guidelines for writing a scientific paper - physics · pdf file... basic principles of...

Guidelines for Writing a Scientific Paper, Celia M. Elliott

January 2010

Copyright, Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois 1

Celia M. ElliottDepartment of Physics

[email protected]

Copyright © 20010 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

Guidelines for Writing Guidelines for Writing a Scientific Papera Scientific Paper

with thanks to David Hertzog and Lance Cooper

Women in Chemistry Workshop, January 12, 2010University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Three broad themes will be covered: in the workshop1) basic principles of communications in general and communicating in science in

particular2) advice about writing a technical manuscript for publication in a journal3) using persuasion in scientific communications

Disclaimer:My perspective may be biased because all of my experience is in physics and

nuclear engineering.

Chemists: Consult The ACS Style Guide: Effective Communication of Scientific Information, ed. J.S. Dodd (American Chemical Society, Washington DC, 1997).


January 2010


Disclaimer...Disclaimer...

You’ll see this icon in the lower right corner of some of the slides—it indicates a “Celia Commandment.”

Although I will state the Celia commandments dogmatically and emphatically, and I believe in them passionately, they are actually advice, based on 40 years of writing—not law.


January 2010


Before you pick up a pencil, Before you pick up a pencil, answer four strategic questions...answer four strategic questions...

What is your motivation for writing the paper?To achieve fame and fortune; to get noticed or promotedTo disseminate your results to other workers in your fieldTo provide a permanent archival record of your workTo establish precedence by publishing before your competitors canTo propose a new program or area of research

What is the purpose of this paper?Reporting original, significant research resultsDocumenting methods or establishing standardsWarning of a hazardous condition Examining the feasibility of a projectReinterpreting previously reported resultsReviewing the literatureProviding an overview of the topic

Who is the audience for this paper?What are their needs, interests, level of knowledge, motivation for reading?

How significant is the information?How widely should it be disseminated?How rapidly should it be disseminated?How important is a permanent archival record?

Ask a fifth question if you’re working on something that has potential commercial applications:Can it be published at all?—You cannot patent anything that has been published or otherwise publicly disclosed.


January 2010


Choosing the appropriate venue Choosing the appropriate venue for a paper is a key decisionfor a paper is a key decision

Considerations:Publish in the most suitable periodical—get advice from your adviser and colleaguesPublish in the most prestigious journal that will accept your ms.Achieve publication as quickly as possible (usually)Is posting on an electronic archive for wide distribution and early feedback permissible?

Reasons for flexibility:Several journals may have the same readership but different policies for subject emphasis and length of articles. You must find the best fit with your paper.Some journals publish faster; e.g., if a journal has scheduled a number of special issues, publication of your ms. may be delayed for months.Editorial trends; editors develop preferences for “hot” topics, to the exclusion of others. If a journal has just published two special issues on your topic, the editor may not be interested in another long paper on that subject. Consult recent issues of your first choices, or write to the editor to enquire about his interest in your topic.

Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory has circulation figures for ~300,000 serials, periodicals, annuals, and newspapers worldwide.http://www.ulrichsweb.com318 journals listed for “chemistry-physical”


January 2010


The (professional) publication The (professional) publication process is lengthy and exactingprocess is lengthy and exacting

Author submits manuscript to editorEditor determines if the paper is appropriate:

Represents new and significant workIs scientifically soundFalls within the journal’s topical coverage

If the paper does not meet all of these criteria, it is rejected and returned without reviewIf the paper meets the criteria, the editor selects qualified referees and sends them paper for reviewReviewers provide written comments on:

The technical soundness of the paperMistakes and omissionsAdditional work to be referencedSuggestions for clarification, deletion of superfluous material, or other improvements

Reviewers also make a confidential recommendation to the editor:Accept paper as writtenRecommend optional changesRequire mandatory changesReject paper

If the reviewers suggest changes, the editor returns the manuscript to the author, along with the anonymous reviewers’ reports, and requests revisionsThe author makes the requested changes, additions, or deletions, and returns the revised manuscript The editor determines that the author has satisfactorily complied with the reviewers’ requirements and accepts the paper


January 2010


Peer review ensures the accuracy and Peer review ensures the accuracy and significance of publications in the significance of publications in the archival record*archival record*

**in the best of all possible worlds, Candide...in the best of all possible worlds, Candide...

Independent recommendations of recognized experts in the field Reviewers are expected to offer objective and constructive criticismReviewers are anonymous and are expected to maintain strict confidentialityProcess should produce better papersAuthor benefits from insight and suggestions of experts

Reviewer #3: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-VRBWLpYCPY


January 2010


Science has evolved a template Science has evolved a template for archiving scientific resultsfor archiving scientific results

Hew to it witlessly

TitleAbstract Background and IntroductionTechnical DescriptionResultsDiscussionConclusionsAcknowledgments ReferencesSpecial Sections, if needed

We’ll go through these sections one at a time later in the workshop...


January 2010


You canYou can’’t wait until yout wait until you’’re re ““finishedfinished””

Because we think in words, the act of expressing observation in language—of distilling amorphous thoughts into words—is a powerful tool for clarifying your thinking.

You don’t really understand something until you can explain it to somebody else who doesn’t know anything about it.

“The act of composition disciplines the mind; writing is one way to go about thinking, and the practice and habit of writing not only drain the mind, but supply it too.” Strunk and White, The Elements of Style, 3rd ed., p. 70.


January 2010


Write incrementallyWrite incrementally

The conventional method is to do a project, write the paper, and get it published, but that method is flawed:

1) You forget or overlook important insights and milestones after the fact.2) If you’ve worked on a project for an extended period, you get bored, and that’s

reflected in the ms.3) You can’t find the time to write up the paper because you’ve moved on to a new

project.

Instead, write in increments:1) construct a preliminary outline, based on the your initial goals for the project2) write portions of the “results” and “discussion” sections while you’re taking and

analyzing your data

Advantages of the incremental method:You may discover additional data that are needed while the equipment is still set up

and the project ongoing.You get a finished paper faster, with more time to revise and edit.

H.B. Michaelson, How to Write and Publish Engineering Reports and Papers (Oryx Press, Phoenix, 1990).


January 2010


Write from an outlineWrite from an outline

Train yourself to outline and organize what you’re going to say before you begin to write

Think of your outline as a map that is going to guide the reader to the conclusions that you want him to reach: that the work presented is important, that it advances previous work significantly, and that it proves the hypothesis you set out to test.

What are the key ideas? (restrict to <3)What are the supporting ideas?What details should be included?What background information does the reader need to understand the paper?What is the emphasis?How long should the manuscript be to ideally present these ideas?What illustrations and data are needed?How should they best be presented?

Emphasis:the datathe methodthe interpretationyour recommendationspotential applications


January 2010


HereHere’’s an example:s an example:

Problem

Results Method Previous Work

Analysis/Assumptions/Treatment of

Data

Conclusions

AlternativeExplanations

Background/Introduction References

•What problem did you study? What unanswered question did you set out to solve? And why is it important? Work until you can describe the problem and its importance in one sentence.•What results are you reporting? How is the best way to present them to the reader? In words? In equations? In a table or plot (best for revealing relationships)? In an image (powerful, memorable, compact)?•What method did you use to tackle the problem? Why did you choose that method? How are you sure that you measured what you set out to measure? Why is your method better, faster, cheaper than work that has been done before? Omit details that are commonly known or tailor to the prescribed length of the paper. •How does your work build on, expand, confirm, or contradict previous work? (This will drive your “background and introduction” and “references” sections.) What does the reader need to know to understand the problem, results, and method that you’re reporting?•How did you analyze your data? Are there any treatments of data that must be disclosed? •What does it all mean?

Use the 3×5 card trick to organize your thoughts


January 2010


Put yourself Put yourself in the backgroundin the background

Voice: “to be” or not “to be”?Active voice: the subject of the sentence performs the action—the subject actsActive voice is more directPassive voice: the subject of the sentence receives the action of the verb—the subject is acted uponPassive voice emphasizes what was found, not who did the findingPassive voice can be pedantic and wordy in the hands of amateurs

More editors are allowing first person/active voice because so many people write passive voice so badly.

Use of the passive voice offers two distinct advantages in technical writing:1) creates the appearance of objectivity and a facts-based approach by presenting results and

conclusions without attributing them to specific agents2) allows front-loading of key words and phrases to in make them stand out

The choice of voice is largely a matter of what you want to emphasize“We used an SEM to examine the surface defects of the MoGe thin films.” (AV)“We examined the surface defects of the MoGe thin films using an SEM.” (AV)“An SEM was used to examine the surface defects of the MoGe thin films.” (PV)“Surface defects of the MoGe thin films were examined with an SEM.” (PV)


January 2010


Write with simple nouns and verbsWrite with simple nouns and verbs

I always use wimpy verbs and complicated syntax;sounds more “scientific.”

Instead of worrying about voice, use strong verbs; proper verb choice is often the difference between crisp, clear text and bloated, clumsy writing.Replace wimpy verb phrases with strong, action verbsWeak verb phrases—made a determination determined

performed a measurement measuredcarried out the analysis analyzed

The human immune system is responsible not only for the identification of foreign molecules, but also for actions leading to their immobilization, neutralization, and destruction. (25 words)The human immune system not only identifies foreign molecules, but also immobilizes, neutralizes, and destroys them. (16 words, crisper, more direct)Change nouns ending in –tion, –ment, and –ance back into the verbs they are derived from; your writing will be more crisp and concise.

“Write with nouns and verbs, not adjectives and adverbs. The adjective hasn’t been built yet that can pull a weak or inaccurate noun out of a tight place.” –Will Strunk

Make adjectives and adverbs quantitative, not qualitative.


January 2010


We communicate in wordsWe communicate in words——ttrain rain yourself to use language preciselyyourself to use language precisely

Communication is not broadcasting—it is successful only when the receiver understands the content of a message as the sender intended it

Eight steps to meaningful communication:1) You have an idea2) You select a medium to transmit the idea3) You encode the idea for the medium4) You transmit the message5) Your audience receives the message6) The audience decodes it7) The audience transmits a message back to you about what the message means8) You confirm that the message has been understood as you intended

Some scientific communications (particularly written communications), have no mechanism for Steps 7 and 8. Consequently, writers must be particularly careful that the meaning they seek to convey is encoded precisely and unambiguously and in words that the receiver can understand.

Use standard nomenclature and notationSpecify; give concrete examplesQuantify

“Most sloppy writing is just sloppy thinking made manifest.”—cme

“The difference between the right word and the almost-right word is the difference between “lightning” and “lightning bug.”—Mark Twain


January 2010


Build a robust vocabulary to convey Build a robust vocabulary to convey precise shades of meaningprecise shades of meaning

To write well, you must read a lot.

If you are not a native English speaker (and even if you are)—many words in English have both a “denotation” (the dictionary definition) and a “connotation” (a more subtle additional shade of meaning). Example: the dictionary says the following words are synonyms: feasible, workable, usable, useful, practical, realistic, achievable, obtainable—but they don’t all mean exactly the same and they’re not interchangeable. Have a native English speaker to read your manuscript.


January 2010


Do not overstate...Do not overstate...

...but avoid wimpy qualifiers

Striking the right balance of persuasiveness and objectivity is critical.“When you overstate, the reader will be instantly on guard, and everything that has preceded your overstatement and everything that comes after it will be suspect, because...he has lost confidence in your judgment.”—William Strunk, Jr. and E.B. White, The Elements of Style, 3rd ed. (Boston, Allyn and Bacon, 1979), p. 72-73. Avoid wimpy qualifiers—very, rather, somewhat“Rather, very, little, pretty—these are the leeches that infest the pond of prose, sucking the blood of words. The constant use of the adjective little (except to indicate size) is particularly debilitating; we should all try to do a little better, we should all be very watchful of this rule, for it is a rather important one and we are pretty sure to violate it now and then.”—Strunk & White, p. 73.

Mark Twain’s advice—”Every time you write ‘very,’ substitute ‘damn.’ Your editor will remove all the ‘damns’ for the sake of propriety, and your writing will be much better.”


January 2010


Write with your Write with your reader in mindreader in mind

Know thy audience!Why is the person reading your paper? What is his motivation? (What does he want to know?) What do you want him to learn? to believe? What do you need to tell him so that he can understand? What is likely to confuse him? What will he object to?

Be aware how most scientists read a paper:1) scan down the table of contents to select a paper for further reading if the title

looks interesting2) read the abstract3) read the conclusions section4) look at the figures and tables5) scan the “methods” section6) read the full paper*If the work is in their field, they’ll look at the references to see if their work is cited

between Steps 2 and 3.


January 2010


Position your important Position your important points strategicallypoints strategically

People pay attention at the beginning and the end of segments—they tend to drift off in the middle.

Don’t bury your important points in the middle of a narrative; put them at the beginning or the end of paragraphs and sections.

Make it easy for the reader to pick out your important points:graphical highlightingfiguresuse of descriptive subheadingspreview important points at the beginning of sections and summarize them at the end of sections


January 2010


Most people remember images Most people remember images better than wordsbetter than words

Figures promote reader interest, provide supporting evidence, help explain complex ideas and relationships quickly, and give the reader something to remember

Myosin V. “walking” on actinCourtesy of P. Selvin

Figures serve four functions in scientific communications:1. promote reader interest.2. provide supporting evidence.3. help explain complex ideas and relationships quickly and concisely.4. give the reader something to remember.

Use figures to draw a reader in to your story.

Use figures to emphasize important points. A reader will think about that important point at least three times if you illustrate it—once when he reads the text, once when he looks at the image, and again when he reads the caption.


January 2010


Can you tell me the four reasons I gave you 30 seconds ago for why you should include figures in your paper?

Can you remember the image that was shown on the last slide?

I rest my case...


January 2010


The The ““qualityquality”” of a scientific document of a scientific document is judged on four criteriais judged on four criteria——content, organization, significance, content, organization, significance, and and ““stylestyle””

Cour

tesy

A. B

ezry

adin

D.S. Hopkins, D. Pekker, P.M. Goldbart, and A. Bezryadin, Science 308, 1762–1765 (2005).

There are four main distinctives of “quality” in scientific writing:Technical content:

Data is error-free and valid; any selection or statistical treatment of data is disclosedSufficient detail is provided so that peers can reproduce the experimentFigures and tables present information clearly and unambiguouslyAssumptions are clearly stated and supportedAlternative approaches or interpretations are candidly discussed

Validity and significanceBalanced interpretation

OrganizationLogical and incrementalImportant points stand out

StyleClear, concise expression; appropriate use of technical languageFreedom from errors in grammar, usage, and typographyObservation of scientific conventions in notation and nomenclature


January 2010


The quality of the The quality of the writing is as writing is as important as the important as the contentcontent

Ideas are presented clearly and unambiguously.Language is precise and concise; semantics and syntax promote understanding.Main points are emphasized and readily identifiable.Reader cues and transitional statements are provided; no gaps in logic or unwritten assumptions.Mistakes in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and standard (U.S.) English are absent. Conventional notation and nomenclature are used.

Only one “main idea” per paragraph; follow the 4-step construction rule:State the main idea.Explain it.Give an illustrative example of it.Summarize it in a way that leads naturally to the next paragraph.

Note that this method positions the important ideas strategically.


January 2010


Write short sentences...Write short sentences...

...and control your modifiers...and control your modifiers

Strive for brevity and clarity. Write short sentences—less than 25 words.Avoid long strings of nouns used as adjectives—“mean field anisotropic superconducting reverse bias toroid magnet” (or MASRBTM, to its fans)


January 2010


Expect to rewriteExpect to rewrite——many timesmany times

The probability that a first draft will not require revision approaches 0.

“Perfection is achieved, not when there is nothing left to add, but when there is nothing left to take away.”—Antoine-Marie-Roger de Saint-Exupery

Brevity is a key goal. Use your revisions to clarify and simplify.

Give yourself adequate time to reflect and rewrite.

Revising should incorporate four distinct elements:1) clarifying the selection and presentation of ideas.2) organizing the narrative logically and incrementally.3) using language precisely and concisely.4) correcting “mechanical” errors that detract from a professional argument.

Ideally, editing should be done in three passes:1) reading for content (the science).2) editing for style (organization and language)3) proofreading for mechanics (spelling, punctuation, grammar, usage)

Writing well is a learned skill—train yourself to recognize good writing; emulate good examples, and practice, practice, practice.


January 2010


DonDon’’t t ““start at the beginning...start at the beginning...””

A journal article consists of the following sections:TitleAbstractBackground/IntroductionMethods/ProcedureResultsDiscussionConclusionsAcknowledgmentsReferencesAppendixes

BUT—Most authors follow this order in preparing a manuscript or talk:Results—this is the reason you’re writing the paperMethods/ProcedureDiscussionConclusionsBackground and IntroductionReferencesAbstract TitleAcknowledgments Appendixes, if needed


January 2010


Consider using Consider using descriptive descriptive section titles section titles instead of instead of generic onesgeneric ones

Instead of using standard (and boring) section headings (“Background,” “Experimental Set-Up,” “Results”), try writing short, informative, keyword headings.

Example—for a paper on a first-principles study of UCMethod First-principles projector-augmented wave calculationResults Calculated bulk properties of uranium carbidesDiscussion Point defects in uranium carbide

Using more informative headings attracts a prospective reader’s attention and creates signposts to guide him through the manuscript.


January 2010


Start with the Start with the ““ResultsResults”” sectionsection

it is the point of writing the paper

Include only relevant information.Emphasize the results achieved, not the chronological history of the experiment.Identify obvious dead-ends.Describe statistical treatment or selection of data, if any.Use tables or graphs to organize, summarize, and reveal relationships in numerical data (q.v. Edward Tufte’s The Visual Display of Quantitative Information).


January 2010


The The ““MethodsMethods”” section describes section describes how the work was done how the work was done in detailin detail

Describe the apparatus, computer codes, or other “devices” used in the work.Identify materials and give exact specifications.Describe procedures in detail.Give operating ranges.Include sufficient mathematical detail to reproduce derivations and check numerical results.Explicitly describe any hazards, e.g., toxicity, radiation hazards, biohazards, explosive tendencies.

The standard—Give sufficient detail so that other practitioners “trained in the art”would be able to reproduce your experiment and obtain the same results.


January 2010


Effective figures are criticalEffective figures are critical1 2 3

4

5

The figures shown here are taken from “Mapping the One-Dimensional Electronic States of Nanotube Peapod Structures,” D.J. Hornbaker et al., Science 295, 828 (2002).

1. Artist’s rendering of buckyballs encapsulated in a carbon nanotube, and the modifications in the local electronic structure of the nanotube

2. STM imaging of the peapod3. Model calculation of the electronic structure of a peapod4. Variation of the DOS in a peapod, from STM tunneling spectra5. The model Hamiltonian used for #4.Use figures to emphasize your main points; the reader will have to process them at least three

times—once when he reads the text, again when he looks at the figure, and again when he reads the caption.

All figures and tables must be “called out” (i.e., specifically discussed) in the text.Position figures and tables after their first mention in the text, and preferably on the same page;

don’t make the reader hunt through your paper to find the relevant figure or table.Use the captions to point out important features of the figure; tell the reader what to look at and

why it is significant.Make your figures exciting and visually interesting—give the reader something positive to

remember.

“Graphic excellence is that which gives to the viewer the greatest number of ideas in the shortest time with the least ink in the smallest place.”—Edward Tufte


January 2010


Use different kinds of figures to Use different kinds of figures to convey different informationconvey different information

Courtesy IBM Almaden Research Center

The main advantage of photographs is realism. A cut-away drawing can show the inner workings of something that a photograph cannot. It also allows control of detail, so that important features are revealed and emphasized. A diagram can illustrate the flow of a variable through a system.A plot can reveal relationships among variables.

Topography of three gadolinium atoms on a niobium (110) surface, superimposed on a dI/dV conductance map, showing the response of a superconductor to a magnetic impurity. IBM Almaden Research Center, http://www.almaden.ibm.com/vis/stm/hexagone.html.


January 2010


In the In the ““DiscussionDiscussion”” section, explain section, explain your observations and your analysisyour observations and your analysis

Compare the results to prior work, both the authors’ and others’.Interpret the results; explain what you think they mean.Explicitly state any assumptions that you’ve made.Discuss honestly any limitations of the work.Suggest aspects of the work that should be tested further, and how to do it.Describe prospective applications.

Emphasize what is new about this work; what have you contributed?

For intermediate reports, include a “Future Work” section.


January 2010


The The ““ConclusionConclusionss”” section section tells what your results tells what your results meanmean

Evaluate the results from the standpoint of the original objectives of the work. What do you know now that you didn’t know then? What questions have you answered? What have you contributed?

State the logical implications of the results:Do they suggest directions for future study?Do they support development of technological applications?Do they identify a dead end that should be abandoned.

Note that this section is titled “conclusions” (“what we have deduced from doing this experiment”), NOT “conclusion” (“congratulations, you’ve slogged your way to the end of this paper”)!


January 2010


The The ““Background and IntroductionBackground and Introduction””explains what motivated the workexplains what motivated the work

Think of “questions” when you write this section:1. What question the work is addressing.2. What questions will the reader have in thinking about your work? What do you

need to tell him that he might not already know to understand the work and its significance?

Learn to think of writing as telling a story—a compelling, logical story of your work. What elements must you include for the reader to understand and believe?

The background and introduction section should:Give a concise background of the problem and what questions previous workers

have left unanswered.Describe the experimental or theoretical basis for the work.Explain the significance, scope, and limitations of the work.Preview the technical contents to follow.


January 2010


References are mandatoryReferences are mandatory

Unless you are reporting something that has never been thought of before in the history of science, using a method that you have invented from scratch, you must include references to prior work.

The “References” section is not a bibliography; include only references that are specifically called out in the text.

References should not be sprinkled through an article like pixie dust; they should be used thoughtfully to aid the reader. “Although some may consider references mere “window dressing”—something to be added to a manuscript to make it look scholarly—their misuse speaks loudly for itself. Any reader quickly recognizes indiscriminate reference to the work of others. Such citations become annoying rather than illuminating a may interrupt the flow of exposition.”—H.B. Michaelson, How to Write & Publish Engineering Papers and Reports

Cite the reference at the end of the phrase,1 or sentence, in which it is first mentioned [Elliott, 1998], depending on the journal’s preferred style

In general, superscripts go outside punctuation; in-line call-outs go inside (but consult the journal).


January 2010


EveryEvery article must contain a article must contain a ““standstand--alonealone”” abstractabstract

Write the abstract after you’ve finished the paper; writing is an evolutionary process, particularly if you write incrementally. The focus and emphasis of a paper may change during the writing process, and the abstract must reflect the finished ms.The quality of your abstract determines to a great extent whether anybody actually reads your paper.An abstract should contain:

A concise statement of the problem studiedA brief explanation of the approach usedA succinct description of the principal results obtainedA summary of the conclusions reached

Celia’s foolproof abstract recipe:Answer the following questions, in this order:

What problem did you study and why is it important? What methods did you use? What were your principal results? What conclusions can you draw from your results about the problem you studied?

Make your sentences as specific and quantitative as possibleVary the length of the abstract by the length of the answers to the four questions.The abstract must stand alone; no figures, tables, references, complex equations, or undefined acronyms.Image: two point defects adorning a Cu (110) surface; the point defects scatter the surface state electrons, resulting in circular standing wave patterns. IBM Almaden Research Center, http://www.almaden.ibm.com/vis/stm/hexagone.html.


January 2010


The title is the first hook to your The title is the first hook to your prospective audienceprospective audience

Busy scientists employ three criteria when deciding if they will invest time in reading a paper:

The information conveyed in the title.The reputation of the author.The abstract.

Play fair; don’t “trick” people into reading your paper by a misleading title. Wastes their time.Ruins your reputation.

Effective titles are concise, descriptive and interestingWorst title I have ever seen: Towards the Observation of Signal over Background in Future ExperimentsSecond-worst title: “Report of the Subgroup on Alternative Methods and New Ideas”

But not too interesting--“Looking from the East at an Elephant Trotting West: Direct CP Violation in B0 Decays” http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0203157Accurately convey the content of the paper.Frontload the title; put key words first; eschew introductory fluff (“On the observation of...”“Towards a theory of...”).Limit title to a maximum of 12 words; think long and hard about putting colons in titles.Avoid unfamiliar acronyms, abbreviations, or symbols in the title.


January 2010


Give credit to others in the Give credit to others in the acknowledgments* sectionacknowledgments* section

*N.B. There is no e between the g and the m in the U.S. spelling of acknowledgment

Acknowledge contributions by professional colleagues who are not listed as authors—do not include titles or academic degrees.

Acknowledge financial support (funding agencies and grant numbers) of the work.

Do not include purely personal acknowledgments.

“Acknowledgment” is the most commonly misspelled word in academia. There is no “e” between the “g” and the “m” in the U.S. spelling of acknowledgment. (Think judgment.) If you don’t believe me [and many don’t], look at the acknowledgment page of any book printed since 1900 by a reputable U.S. publisher. Acknowledgement (like judgement) is a British spelling. We colonials have our own rules.


January 2010


Put supplementary material in an Put supplementary material in an appendix after the referencesappendix after the references

Most papers don’t need appendixes.

Use an appendix for supplementary material that is necessary for completeness, but which would detract from the narrative flow if presented in the body of the paper.

Glossary of terms or symbolsComputer codesProof of a theorem Supplementary material of value to a specialist but of limited use to a general reader


January 2010


Persuasion in Persuasion in sciencescience??

Research is not complete, no matter how many experiments have been conducted, no matter how many puzzles have been solved, until peers outside of a research team are persuaded that you’ve done something significant and your conclusions are correct.

Persuasion is a social process and is an essential part of the creation, testing, and advance of scientific knowledge.

Persuasive skills are also important in leadership, teamwork, and other fundamentals of success in the scientific enterprise.Success in science and engineering requires good persuasive skills.

As a scientist you will use persuasion:• In scholarly papers• In reports and recommendations to superiors• In proposals to funders or customers• Among team members in work groups• In directives to subordinates

“In science, the credit goes to the man who convinces the world, not to the man to whom the idea first occurs.”—Sir Francis Darwin

In this section, we’ll look at the three components of persuasion, how to establish credibility in science writing, and the ethics of using persuasion.


January 2010


The first The first ““persuaderpersuader””

The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC) first laid out the basic tenets of persuasion nearly 2400 years ago in The Art of Rhetoric, wherein he elucidated the process of logical persuasive argument.

The three bases of persuasion:

logos—logic, reason, fact

ethos—trust, credibility, reliability

pathos—passion, emotion, enthusiasm

While we rely on logic and credibility, in science, effective scientific communications incorporate all three.

“Pathos” here retains its original Greek meaning, viz. having an effect upon the emotions; exciting the passions or affections; moving, stirring, affecting—not pathetic but passionate.


January 2010


Build a logical case (Build a logical case (logoslogos))

First, decide what conclusion you want your “audience” to reachMake a list of all the important points that the audience must know Marshall supporting facts and explanatory informationArrange the main points and supporting details in a logical order, so that each moves the audience incrementally closer to the desired conclusion (outline!)Create “sign posts” to guide the reader through your narrative

“Sign posts” are reader cues such as graphical highlighting (boldface or italic), use of headings and subheadings, arrangement of text on the page, incorporation of figures and tables, and mathematical proofs.


January 2010


Logical exposition reveals the Logical exposition reveals the relationship between data and ideasrelationship between data and ideas

Use

d w

ith p

erm

issi

on

Use precise, descriptive languageState assumptions and inferences explicitly and provide supporting detailProvide transitional statements to tie ideas togetherPosition arguments strategically

To “position arguments strategically”:Begin with and end with a strong argumentPut weaker arguments in the middleDon’t bury your recommendation, strongest points, or most compelling evidence in the middle of your narrative; people pay attention at the beginning and end of chunks of text.


January 2010


Add authority (Add authority (ethosethos))

Add authority to your arguments:

Establish your credibility by demonstrating your familiarity with the problem (background and introduction section)Cite the work and opinion of experts (references)Don’t overstate your claims or force your data (results section)Don’t hide things (methods/procedure section)Anticipate questions and objections and candidly discuss opposing views (discussion section)

Be candid about shortcomings, limitations, or weaknesses Increase your credibility by demonstrating your objectivityNeutralize objections by anticipating and answering themEvenhandedness is particularly important if your method or results are controversial


January 2010


Reciting Reciting ““factsfacts”” is not sufficientis not sufficient((pathospathos))

Facts must be assembled into argumentsAdapt to your audience; consider understanding, perceptions, and motivationScientists are suspicious about emotional appeals; temper your enthusiasm to what you can prove, not what you believe.


January 2010


Persuasion Persuasion is powerful; is powerful; use it use it judiciously judiciously andandethicallyethically

Go beyond the “don’t make things up” case.

Don’t distort the facts.Don’t choose facts selectively.Don’t exaggerate or give deceptive emphasis.Don’t omit pertinent objections or counter-arguments.


January 2010


Sources of good advice and Sources of good advice and further readingfurther reading……

http://physics.illinois.edu/people/Celia/[email protected]

W. Strunk and E.B. White, The Elements of Style, 3rd ed. (Allyn & Bacon, Boston, 1979).V. Booth, Communicating in Science, 2nd ed. (CUP, Cambridge, 1993).H.B. Michaelson, How to Write and Publish Engineering Papers and Reports, 3rd ed. (Oryx Press, Phoenix, 1990).S.L. Montgomery, The Chicago Guide to Communicating Science (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2003).E. Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 2nd ed. (Graphics Press, Cheshire, CT, 2003).

Remember:Good writing is an evolutionary process that comes in stages:Getting in the mood.Getting words on paper/screen.Revising, revising, revising, revising, revising, revising, revising, revising,...FINISHING!!!**Do not use too many exclamation points in scientific writing!! People will think you’re a crackpot!!!!

guidelines for writing a scientific paper - physics · pdf file... basic principles of...

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