 Leipzig, Germanye-mail: franziska.wetzel@uni-leipzig.de

Heiko WolfIBM Research GmbHZurich Research LaboratorySumerstr. 48803 Rschlikon, Switzerlande-mail: hwo@zurich.ibm.com

Darrin J. YoungCase Western Reserve UniversityDepartment of EECS, Glennan 51010900 Euclid AvenueCleveland, OH 44106, USAe-mail: djy@po.cwru.edu

Babak ZiaiePurdue UniversityBirck Nanotechnology Center1205 W. State St.West Lafayette, IN 47907-2035, USAe-mail: bziaie@purdue.edu

Christian A. ZormanCase Western Reserve UniversityDepartment of Electrical Engineeringand Computer Science10900 Euclid AvenueCleveland, OH 44106, USAe-mail: caz@case.edu

Jim V. ZovalSaddleback CollegeDepartment of Math and Science28000 Marguerite ParkwayMission Viejo, CA 92692, USAe-mail: jzoval@saddleback.edu

XXVII

Contents

List of Abbreviations ................................................................................. XLI

1 Introduction to NanotechnologyBharat Bhushan ...................................................................................... 11.1 Nanotechnology Definition and Examples ................................... 11.2 Background and Research Expenditures ......................................... 41.3 Lessons from Nature (Biomimetics) ................................................. 61.4 Applications in Different Fields ...................................................... 91.5 Various Issues ............................................................................... 101.6 Research Training .......................................................................... 111.7 Organization of the Handbook ....................................................... 11References .............................................................................................. 12

Part A Nanostructures, Micro-/Nanofabrication and Materials

2 Nanomaterials Synthesis and Applications:Molecule-Based DevicesFranisco M. Raymo ................................................................................. 172.1 Chemical Approaches to Nanostructured Materials .......................... 182.2 Molecular Switches and Logic Gates................................................ 222.3 Solid State Devices......................................................................... 302.4 Conclusions and Outlook ................................................................ 42References .............................................................................................. 43

3 Introduction to Carbon NanotubesMarc Monthioux, Philippe Serp, Emmanuel Flahaut,Manitra Razafinimanana, Christophe Laurent, Alain Peigney,Wolfgang Bacsa, Jean-Marc Broto ............................................................ 473.1 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes....................................................... 483.2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes ...................................................... 533.3 Growth Mechanisms of Carbon Nanotubes ...................................... 703.4 Properties of Carbon Nanotubes ..................................................... 743.5 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nano-Objects .......................................... 803.6 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes .................................................. 853.7 Toxicity and Environmental Impact of Carbon Nanotubes ................ 993.8 Concluding Remarks ...................................................................... 100References .............................................................................................. 101

XXVIII Contents

4 NanowiresMildred S. Dresselhaus, Yu-Ming Lin, Oded Rabin, Marcie R. Black,Jing Kong, Gene Dresselhaus .................................................................... 1194.1 Synthesis ...................................................................................... 1214.2 Characterization and Physical Properties of Nanowires .................... 1304.3 Applications .................................................................................. 1524.4 Concluding Remarks ...................................................................... 159References .............................................................................................. 159

5 Template-Based Synthesis of Nanorod or Nanowire ArraysHuamei (Mary) Shang, Guozhong Cao....................................................... 1695.1 Template-Based Approach ............................................................. 1705.2 Electrochemical Deposition ............................................................ 1715.3 Electrophoretic Deposition ............................................................. 1755.4 Template Filling ............................................................................ 1805.5 Converting from Reactive Templates ............................................... 1825.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks................................................. 182References .............................................................................................. 183

6 Templated Self-Assembly of ParticlesTobias Kraus, Heiko Wolf .......................................................................... 1876.1 The Assembly Process .................................................................... 1896.2 Classes of Directed Particle Assembly .............................................. 1946.3 Templates ..................................................................................... 2026.4 Processes and Setups ..................................................................... 2056.5 Conclusions ................................................................................... 206References .............................................................................................. 207

7 Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabricationby Focused Ion Beam Chemical Vapor DepositionShinji Matsui ........................................................................................... 2117.1 Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication ................................ 2127.2 Nanoelectromechanics .................................................................. 2157.3 Nanooptics: Brilliant Blue Observation

from a Morpho Butterfly Scale Quasistructure ................................. 2237.4 Nanobiology ................................................................................. 2247.5 Summary ...................................................................................... 228References .............................................................................................. 228

8 Introduction to Micro-/NanofabricationBabak Ziaie, Antonio Baldi, Massood Z. Atashbar...................................... 2318.1 Basic Microfabrication Techniques .................................................. 2328.2 MEMS Fabrication Techniques......................................................... 2448.3 Nanofabrication Techniques .......................................................... 2568.4 Summary and Conclusions ............................................................. 265References .............................................................................................. 265

Contents XXIX

9 Nanoimprint Lithography Patterning of Resists Using MoldingHelmut Schift, Anders Kristensen .............................................................. 2719.1 Emerging Nanopatterning Methods ................................................ 2739.2 Nanoimprint Process ..................................................................... 2779.3 Tools and Materials for Nanoimprinting .......................................... 2889.4 Nanoimprinting Applications ......................................................... 2949.5 Conclusions and Outlook ................................................................ 302References .............................................................................................. 304

10 Stamping Techniques for Micro- and NanofabricationEtienne Menard, John A. Rogers ............................................................... 31310.1 High-Resolution Stamps ................................................................ 31410.2 Microcontact Printing .................................................................... 31610.3 Nanotransfer Printing .................................................................... 31810.4 Applications .................................................................................. 32210.5 Conclusions ................................................................................... 329References .............................................................................................. 330

11 Material Aspects of Micro- and Nanoelectromechanical SystemsChristian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany .................................................. 33311.1 Silicon .......................................................................................... 33311.2 Germanium-Based Materials ......................................................... 34011.3 Metals .......................................................................................... 34111.4 Harsh-Environment Semiconductors .............................................. 34311.5 GaAs, InP, and Related IIIV Materials ............................................ 34911.6 Ferroelectric Materials ................................................................... 35011.7 Polymer Materials ......................................................................... 35111.8 Future Trends ................................................................................ 352References .............................................................................................. 353

Part B MEMS/NEMS and BioMEMS/NEMS

12 MEMS/NEMS Devices and ApplicationsDarrin J. Young, Christian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany ......................... 35912.1 MEMS Devices and Applications ...................................................... 36112.2 Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS) .......................................... 38012.3 Current Challenges and Future Trends ............................................ 383References .............................................................................................. 384

13 Next-Generation DNA Hybridizationand Self-Assembly Nanofabrication DevicesMichael J. Heller, Benjamin Sullivan, Dietrich Dehlinger, Paul Swanson,Dalibor Hodko ......................................................................................... 38913.1 Electronic Microarray Technology.................................................... 39113.2 Electric Field-Assisted Nanofabrication Processes ............................ 39713.3 Conclusions ................................................................................... 399References .............................................................................................. 400

XXX Contents

14 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Sensor ConceptsCosmin Roman, Thomas Helbling, Christofer Hierold.................................. 40314.1 Design Considerations for SWNT Sensors .......................................... 40414.2 Fabrication of SWNT Sensors ........................................................... 41214.3 Example State-of-the-Art Applications .......................................... 41614.4 Concluding Remarks ...................................................................... 421References .............................................................................................. 421

15 Nanomechanical Cantilever Array SensorsHans Peter Lang, Martin Hegner, Christoph Gerber .................................... 42715.1 Technique ..................................................................................... 42715.2 Cantilever Array Sensors ................................................................. 42915.3 Modes of Operation ....................................................................... 43015.4 Microfabrication ............................................................................ 43415.5 Measurement Setup ...................................................................... 43415.6 Functionalization Techniques ........................................................ 43815.7 Applications .................................................................................. 43915.8 Conclusions and Outlook ................................................................ 445References .............................................................................................. 446

16 Biological Molecules in Therapeutic NanodevicesStephen C. Lee, Bharat Bhushan ............................................................... 45316.1 Definitions and Scope .................................................................... 45416.2 Assembly Approaches .................................................................... 46116.3 Sensing Devices ............................................................................. 47116.4 Concluding Remarks: Barriers to Practice ........................................ 478References .............................................................................................. 480

17 G-Protein Coupled Receptors:Progress in Surface Display and Biosensor TechnologyWayne R. Leifert, Tamara H. Cooper, Kelly Bailey ....................................... 48517.1 The GPCR:G-Protein Activation Cycle ............................................... 48817.2 Preparation of GPCRs and G-Proteins ............................................. 48917.3 Protein Engineering in GPCR Signaling ............................................ 49017.4 GPCR Biosensing ............................................................................ 49117.5 The Future of GPCRs ....................................................................... 499References .............................................................................................. 499

18 Microfluidic Devices and Their Applications to Lab-on-a-ChipChong H. Ahn, Jin-Woo Choi .................................................................... 50318.1 Materials for Microfluidic Devices

and Micro/Nanofabrication Techniques........................................... 50418.2 Active Microfluidic Devices ............................................................. 50718.3 Smart Passive Microfluidic Devices.................................................. 51318.4 Lab-on-a-Chip for Biochemical Analysis ........................................ 520References .............................................................................................. 527

Contents XXXI

19 Centrifuge-Based Fluidic PlatformsJim V. Zoval, Guangyao Jia, Horacio Kido, Jitae Kim, Nahui Kim,Marc J. Madou ......................................................................................... 53119.1 Why Centripetal Force for Fluid Propulsion? .................................... 53219.2 Compact Disc or Microcentrifuge Fluidics ........................................ 53419.3 CD Applications ............................................................................. 53819.4 Conclusion .................................................................................... 549References .............................................................................................. 550

20 Micro-/Nanodroplets in Microfluidic DevicesYung-Chieh Tan, Shia-Yen Teh, Abraham P. Lee........................................ 55320.1 Active or Programmable Droplet Systems ........................................ 55420.2 Passive Droplet Control Techniques ................................................ 55720.3 Applications .................................................................................. 56420.4 Conclusions ................................................................................... 566References .............................................................................................. 566

Part C Scanning-Probe Microscopy

21 Scanning Probe Microscopy Principle of Operation, Instrumentation, and ProbesBharat Bhushan, Othmar Marti ................................................................ 57321.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscope ..................................................... 57521.2 Atomic Force Microscope ................................................................ 57921.3 AFM Instrumentation and Analyses ................................................ 595References .............................................................................................. 612

22 General and Special Probes in Scanning MicroscopiesJason Hafner, Edin (I-Chen) Chen, Ratnesh Lal, Sungho Jin........................ 61922.1 Atomic Force Microscopy ................................................................ 62022.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy...................................................... 630References .............................................................................................. 631

23 Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy and Related TopicsFranz J. Giessibl, Yasuhiro Sugawara, Seizo Morita, Hirotaka Hosoi,Kazuhisa Sueoka, Koichi Mukasa, Akira Sasahara, Hiroshi Onishi............... 63523.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) ....................................................... 63623.2 Applications to Semiconductors ..................................................... 64123.3 Applications to Insulators .............................................................. 64723.4 Applications to Molecules .............................................................. 654References .............................................................................................. 658

24 Low-Temperature Scanning Probe MicroscopyMarkus Morgenstern, Alexander Schwarz, Udo D. Schwarz ......................... 66324.1 Microscope Operation at Low Temperatures .................................... 66424.2 Instrumentation ............................................................................ 666

XXXII Contents

24.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy ........................... 66924.4 Scanning Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy .................................. 688References .............................................................................................. 700

25 Higher Harmonics and Time-Varying Forcesin Dynamic Force MicroscopyOzgur Sahin, Calvin F. Quate, Olav Solgaard, Franz J. Giessibl .................... 71125.1 Modeling of TipSample Interaction Forces in Tapping-Mode AFM ... 71225.2 Enhancing the Cantilever Response to Time-Varying Forces ............. 71425.3 Application Examples .................................................................... 72025.4 Higher-Harmonic Force Microscopy with Small Amplitudes .............. 724References .............................................................................................. 728

26 Dynamic Modes of Atomic Force MicroscopyAndr Schirmeisen, Boris Anczykowski, Hendrik Hlscher, Harald Fuchs...... 73126.1 Motivation Measurement of a Single Atomic Bond ....................... 73226.2 Harmonic Oscillator: a Model System for Dynamic AFM .................... 73626.3 Dynamic AFM Operational Modes .................................................... 73726.4 Q-Control ...................................................................................... 75026.5 Dissipation Processes Measured with Dynamic AFM ......................... 75426.6 Conclusions ................................................................................... 758References .............................................................................................. 758

27 Molecular Recognition Force Microscopy:From Molecular Bonds to Complex Energy LandscapesPeter Hinterdorfer, Andreas Ebner, Hermann Gruber, Ruti Kapon, Ziv Reich 76327.1 Ligand Tip Chemistry ..................................................................... 76427.2 Immobilization of Receptors onto Probe Surfaces ............................ 76627.3 Single-Molecule Recognition Force Detection .................................. 76727.4 Principles of Molecular Recognition Force Spectroscopy ................... 76927.5 Recognition Force Spectroscopy:

From Isolated Molecules to Biological Membranes........................... 77127.6 Recognition Imaging ..................................................................... 77927.7 Concluding Remarks ...................................................................... 781References .............................................................................................. 781

Part D Bio-/Nanotribology and Bio-/Nanomechanics

28 Nanotribology, Nanomechanics, and Materials CharacterizationBharat Bhushan ...................................................................................... 78928.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques ........ 79128.2 Surface Imaging, Friction, and Adhesion ........................................ 80228.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining .... 82828.4 Indentation .................................................................................. 836

Contents XXXIII

28.5 Boundary Lubrication .................................................................... 84028.6 Conclusion .................................................................................... 849References .............................................................................................. 851

29 Surface Forces and Nanorheology of Molecularly Thin FilmsMarina Ruths, Jacob N. Israelachvili ......................................................... 85729.1 Introduction: Types of Surface Forces.............................................. 85829.2 Methods Used to Study Surface Forces ............................................ 86029.3 Normal Forces Between Dry (Unlubricated) Surfaces ........................ 86429.4 Normal Forces Between Surfaces in Liquids..................................... 86829.5 Adhesion and Capillary Forces ........................................................ 87829.6 Introduction: Different Modes of Friction and the Limits

of Continuum Models .................................................................... 88429.7 Relationship Between Adhesion and Friction Between Dry

(Unlubricated and Solid Boundary Lubricated) Surfaces ................... 88529.8 Liquid Lubricated Surfaces ............................................................. 89629.9 Effects of Nanoscale Texture on Friction .......................................... 908References .............................................................................................. 911

30 Friction and Wear on the Atomic ScaleEnrico Gnecco, Roland Bennewitz, Oliver Pfeiffer, Anisoara Socoliuc,Ernst Meyer.............................................................................................. 92330.1 Friction Force Microscopy in Ultrahigh Vacuum ............................... 92430.2 The Tomlinson Model..................................................................... 92830.3 Friction Experiments on the Atomic Scale ....................................... 93030.4 Thermal Effects on Atomic Friction ................................................. 93530.5 Geometry Effects in Nanocontacts .................................................. 93830.6 Wear on the Atomic Scale .............................................................. 94230.7 Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Atomic Friction and Wear .......... 94430.8 Energy Dissipation in Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy .............. 94730.9 Conclusion .................................................................................... 949References .............................................................................................. 949

31 Computer Simulations of Nanometer-Scale Indentationand FrictionSusan B. Sinnott, Seong-Jun Heo, Donald W. Brenner, Judith A. Harrison,Douglas L. Irving ..................................................................................... 95531.1 Computational Details ................................................................... 95631.2 Indentation .................................................................................. 96131.3 Friction and Lubrication ................................................................ 97631.4 Conclusions ................................................................................... 1002References .............................................................................................. 1002

32 Force Measurements with Optical TweezersOthmar Marti, Katrin Hbner.................................................................... 101332.1 Optical Tweezers ............................................................................ 101332.2 Influence of Surfaces and Viscosity ................................................. 1017

XXXIV Contents

32.3 Thermal Noise Imaging .................................................................. 101832.4 Applications in Cell Biology ............................................................ 1018References .............................................................................................. 1021

33 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties and TribologyBharat Bhushan, Michael Nosonovsky ...................................................... 102333.1 Nomenclature ............................................................................... 102433.2 Introduction ................................................................................. 102533.3 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties .............................................. 102733.4 Scale Effect in Surface Roughness and Contact Parameters............... 103133.5 Scale Effect in Friction ................................................................... 103433.6 Scale Effect in Wear ....................................................................... 104633.7 Scale Effect in Interface Temperature.............................................. 104633.8 Closure ......................................................................................... 104733.A Statistics of Particle Size Distribution .............................................. 1049References .............................................................................................. 1052

34 Structural, Nanomechanical, and NanotribologicalCharacterization of Human Hair Using Atomic Force Microscopyand NanoindentationBharat Bhushan, Carmen LaTorre ............................................................. 105534.1 Human Hair, and Skin and Hair Care Products ................................ 105834.2 Experimental ................................................................................ 106834.3 Structural Characterization Using an AFM ........................................ 108034.4 Nanomechanical Characterization

Using Nanoindentation, Nanoscratch, and AFM............................... 108734.5 Multiscale Tribological Characterization .......................................... 111234.6 Conditioner Thickness Distribution and Binding Interactions

on Hair Surface ............................................................................. 114534.7 Surface Potential Studies of Human Hair

Using Kelvin Probe Microscopy ....................................................... 115334.8 Conclusions ................................................................................... 116434.A Shampoo and Conditioner Treatment Procedure ............................. 116634.B Conditioner Thickness Approximation ............................................. 1166References .............................................................................................. 1167

35 Cellular NanomechanicsRoger Kamm, Jan Lammerding, Mohammad Mofrad ................................. 117135.1 Overview....................................................................................... 117135.2 Structural Components of a Cell...................................................... 117335.3 Experimental Methods ................................................................... 117935.4 Theoretical and Computational Descriptions ................................... 118535.5 Mechanics of Subcellular Structures ................................................ 118835.6 Current Understanding and Future Needs ....................................... 1196References .............................................................................................. 1196

Contents XXXV

36 Optical Cell ManipulationCarsten Stber, Tobias Kieling, Anatol Fritsch, Franziska Wetzel,Christian Schulze, Dan Strehle, Josef Ks ................................................... 120136.1 Interaction of Laser Light with Cells ................................................ 120236.2 Optical Tweezers ............................................................................ 120636.3 Holographic Optical Tweezers ......................................................... 120936.4 Optical Rotation ............................................................................ 121136.5 Microdissection or Laser Scalpels .................................................... 121336.6 Cell Sorting ................................................................................... 121536.7 The Optical Stretcher ...................................................................... 121836.8 Conclusion and Outlook ................................................................. 1222References .............................................................................................. 1222

37 Mechanical Properties of NanostructuresBharat Bhushan ...................................................................................... 122737.1 Experimental Techniques for Measurement

of Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures .................................... 122937.2 Experimental Results and Discussion .............................................. 123537.3 Finite-Element Analysis of Nanostructures with Roughness

and Scratches................................................................................ 125337.4 Summary ...................................................................................... 125937.A Fabrication Procedure for the Double-Anchored

and Cantilever Beams .................................................................... 1260References .............................................................................................. 1262

Part E Molecularly Thick Films for Lubrication

38 Nanotribology of Ultrathin and Hard Amorphous Carbon FilmsBharat Bhushan ...................................................................................... 126938.1 Description of Common Deposition Techniques ............................... 127338.2 Chemical and Physical Coating Characterization .............................. 127738.3 Micromechanical and Tribological Coating Characterization ............. 128338.4 Closure ......................................................................................... 1304References .............................................................................................. 1305

39 Self-Assembled Monolayers for Nanotribologyand Surface ProtectionBharat Bhushan ...................................................................................... 130939.1 Background .................................................................................. 130939.2 A Primer to Organic Chemistry ...........