green car journal's '25 years of green cars

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Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 3

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contents

SPECIAL EDITION 25 YEARS OF GREEN CARS

VOICES15 Morry Markowitz Fuel cell vehicles in the present tense

28 Mitch Bainwol A huge breakthrough in fuel economy

31 Dr. Alan Lloyd Electric drive can get us there

FEATURES 10 Plugging In Evolution of the electric car

16 Clean Diesel The other ‘alternative fuel’ comes of age

20 Hybrids! Engines of change

24 Alternative Fuels An answer to petroleum dependence?

27 Hydrogen Highway Hydrogen fuel cell cars are coming

32 Green Car Awards Three auto shows, five notable awards

36 Imagining the Road Ahead Favorite ‘green’ concept cars

LONG-TERM TESTS 34 Honda Accord Hybrid Life with our Green Car of the Year

TECHNICAL 23 Well-Connected Advantages of the plug-in hybrid

DEPARTMENTS 06 Outspoken Documenting 25 years of ‘green’ cars

07 Auto Trends Self-driving vehicles, car sharing

09 Directions Engineering for efficiency

ON THE COVER

From GM’s circa-1990s EV1 electric car to Tesla’s coming

Model X…it’s been an amazing 25 years of ‘green’ innovation

10

GCJUSA.COM

CarsOfChange.com

Editor/Publisher Ron Cogan

Executive EditorTodd Kaho

Technical EditorBill Siuru

Contributing EditorsCam BentyDrew Hardin Jeff Karr

Photo EditorSheree Gardner

Staff PhotographerIan Billings

ColumnistsDr. Alan LloydMitch BainwolMorry Markowitz

ContributorsDevin Cogan

Art DirectorThomas Reiss

Graphic DesignersBryan BremerPriscilla Wilson

Advertising Information(805) 541-0473

Green Car Journal® (ISSN 1059-6143) is published by RJ Cogan Specialty Publications Group, Inc. 1241 Johnson Avenue #356San Luis Obispo, Calif. 93401

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© 2014 by RJ Cogan Specialty Publications Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

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ISSUE NO. 1, 2014

Nissan’s Mixim electric show car

is one of many favorite concepts

from the past 25 years, page 36

USA $5.99 CAN. $7.99

6 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

was inspired by the 1990 introduction of the GM Impact electric car concept

at the Los Angeles Auto Show, and then again by the amazing array of electric,

hydrogen, and ‘green’ concept vehicles I witnessed at the 1991 Tokyo Motor Show.

I knew then that ‘green’ cars would be important. So, for 25 years now, this has been my

focus as publisher of Green Car Journal and earlier as feature editor at Motor Trend.

Covering this field for 25 years lends an invaluable perspective that’s important to

understanding not only where we’ve been, but where we’re headed. There’s certainly

plenty of ‘green’ car news to share these days, but what does it really mean? With

each announcement of a new technology, fuel, or battery breakthrough there comes

great excitement and also great expectations. It has been so for quite some time.

Over the years so many of these have had their moment of fame and then faded

away. The reasons are as diverse as the ‘breakthroughs’ – lack of funding or interest,

misread demand, or losing out to new or better answers. This has been the story with

electric car battery technologies that have come and gone over the years. The same can

be said of many entrepreneurs who strived to bring electric cars to market, only to

meet with failure as they realized the cost and complexity of doing so. In the midst of

this there have been many successes, perhaps none as notable as Tesla Motors in the

electric car space or Clean Energy Fuels in natural gas fueling.

It has been enlightening to document the early research and development of the

vehicles we take for granted today. While there is no crystal ball for predicting the

automobile’s future, I’ve long been fascinated by researching patents for advanced

and alternative fuel vehicle technologies because this reveals what automakers and

their technology suppliers have in mind for the years ahead. Patent abstracts were a

regular part of Green Car Journal during its first decade until this field evolved from

early research and development to actual products in new car showrooms.

Several decades ago, many of these vehicles and technologies were but ideas to poten-

tially pursue, the subject of technology deep dives I attended, or opportunities that allowed

driving advanced technology prototypes and developmental vehicles on test tracks.

Two of these experiences come readily to mind – driving a nondescript Japanese-market

Toyota test mule equipped with an early gasoline-electric hybrid drive and a Geo Storm

equipped with a prototype GM battery electric powertrain, both at their respective manu-

facturer’s proving grounds. These powerplants evolved to become the Toyota Hybrid System

powering the first-generation Prius and the electric drivetrain powering the GM EV1.

Early developmental electric drive vehicles were often quirky and unexpectedly

noisy in myriad ways, emitting high-pitched frequency sound from their motor con-

troller and gear noise that would otherwise have been masked by the sound of inter-

nal combustion. Some early natural gas vehicle prototypes suffered from gaseous fuel

injector clatter. Developmental hydrogen fuel cell vehicles sacrificed loads of space for

large and cumbersome fuel cells and hydrogen storage. Diesel vehicles were unaccept-

ably loud and emitted soot.

Drive an electric, natural gas, hydrogen fuel cell, high mpg gasoline, or clean diesel

personal-use vehicle today and they are quiet, clean, and seamless in their operation.

We have great ‘green’ cars today because a lot of important work has been done over

the past 25 years. Just imagine what’s coming next.

Covering this field for25 years lends aninvaluable perspectivethat’s important tounderstanding not onlywhere we’ve been, butwhere we’re headed.

I

Ron Cogan

Editor and Publisher

OUTSPOKEN :: DOCUMENTING 25 YEARS OF GREEN CARS

Photography by Ian Billings

Just about every major automaker is developing automated vehicle technology.

Experts predict we’ll see the first highly automated production vehicles by 2020

with fully automated cars expected by 2025. Automation will come incrementally

with more of these technologies becoming available with each new model year.

Already, vehicles with early forms of self-driving technology are in dealer

showrooms, such as adaptive cruise control that automatically maintains a safe

following distance from the car ahead and parking assistance that helps maneu-

ver a car into parking spaces. Other available automated technologies include

Lane Departure Warning, Obstacle Warning, and Blind Spot Detection. While most

are passive systems that alert a driver to a hazardous condition, in the future

these will be able to automatically take corrective action if a driver fails to react.

Most of the near-term technology augments a human driver in controlling the vehi-

cle, similar to the autopilot used in airliners that allows the driver to take over at any

time. Since today’s computers and other electronics are now quicker than the human

brain, on-board systems could also provide control in an emergency situation.

As an example of what’s coming soon, BMW’s Traffic Light Assistant will commu-

nicate with traffic lights to inform a driver of the speed needed to match the timing

of traffic lights. In the future, this could be done automatically. Traffic Jam Assistant,

debuting in the BMW i3, maintains a safe distance between vehicles, controls speed

and steering, and stops the car in heavy traffic if necessary. As long as the driver keeps

one hand on the steering wheel, it keeps the car in its lane at speeds up to 25 mph.

There are several challenges to automated vehicles, not the least of which is

cost since LIDAR (laser radar), ultrasound sensors, computer vision systems,

and other electronics are expensive. However, following the known trajectory of

advanced electronics in all facets of our lives, prices will surely drop dramati-

cally with widespread use. – Bill Siuru

Self-Driving Cars

AUTOTRENDSGoogle Pod PrototypeThe Google Car gives a glimpse of how

a fully driverless pod-like vehicle would

operate. There is no provision for a human

driving since the car is devoid of a steer-

ing wheel, mirrors, or brake and accel-

erator pedals. The only controls are stop

and start buttons in the center console

and a navigation system for selecting and

displaying a planned route. Top speed is a

limited 25 mph.

Sensors can ’see’ beyond blind spots and

detect other vehicles, objects, pedestrians,

and landmarks within a 360 degree radius

over a range spanning the length of two

football fields. This information is fed to a

computer that drives the car. Since there’s

no accommodation for human control in

the event something goes amiss, Google

uses two redundant motors for steering

and braking to provide back-ups. Worst

case? Hit the ‘off’ button.

Google will build about 100 self-driving

cars within the year and plans a small

pilot program in California. If successful,

it will work with partners to bring this

technology worldwide. – BS


Lean & Green

AUTO TRENDS

Car sharing has been quietly catching on in the United States. Once the domain

of Europeans desiring mobility without the cost of car ownership, there are now

some 1.3 million car sharing members in the U.S. with 21,000 shared vehicles

available from 24 operators. Avis Budget Group’s Zipcar, the most prolific pro-

vider of car sharing services worldwide, offers services in three dozen U.S. cities,

usually at or near universities or airports. Other companies offering car sharing

include Hertz 24/7, Enterprise CarShare, and U-Haul Car Share.

Car manufacturers have also introduced their own car sharing services. The

most ambitious of these is Daimler’s car2go with services in 11 major U.S. cities

and three in Canada. Car2go uses the diminutive smart fortwo, most running on

gasoline with some electric versions as well. BMW’s DriveNow, featuring its all-

electric ActiveE based on the BMW 1 Series Coupe, oper-

ates in the San Francisco Bay Area.

Since many car share locations are easily accessible from

college campuses, a growing demographic more attuned to

smartphones than cars is able to enjoy on-demand mobil-

ity without owning their own ‘wheels.’ The environmental

benefits of car sharing, and especially the use of hybrid

and electric vehicles, is viewed as an important plus. Senior

citizens can also benefit from car sharing since retirees

drive far fewer miles and could save money by foregoing

car ownership. While not as intuitive to seniors accustomed

to owning their own vehicles, that hasn’t stopped AARP

from exploring the option through its recent partnership

with Zipcar that brings seniors reduced membership fees.

Peer-to-peer car sharing that finds individual owners renting their vehicles

to others is gaining some traction. Businesses like Getaround, RelayRides, and

Buzzcar facilitate this by screening owners and renters, providing a website, and

offering a mobile app to bring parties together. These services manage bookings

and collect payment, in return keeping a percentage of rental fees. – BS

Share the Ride

How cool is this? An innovative car shar-

ing program in France is using three-

wheel Toyota i-Road urban electric vehi-

cles for travel in the greater Grenoble

metro area. Not quite a yard wide, these

diminutive personal transports are

designed to be agile like a scooter while

sporting the stability and enclosed-

canopy comfort of a car. They rent in

15 minute increments with users able

to pick them up and return them to the

same location, or drive them one-way to

connect to the city’s various mass transit

options. Lithium-ion batteries provide

just over 30 miles of zero-emission elec-

tric range and charging is available at 27

stations in the area.

The brightly-colored i-Road uses

Active Lean technology that allows

driver and vehicle to lean into turns

with movement said to emulate that of

a skier. No special skills are required

since the vehicle is tasked with main-

taining balance rather than the driver,

providing stability on curves, slopes,

and uneven surfaces. The i-Road origi-

nally debuted at last year’s Geneva

Motor Show. – Ron Cogan


’ve just driven a revolutionary new vehicle and it isn’t an electric car, extended

range electric car, plug-in hybrid, hybrid, or alternative fuel vehicle. None of the

above. It was a gasoline-powered pickup truck.

How can a pickup truck be revolutionary, you might ask? The pickup in question is

Ford’s all-new aluminum bodied F-150, the best-selling nameplate in America for the

past 37 years. By engineering an all-aluminum body, Ford has been able to take some

630 pounds out of the vehicle. A redesigned, stiffer and high-strength steel frame

reduces weight by another 70 pounds, bringing overall weight savings to 700 pounds

compared to the 2014 pickup.

This lightweighting provides benefits on all fronts. In the ‘green’ world, fuel effi-

ciency gains lead the agenda. While official EPA test results are not available at the

time of this writing, Ford expects fuel economy increases between 5 and 20 percent

depending on vehicle configuration and powertrain options. That is a huge increase

when you consider Ford sells roughly 650,000 F-Series pickups each year. Fleet-wide,

even a fraction of a mile-per-gallon increase multiplies to substantial savings in fuel

and a commensurate reduction in tailpipe emissions.

But the weight reduction also makes the 2015 F-150 perform better as well. First

it takes less power to propel the truck when empty, so acceleration is noticeably

improved. With less mass working on the chassis, the truck has a lighter feel and

handles better than the previous model. It also stops better, since there is less weight

to bring to a halt. The real benefit to traditional truck owners, however, is load capac-

ity. Cargo bed payload capability and gross towing weights remain similar on the new

truck, so the aluminum F-150 can haul and tow an additional 700 pounds. That’s quite

an advantage over the steel-bodied competition.

Ford has also expanded the downsized, turbocharged EcoBoost engine line in the

new F-150 and the results are equally dramatic. The latest version is a 2.7-liter V-6

with a displacement roughly half the size of what you might expect in a full-size pick-

up truck. The direct injected 2.7-liter V-6 utilizes a host of advanced technologies, not

the least of which are two turbochargers that boost performance to V-8 levels. It pro-

duces an amazing 325 horsepower and even more impressive 375 lb-ft torque. There

is virtually no turbo lag as the pickup accelerates like its larger 5.0-liter V-8 cousin.

Small but mighty, a 2.7 EcoBoost F-150 has a maximum towing capability of 8,500

pounds with a 2,250 pound payload capacity.

Unsurprisingly, the 2015 Ford F150 is in the running for Green Car Journal’s inau-

gural Green Truck of the Year™ award. It is nothing short of a complete rethinking of

the pickup truck platform.

Major engineering advancements are on the horizon across the automotive land-

scape, and clearly ‘green’ isn’t just about small fuel efficient cars. We applaud

advancements like the addition of the 3.0-liter EcoDiesel engine in the full-size Ram

pickup truck and Grand Cherokee SUV, which offer exceptional fuel economy and per-

formance in their respective segments. GM’s latest Active Fuel Management cylinder

deactivation technology in new EcoTec3-powered Silverado pickups effectively trans-

forms their V-6 and V-8 engines into fuel-efficient four-cylinder engines under low

load conditions, saving fuel and reducing emissions. ‘Green’ is not just for cars any-

more…trucks can play a big role here, too. – Todd Kaho

Major engineering advancements are on the horizon across the automotive landscape, and clearly ‘green’ isn’t just about small fuel efficient cars.

IDIRECTIONS :: ENGINEERING FOR EFFICIENCY

PLUGGING INP L U G G I N G I Nhere’s something almost

magical about plugging your

car into an outlet at night and

waking up to a full ‘tank’ in the morning.

There’s no need for a stop at the gas sta-

tion, ever. Plus, there’s no nagging guilt

that the miles metered out by the odom-

eter are counting off one’s contribution

toward any societal and environmental

ills attendant with fossil fuel use.

This is a feeling expe-

rienced

during the year Green Car Journal edi-

tors drove GM’s remarkable EV1 elec-

tric car in the late 1990s. Daily drives

in the EV1 were a joy. The car was

sleek, high-tech, distinctive, and with

the electric motor’s torque coming on

from zero rpm, decidedly fast. That’s a

potent combination.

The EV1 is long gone, not because

people or companies ‘killed’ it as the

so-called documentary Who Killed the

Electric Car suggested, but

rather because

extraordinarily high costs and a

challenging business case were its

demise. GM lost many tens of thou-

sands of dollars on every EV1 it built,

as did other automakers comply-

ing with California’s Zero Emissions

Vehicle (ZEV) mandate in the 1990s.

Even today, Fiat Chrysler CEO Sergio

Marchionne says his company loses

$14,000 for every Fiat 500e electric car

sold. Combine that with today’s need

for an additional $7,500 federal tax

credit and up to $6,000 in subsidies

from some states to encourage EV

purchases, and it’s easy to see why

the electric car remains such a

challenge.

This isn’t to say that electric

cars are the wrong idea.

On the contrary,

they

TEvolution of the Electric Car B Y R O N C O G A N


PLUGGING INP L U G G I N G I Nare perceived as important to our driving

future, so much so that government, auto-

makers, and their suppliers see electrifi-

cation as key to meeting mandated 2025

fleet-wide fuel economy requirements and

CO2 reduction goals. The problem is that

there’s no singular, defined roadmap for

getting there because costs, market pen-

etration, and all-important political sup-

port are future unknowns.

The advantages of battery electric

vehicles are well known – extremely low

per-mile operating costs on electricity,

less maintenance, at-home fueling, and

of course no petroleum use. Add in the

many societal incentives available such

as solo driving in carpool lanes, pref-

erential parking, and free public charg-

ing, and the case for electrics gets even

more compelling. If a

homeowner’s solar array is offsetting the

electricity used to energize a car’s bat-

teries for daily drives, then all the better.

This is the ideal scenario for a battery

electric car. Of course, things are never

this simple, otherwise we would all be

driving electric.

There remain some very real chal-

lenges. Government regulation, not

market forces, has largely been driving

the development of the modern elec-

tric car. This is a good thing or bad,

depending upon one’s perspective. The

goal is admirable and to some, crucial

– to enable driving with zero localized

emissions, eliminate CO2 emissions,

reduce oil dependence, and drive on an

energy source created from diverse

resourc-

es that can be sustainable. Where’s the

downside in that?

Still, new car buyers have not stepped

up to buy battery electric cars in

expected, or perhaps hoped-for, num-

bers, especially the million electric

vehicles that Washington had set out

as its goal by 2015. This is surprising

to many since electric vehicle choices

have expanded in recent years. However,

there are reasons for this.

Electric cars are often quite expensive

in comparison to their gasoline-powered

counterparts, although government and

manufacturer subsidies can bring these

costs down. Importantly, EVs offer less

functionality than con-



ventional cars because of limited driv-

ing range that averages about 70 to 100

miles before requiring a charge. While

this zero-emission range can fit the

commuting needs of many two-vehicle

households and bring substantial fuel

savings, there’s a catch. Factoring future

fuel savings into a vehicle purchase

decision is simply not intuitive to new

car buyers today.

Many drivers who would potentially

step up to electric vehicle ownership

can’t do so because most electric mod-

els are sold only in California or a

select number of ‘green’ states where

required zero emission vehicle cred-

its are earned. These states also tend

to have at least a modest charging

infrastructure in place. Manufacturers

selling only in these limited markets

typically commit to only small build

numbers, making these EVs fairly

insignificant in influencing electric

vehicle market penetration.

Battery electric vehicles available

today include the BMW i3, Chevrolet

Spark EV, Fiat 500e, Ford Focus

Electric, Honda Fit EV, Kia Soul EV,

Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive,

Mitsubishi iMiEV,

Nissan LEAF, Smart ForTwo Electric

Drive, Tesla Model S, Toyota RAV4 EV,

and VW e-Golf. While most aim at lim-

ited sales, some like BMW, Nissan, and

Tesla market their EVs nationwide. The

Honda Fit EV and Toyota RAV4 EV are

being phased out. Fleet-focused EVs

are also being offered by a small num-

ber of independent companies.

BMW’s i3 offers buyers an optional

two-cylinder gasoline range extender

that generates on-board electricity to

double this electric car’s battery elec-

tric driving range. A growing number

of electrified models like the Prius

Plug-In and Chevy Volt can also run

exclusively on battery power for a

more limited number of miles (10-15

for the Prius and up to 40 miles in the

Volt), and then drive farther with the

aid of a combustion engine or engine-

generator. Many extended range elec-

tric vehicles and plug-in hybrids like

these are coming soon from a surpris-

ing number of auto manufacturers.

It has been an especially tough road

for independent or would-be automak-

ers intent on introducing electric vehi-

cles to the market. Well-funded efforts

like Coda Automotive failed, as have

many lesser ones over the years. Often

enough, inventors of electric cars have

been innovative and visionary, only to

discover that becoming an auto manu-

facturer is hugely expensive and more

challenging than imagined. In many

cases their timeline from concept and

investment to production and sales

becomes so long that before their first

cars are produced, mainstream auto-

makers have introduced models far

beyond what they were offering, and at

lesser cost with an established sales

and service network to support them.

A high profile exception is Tesla

Motors, the well-funded Silicon Valley

automaker that successfully built

and sold its $112,000 electric Tesla

Roadster, continued its success with

the acclaimed $70,000-$100,000+

Model S electric sedan, and is now

retooling its manufacturing plant

to build the Tesla Model X electric

crossover at an MSRP similar to the

Model S. Tesla’s challenge is not to

prove it can produce compelling bat-

tery electric cars, provide remarkable

all-electric driving range,

The next 10 years are crucial as cost, infrastructure, and consumer acceptance challenges are tackled and hopefully overcome to make affordable, unsubsidized electric cars a mass-market reality. Clearly, a lot of people are counting on it.

P L U G G I N G I N



or build a wildly enthusiastic – some

would say fanatical – customer base.

It has done all this. Its challenge is to

continue this momentum by develop-

ing a full model lineup that includes

a promised affordable model for the

masses, its Model 3, at a targeted

$35,000 price tag.

This is no easy thing. Battery costs

remain very high and, in fact, Tesla

previously shared that the Tesla

Roadster’s battery pack cost in the

vicinity of $30,000. While you can bury

the cost of an expensive battery pack

in a high-end electric car that costs

$70,000 to over $100,000, you can’t do

that today in a $35,000 model, at least

not one that isn’t manufacturer subsi-

dized and provides the 200+ mile range

expected of a Tesla.

The company’s answer is a $5 billion

‘Gigafactory’ being built in Nevada

that it claims will produce more

lithium-ion batteries by 2020 than

were produced worldwide in 2013. The

company’s publicized goal is to trim

battery costs by at least 30 percent to

make its $35,000 electric car a real-

ity and support its growing electric

car manufacturing. Tesla has said

it’s essential that the Gigafactory is

in production as the Model 3 begins

manufacturing.

Tesla is well-underway with its goal

of building out a national infrastruc-

ture of SuperCharger fast-charge sta-

tions along major transportation cor-

ridors to enable extended all-electric

driving. These allow Tesla vehicles the

ability to gain a 50 percent charge in

about 20 minutes, although they are

not compatible with other EVs. For

all others, Bosch is beginning limited

deployment of its sub-$10,000 DC fast

charger that provides an 80 percent

charge in 30 minutes.

The past 25 years have not secured

a future for the battery electric car,

but things are looking up. The next 10

years are crucial

as cost, infrastructure, and consumer

acceptance challenges are tackled and

hopefully overcome to make afford-

able, unsubsidized electric cars a

mass-market reality. Clearly, a lot of

people are counting on it.


GIVE IT A TEST DRIVE.

WWW.CARSOFCHANGE.COM


GIVE IT A TEST DRIVE.

Today, consumers in California can drive and lease the first wave of commercially available fuel cell electric

vehicles (FCEVs) in the U.S, and additional models are promised from several leading automakers in the next few

months and years. Of equal importance, today’s FCEV drivers can fill-up at any of nine hydrogen fueling sta-

tions in the Los Angeles and San Francisco areas, with 50 stations expected to be operational by the end of 2015.

What does this mean? For the fuel cell and hydrogen industry, and for those who will benefit from FCEVs,

the time has come to talk about these vehicles in the present tense. A new game clock is running; the long-

envisioned fuel cell future is indeed underway.

Fuel cells generate electricity through a hydrogen-based chemical process, not combustion. The process is

silent, with no moving parts, and because there is no combustion there are no tailpipe emissions; the only

byproducts are heat and water vapor.

FCEVs can run on hydrogen generated from renewable sources including biogas, wind and solar power, as

well as from more traditional fuels like America’s abundant natural gas.

Moreover, as consumers in California are discovering, FCEVs are the only zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) tech-

nology that replicates today’s driving experience and convenience with a 300 to 400 miles or greater driving

range and rapid fill-up of three to five minutes.

FCEVs will be part of a diverse mix of vehicle types that allow American consum-

ers to fulfill a wide range of driving needs. It only takes a quick look at recent head-

lines to see why the commercial arrival of FCEVs is so important for America.

With traditional energy-exporting regions of the world in turmoil, America is looking more

and more to domestic energy sources. Hydrogen can be produced virtually anywhere in the

country from many conventional and renewable energy sources. The nation already produces

nine million metric tons of hydrogen annually, enough to fuel 30 to 40 million FCEVs.

Environmental concerns from clean air to global warming also help explain why FCEVs are so important. In

2013, governors of eight states signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) agreeing to put 3.3 million zero-

emission vehicles (ZEVs) on the road within 12 years. More recently, NESCAUM (the nonprofit association of air

quality agencies in the Northeast) developed a plan to begin implementing the ZEV vision defined by the MOU.

Fuel cells and hydrogen energy are the last clean energy technologies in which the U.S. is the global manu-

facturing leader. Nearly half of all jobs in the industry involve high-skill manufacturing, and when the infra-

structure development, sales, and service jobs are added, the job potential is very significant.

Despite recent progress, the path to America’s hydrogen future faces many uncertainties, but most analysts

agree the chief concern is how to develop the nation’s crucial hydrogen infrastructure. To help address this

issue, in 2013 a public private collaboration, H2USA, was co-launched by the U.S. Department of Energy and

industry. H2USA’s mission is to promote the commercial introduction and widespread adoption of FCEVs

across America, and its members include state governments, automotive companies, fuel cell and hydrogen

energy technology suppliers, energy companies, national laboratories, and trade associations.

Through the combined efforts of its members, H2USA is developing real-world approaches to address the

technical, financial, and societal issues surrounding hydrogen infrastructure.

America faces a very bright fuel cell future, but it will take hard work and strong planning to fulfill the

FCEV promise. Today FCEVs are no longer at the curb; they have entered the on-ramp and are preparing to

merge into the mainstream of American driving.

And I can tell you, the FCEV industry is already thinking about the passing lane.

— Morry Markowitz is President & Executive Director of the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association,

www.fchea.org

VOICES :: By Morry Markowitz

>FUEL CELL VEHICLES – IN THE PRESENT TENSE

Environmental concerns from clean air to global warming help explain why FCEVs are so important.

The Other ‘Alternative Fuel’ Comes of Age

C L E A N D I E S E L

B Y B I L L S I U R U

iesels have been purchased in

huge numbers by Europeans

for decades, with over half of

all new vehicles sold there powered by

this efficient engine technology. The die-

sel experience in Europe is sharply con-

trasted by that in the U.S. where diesel

accounts for only about one percent of

all new cars sales, in its best year.

This is about to change. Thirty-six new

clean diesel models are now available or

coming shortly and it’s predicted there

will be over 50 diesel-powered models in

North American new car showrooms by

2017. Diesel has been consistently moving

well beyond its traditional role in power-

ing medium- and heavy-duty trucks on

America’s highways to powering a full

spectrum of personal use vehicles. These

include entry-level cars like the Chevrolet

Cruze Turbo Diesel to upscale clean diesel

sedans and SUVs primarily from pre-

mium German brands, plus other popular

models like the Jeep Grand Cherokee

EcoDiesel, Ram 1500 EcoDiesel, and the

coming Mazda6 SKYACTIV-D diesel.

Growing diesel interest in the U.S. is

largely due to improved diesel technolo-

gies that eliminate noisy engines, smelly

exhaust, and perhaps most important

in a highly competitive auto market,

lackluster performance. Modern clean

diesel’s inherent performance advantages

– more power compared to like-size gaso-

line engines and much higher torque at

lower rpms –mesh well with aspirational

models like those from Audi, BMW, and

Porsche that must provide an exceptional

driving experience as a matter of course.

Among clean diesel’s most important

enabling technologies are direct injection,

common rail fuel distribution, unit fuel

injectors, intercooled turbocharging, and

pilot injection. All are controlled by great-

ly improved on-board computers, sensors,

and advanced electronics that make mod-

ern diesels clean enough to meet stringent

emissions standards in all 50 states.

Today’s clean diesel vehicles are

able to use biodiesel blends, with some

automakers approving B5 (5 percent bio-

diesel/95 percent petroleum diesel) and

others allowing B20 (20 percent biodies-

el/80 percent petroleum diesel). Biodiesel

can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by

57 to 86 percent, according to the EPA.

Highly efficient clean diesel vehicles

fueled with a biodiesel blend further

reduce dependence on foreign oil.

Fuel quality is a critical component for

greater acceptance of biodiesel by both

automakers and consumers. This is being

met by stringent biodiesel fuel standards

for B100 and biodiesel blends. The biodiesel

industry’s BQ-9000 fuel quality assurance

program for biodiesel producers, marketers,

and testing laboratories includes education,

encouragement, and enforcement related to

BQ-9000 accredited companies. All of this

D



is making biodiesel increasingly likely to be

used in greater quantities by clean diesel

vehicles in the future.

WHAT MAKES ‘CLEAN DIESEL’ SO CLEAN? Today’s diesel engines are turbocharged to

compress and supply greater volumes of

air to the combustion chambers, thus pro-

viding more powerful explosions within

each cylinder that result in greater power

output. The turbocharger’s turbine is spun

by the car’s exhaust at up to 150,000 rpm

to drive an air pump providing this ‘boost’

pressure. Turbocharger temperatures are

very high because of these hot exhaust

gasses so an intercooler – an air-to-air or

water-to-air heat exchanger – is integrated

to cool down the hot compressed air cre-

ated by the turbo. Cooler air is denser so

more air can be delivered to the cylinders

for maximum power.

A gasoline (spark ignition) engine runs

on the Otto cycle, in which a vaporized

mixture of gasoline and air is delivered to

the combustion chambers, compressed by

pistons, and ignited by spark plugs. A die-

sel (compression ignition) engine works

differently, with air compressed during

the engine’s compression stroke and fuel

injected into hot, compressed air in the

cylinder spontaneously ignite. With direct

injection (DI), fuel is injected directly into

the combustion chambers to provide a

fine, high-pressure mist of fuel that large-

ly eliminates diesel’s traditional knocks

and rattles. High pressure results in

improved fuel atomization for increased

engine efficiency, resulting in more power

and better fuel economy.

Diesel fuel has to be injected at very high

pressures to counter the huge compres-

sion pressure in a diesel engine. Typically,

the higher the pressure, the more power

produced and the cleaner the exhaust

emissions. With a common rail (CR) sys-

tem, an engine-driven pump produces the

extremely high pressure fuel supplied to

the electrically-operated injector at each

cylinder via a single thick-walled tube,

the ‘common rail.’ Besides reducing diesel

noise, CR greatly increases injection pres-

sure compared to older distributor pump

injection systems. This results in a much

finer fuel mist for greater engine efficiency.

Another important technology used

in modern clean diesel engines is pilot

injection, which injects a small amount of

fuel prior to the main injection to create

a more gradual increase in combustion

chamber temperature. This helps elimi-

nate diesel knocking and rattling caused

by a sudden increase in temperature.

CLEAN DIESEL’S FUTUREInfluencing clean diesel’s slow adoption

timeframe in the U.S. has been a general

lack of support from politicians and

government. In contrast, European gov-

ernments are much more diesel-friendly,


aggressively encouraging the development

of diesel technology and creating emis-

sion rules that favor rather than penal-

ize diesels. Most importantly, tax breaks

in most of Europe make diesel fuel less

expensive than gasoline. This not the case

in the U.S., in part because the federal tax

on diesel is 24.4 cents/gallon versus 18.4

cents/gallon for gasoline. Some states also

tax diesel higher than gasoline.

Beyond better technology and extreme-

ly low emissions, consumer attitudes

toward diesel in the U.S. are also chang-

ing. In a recent Harris Interactive poll,

59 percent of the 18-34 year old drivers

queried said that if the cost of diesel fuel

was on par with gasoline, they would

purchase a diesel-powered vehicle. A

smaller 39 percent of those 45 and older

said they would purchase a diesel over

a gas car under the same circumstances.

This tells us that a growing percentage

of consumers is open to driving diesel

and that younger drivers who will com-

prise the biggest share of the future car

market may well be driving efficient

clean diesel in growing numbers.


R E D U C I N G D I E S E L E M I S S I O N S

A variety of emission control devices are used to reduce diesel exhaust emis-

sions. Along with more sophisticated electronic engine management control

and fuel injection systems, these include oxidation catalysts, particulate filters,

exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), and selective catalytic reduction (SCR).

Catalytic filters reduce carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter.

Particulate filters physically trap particles before they can leave the tailpipe.

SCR uses a catalyst and a special diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) comprised of

water and urea to reduce oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions, one of clean

diesel’s greatest challenges. EGR recycles a portion of the exhaust back

into the engine to reduce NOx emissions as well. Many advanced exhaust

emission control devices can be compromised by diesel fuel containing

high concentrations of sulfur, like that found in older fuels. Thus, ultra-low

sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel is required. Regulations that limit the sulfur content of

on-highway diesel fuel to 15 parts-per-million (ppm) by weight have made ULSD

available everywhere in the U.S. and Canada. - Bill Siuru


THE ROAD TO A SUSTAINABLE DRIVING FUTURE is an important one. Decreasing petroleum use, reducing

tailpipe and greenhouse gas emissions, and supporting the use of fuels that can be created from renewable

resources are all critical goals. These are areas in which biodiesel excels.

Made from diverse sources including soybean oil, animal fats, and even recycled cooking oil, biodiesel’s value

as a petroleum alternative is recognized worldwide. In the United States, its role is growing significantly with over

1.8 billion gallons of biodiesel produced here in 2013, the third straight year of record biodiesel production of this

domestic renewable fuel. These biodiesel activities now support over 62,000 jobs nationwide.

Auto manufacturers are continuing to expand their clean diesel product lines with wide-ranging passenger cars,

SUVs, and light trucks, which means greater opportunity for running on B5 or B20 biodiesel blends. All new diesel

models in the U.S. are manufacturer-approved for operating on B5 –a blend of 5% biodiesel and 95% petroleum

diesel – while nearly 80% are also approved for B20 with its higher 20% biodiesel content. B20 approved models

range from the Chevrolet Cruze diesel sedan and Jeep Grand Cherokee SUV to pickups from Chevrolet, Ford,

GMC, Ram, and more, with the new Chevrolet Colorado and GMC Canyon mid-size diesel pickups the latest

additions to this ever-expanding list.

The biodiesel industry’s activities are expanding along with the ever-growing choices of clean diesel models

capable of running on this clean, renewable fuel. Biodiesel is produced in nearly every state with over 2,000 biodiesel

retail sites available nationwide. A rigorous BQ-9000 fuel quality program also continues to move biodiesel forward

as a favored motor fuel. All this means greater opportunity for domestically-produced biodiesel to offset

petroleum use and achieve meaningful emissions reductions now and in the years ahead.

National Biodiesel Board®, www.biodiesel.org

SPONSORED CONTENT

BIODIESELF U E L I N G T H E ROA D A H E A D

America’s Advanced Biofuel

H Y BRIDS!

hat once was a nov-

elty is now a main-

stream technology.

Today, gasoline-electric powertrains,

or ‘hybrids’, are not only accepted,

but expected across a wide range of

vehicle platforms. The modern age of

mass produced hybrid cars began in

the late 1990s.

While the Toyota Prius launched in

Japan first, Honda was first to the North

American market with the original two-

seat Insight in 1999, followed shortly by

the first generation Toyota Prius. While

many automotive experts downplayed the

potential of these cars, Toyota recently

sold the 7 millionth hybrid and is deliv-

ering 250,000 Prius cars per year here, in

four unique models.

You could make the argument that

hybrid

pow-

ertrains

have

done more

than any

other technologi-

cal advancement to

increase fuel efficiency and lower over-

all emissions. They made good environ-

mental sense to the early adopters who

wanted to make a green statement.

While an eco-friendly image is still a

prime motivator for buying a hybrid

today, these cars increasingly present

a strong financial case due to their

exceptional fuel economy.

A hybrid uses two forms of motive

power for propulsion – an internal

combustion engine and an electric

motor. The way an auto manufacturer

blends gasoline and electric power

together is one of biggest differences

between models. For example, Toyota

and Ford have long engineered hybrid

systems with the ability to run in pure

electric mode when sufficient battery

W


H Y BRIDS!

charge

is avail-

able, although

only for short durations

since on-board battery power in

a hybrid is much more limited than

in an all-electric vehicle. Generally,

the larger the battery designed into a

hybrid vehicle, the longer the EV range.

Increasing battery size is very costly

so automakers generally provide a bat-

tery pack optimized for fuel efficient

hybrid operation with all-electric driv-

ing a modest side benefit.

Honda’s early Integrated Motor

Assist hybrid system traditionally

used its electric motor to bolster the

power of the gasoline engine so less

fuel was needed, but did not allow

for even limited all-electric driving.

Honda’s latest Earth Dreams hybrid

system uses hybrid power most of the

time but also allows operation in pure

electric mode for short durations

when conditions are right.

Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH)

and lithium-ion (Li-ion) are the two

most widely used battery chemis-

tries found in hybrids today. Li-ion

is lighter and offers greater energy

density but is also considerably

more expensive, thus the evolving

nature of hybrids that strive to bal-

ance power with cost. Regenerative

braking performance continues to

improve with each generation of hybrid

vehicles. Kinetic energy normally lost

to friction and heat during braking in a

normal car is partially captured by the

electric motor in a hybrid as it acts as a

generator to feed electricity back to the

hybrid’s battery pack.

Auto stop/start technology is a natu-

ral application for hybrid vehicles.

With auto stop/start, the internal

combustion engine shuts off when the

vehicle is stopped to save fuel, then

automatically restarts when the brake

pedal is released. While common on

hybrids, the technology proven here

is also being adapted to non-hybrid

vehicles including some clean diesels

and gasoline models.

One of the positive attributes of

hybrid technology is that it is scalable.

A manufacturer can engineer a very

powerful system for performance as

Porsche has with the 918 supercar, the

Panamera S E-Hybrid, and the Cayenne

Hybrid, or build a hybrid model aimed

at achieving modest performance but

maximum efficiency, as is the case with

the Toyota Prius.

Hybrid fuel economy can also be

greatly enhanced by additional battery

power and a plug-in charger that allows

a hybrid to operate as an electric car for

greater distances. Plug-in hybrids and

extended range electric vehicles of this

type are on the market now in limited

numbers but expected to grow signifi-

cantly. The challenge is in balancing

expected electric capability and overall

cost or a vehicle can easily be priced out

of the market.

B Y T O D D K A H OEngines of Change


The way an auto manufacturer blends gasand electric power together is one of thebiggest differences between hybrid models.


On the low end of the hybrid scale are

mild hybrid systems that use smaller

electric motors and battery packs for a

modest increase in fuel economy. These

simple systems are much less expensive

and have been used in models as large as

full-size General Motors pickup trucks.

They work quite well, but have not caught

on to the extent of full hybrid systems.

Many hybrids allow a driver to

select different driving modes for the

mission at hand. One option is to run

in electric mode, which programs the

system to maximize use of the electric

motor and drive exclusively on battery

power when there’s sufficient charge.

Another common setting is an ‘Eco’ or

economy mode that somewhat deadens

initial accelerator response to force a

smoother, more efficient driving style

that brings higher mpg. Many hybrids

also offer a sport or performance mode

that programs the car’s on-board com-

puter to deliver maximum performance

and a more responsive accelerator feel.

Purpose-built hybrid models like the

Toyota Prius that are designed from

the very beginning for hybrid opera-

tion often offer advantages in terms

of space efficiency. Simply, design-

ing a car around hybrid power allows

seamlessly accommodating batteries

and a hybrid’s unique components.

Integrating a hybrid powertrain into an

existing model has also proven to be a

viable option and today we have dozens

of examples in both the car and SUV

markets. Generally, the biggest obstacle

is determining where to package the

battery pack. Larger vehicles like SUVs

make this somewhat easier, but it’s not

uncommon for a battery pack to impact

cargo space in some way.

Most consumers’ perception of

hybrid vehicles is that they are smaller

economy cars that deliver 50 miles per

gallon…chalk that one up to the Prius.

Larger SUVs, though, are a great appli-

cation for a hybrid powertrain, particu-

larly in the luxury market. In a larger

luxury vehicle, the cost of the hybrid

system is more easily absorbed in the

overall cost of the vehicle since there is

generally more profit margin in these

vehicles. At the lower end of the price

scale, a hybrid system generally comes

at greater cost to the consumer since

there is often little markup or margin.

So what’s the future of hybrid tech-

nology? We expect to see more appli-

cations across a wider spectrum of

vehicle models as automakers strive

to meet looming federally mandated

Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)

standards. Hybrids have increasingly

become an accepted powertrain option

and with gas prices forever fluctuat-

ing, consumers are demanding more

fuel efficient options. Advancing hybrid

technology is a sure way to meet those

demands for generations.

HYBRIDS!

Honda’s first-generation Insight was the first hybrid in the U.S., beating the Prius here by mere months.

For the past 15 years Prius has set the pace for hybrids.

lug-in hybrid electric vehicles

(PHEVs) combine the func-

tionality of a gasoline-electric

hybrid with the zero-emission capabilities

of an all-electric vehicle. Unlike conven-

tional hybrids that rely solely on an inter-

nal combustion engine and regenerative

braking to charge their batteries, PHEVs

also allow batteries to be charged through

an electrical outlet or EV charging station.

A PHEV’s battery pack is significantly

larger and more powerful than a con-

ventional hybrid, but still quite smaller

than that of a dedicated battery electric

vehicle. Thus, a PHEV’s electric driving

range is shorter than an electric vehicle.

Still, the added functionality of 10 to 40

miles of zero-emission electric driving is

a real plus to many hybrid owners.

Examples of PHEVs already avail-

able to U.S. consumers include the BMW

13 and i8, Chevrolet Volt, Cadillac ELR,

Ford C-MAX Energi, Ford Fusion Energi,

Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid, Porsche

Panamera S E-Hybrid, and Toyota Prius

Plug-In. Other PHEVs from various auto-

makers are in the works.

The larger battery pack in a PHEV can

add several thousand dollars to a hybrid’s

purchase price. For example, Ford’s

Fusion and C-MAX Energi models use a

7.6 kilowatt-hour lithium-ion battery that

provides about 21 miles of electric-only

driving. This compares to the smaller and

less expensive 1.4 kilowatt-hour battery

in Ford hybrids without plug-in capabil-

ity. The kilowatt-hour capacity of a bat-

tery is an indicator of the miles a PHEV

can travel in electric-only mode, much like

the gasoline in a conventional car’s tank

indicates its range.

A PHEV’s greatest advantage is that

driving range is not limited by the finite

battery capacity carried on board, thus

there is no ‘range anxiety.’ Once battery

power is depleted, a PHEV reverts to

conventional gasoline-hybrid operation

or, depending on its configuration, pow-

ers its motors with electricity created

by an on-board internal combustion

engine-generator. For this reason, PHEVs

are often called extended range electric

vehicles (EREVs).

Calculating PHEV fuel economy is

complicated due to differing operating

modes – all-electric with no gasoline

used, combined electric and gasoline use,

and gasoline-only operation. Plus, series

and parallel plug-in hybrids operate dif-

ferently. For this reason, federal PHEV

fuel economy labels have been established

to illustrate a plug-in hybrid’s expected

efficiency measured in miles-per-gallon

(MPG) when running on gasoline-electric

hybrid power and MPGe (miles-per-gallon

equivalent) when running on electricity.

P

A plug-in hybrid’s real advantage is drivingon battery power with no EV ‘range anxiety.’

WELL-CONNECTED


B Y B I L L S I U R U


ALTERNATIVEFUELSAn Answer to Petroleum Dependence? B Y R O N C O G A N

here has been serious interest

in alternative fuels through-

out the motor vehicle’s long

history. In fact, Rudolf Diesel

demonstrated his compression engine

running on peanut oil in the late 1800s

and Henry Ford expected his Model T

would run on ethanol. While fossil fuels

have reigned since then, oil shortages

caused by Arab oil embargoes in the

1970s and 1980s triggered a renewed

emphasis in alternatives that resonates

to this day.

Alternative fuels like natural gas, pro-

pane autogas, alcohol fuels (ethanol/

methanol), biodiesel, synthetic fuels,

electricity, and hydrogen have dominat-

ed this interest, driven by an imperative

to replace petroleum-based fuels and

decrease tailpipe emissions, and more

recently to reduce transportation-relat-

ed CO2 greenhouse gases. With such

promise, this begs the question why

alternative fuels aren’t yet widely avail-

able in the U.S. The answer is simple,

and complicated.

The differential cost

between gasoline and

diesel versus other fuels

has historically been an

important factor, but this

changes with the times,

the political climate, and in

the case of propane auto-

gas, the seasons. Plus, as

domestic oil production

significantly increases

due to new oil field

discoveries, hydraulic

fracturing extrac-

tion (fracking), and

petroleum pro-

duction from

Canada’s tar

oil sands, the

issues of for-

eign oil depen-

dence and

supply dimin-

ish and this

can temper

the urgency

to further

develop non-

petroleum fuels.

According to the Department of

Energy, in summer 2014 the average per-

gallon cost of gasoline was $3.70 and

diesel $3.91. In comparison, the cost of

fuel alternatives were both higher and

lower than these traditional fuels with

B20 biodiesel $3.98, E85 ethanol $3.23,

propane $3.07, and natural gas $2.17

(gallon of gas equivalent).

Cost comparisons are instructive

but it’s also important to look at the

big picture since energy density of

each fuel varies and this can influence

miles-per-gallon, and thus cost per mile

driven. Typical fuel economy will some-

what decrease when running on natural

gas and propane and be substantially

lower with E85 ethanol (85 percent eth-

anol/15 percent gasoline). B20 biodiesel

(20 percent biodiesel/80 percent petro-

diesel) offers no noticeable difference

in fuel economy.

One of the most serious challenges

to widespread alternative fuel use is

a lack of infrastructure to widely dis-

tribute these alternative fuels. Today,

DOE’s Alternative Fuel Data Center

indicates there are about 15,000 public

stations dispensing various alternative

fuels nationwide, a number that’s far

eclipsed by the 120,000 gasoline sta-

tions that conveniently dispense con-

ventional fuels today.

THE LINEUPNatural gas is the cleanest-burning fos-

sil fuel with about 90% used in the U.S.

being produced here and most of the

rest produced in Canada. Today, only

two compressed natural gas passenger

T


ALTERNATIVEFUELScars are sold by automakers in the U.S.

Honda’s Civic Natural Gas, which this

automaker has assembly line produced

since 1998, runs exclusively on com-

pressed natural gas (CNG) and has a

driving range of just over 200 miles per

tank. The new 2015 Chevrolet Impala

Bi-Fuel is capable of seamlessly run-

ning on CNG or gasoline. Ford, GM, and

Ram Truck also offer pickups and vans

that run on CNG and several aftermarket

companies convert specific gasoline or

diesel vehicles to run on CNG as well.

Since virtually every home and busi-

ness has natural gas service, a refuel-

ing infrastructure of sorts is already in

place. By using an appliance like BRC

Fuel Maker’s Phill, a natural gas vehicle

can be refueled at home or at the work-

place. Unlike the fast-fill CNG dispens-

ers found at stations that can refuel

a vehicle in about five minutes, these

slow-fill devices refuel a vehicle over-

night, just like recharging an electric

vehicle at home.

CNG is stored on board vehicles in

cylindrical gaseous storage vessels at

3,000 to 3,600 psi. Liquefied natural gas

(LNG) used in heavy-duty commercial

trucks is stored in cryogenic tanks at

-260 F. Natural gas vehicles emit less

carbon monoxide, non-methane organic

gases, and oxides of nitrogen emissions,

with fewer greenhouse gases and only

tiny amounts of particulate matter.

Propane autogas, more commonly

known as propane or liquefied petroleum

gas/LPG, is the third most popular trans-

portation fuel in many countries, after

gasoline and diesel. There are nearly

150,000 vehicles such as police cars,

taxis, and school buses operating on

propane in the U.S., with most of these

conversions. Propane autogas is even

more popular than CNG in Europe with

virtually every automotive brand offering

propane autogas capability, either from

the factory or as aftermarket conver-

sions. There are also nearly 30,000 pro-

pane autogas stations in Europe, driven

by this fuel’s lower fuel cost.

Domestic availability of propane

is better than other alternative fuels.

While traditional fueling opportunities

at stations are relatively limited, there

are many thousands of fueling points

available that dispense propane, most of

them just large propane cylinders with

a hose and fittings that are mainly used

to refill tanks for BBQ grilles and recre-

ational vehicles.

Propane autogas is different from

natural gas. Although both are hydrocar-

bon fuels, LPG is comprised primarily of

propane and butane while CNG and LNG

are mostly methane. Virtually all LPG

used in U.S. is produced domestically.

Like CNG, this alternative fuel produces

less nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide,

unburned hydrocarbons, and particulate

emissions than traditional motor fuels,


ALTERNATIVEFUELS

with CO2 emissions decreased some 20

percent compared to gasoline.

Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is an example

of what happens when alternative fuel

vehicle production far outpaces the dis-

tribution infrastructure. For years, the

federal government has provided incen-

tives for automakers to produce flexible-

fuel vehicles capable of running seam-

lessly on E85 ethanol or gasoline from

the same tank. However, without com-

panion incentives for developing a fuel-

ing infrastructure, we now have some 90

ethanol-capable vehicle models totaling

16 million vehicles on American roads

but only 3,250 E85 retail stations provid-

ing this fuel, mostly in the mid-western

U.S. The result is that the vast majority of

these FFVs drive exclusively on gasoline.

Ethanol is typically produced from

corn although other grains like wheat

and barley can be used. The challenge

is that ethanol production competes

with food for these feedstocks and thus

is quite controversial. This could be

solved by cellulosic ethanol produced

from waste agricultural products and

non-food feedstock that use less energy

to grow. Cellulosic ethanol is being, or

soon will be, produced on a commercial

scale at four locations in the U.S. Critics

say it takes more energy to produce etha-

nol than the energy it saves, although

Argonne National Laboratory points out

that if 100 BTUs of energy are used to

plant corn, harvest the crop, and trans-

port it, 138 BTUs of energy are available

in the fuel ethanol...a net 38 percent

increase in energy availability.

E85 reduces oxides of nitrogen, carbon

monoxide, and carbon dioxide emissions.

Its higher hydrocarbon emissions can be

mitigated by exhaust emission control

systems. Ethanol advocates point out

that CO2 emissions are offset by the CO2

absorbed by feedstock crops as they grow.

Biodiesel is a cleaner-burning fuel

made from domestically renewable

feedstocks such as soybeans, peanuts,

cottonseed, sunflower seeds, rapeseed,

jatropha, and canola. It also can be made

from vegetable oils such as frying oil and

waste animal fats.

An increasingly interesting potential

for biodiesel production comes from

algaculture. Algae grows naturally all

over the world with over 100,000 dif-

ferent species, many that can be con-

verted into biodiesel and other biofuels.

Algaculture can use land unsuitable for

growing conventional crops, including

arid land and areas with excessively

saline soil and groundwater. It can also

use seaweed abundant in the world’s

oceans as well as industrial and munici-

pal wastewater. Importantly, algae can

produce up to 300 times more oil per

acre than conventional crops.

Most manufacturers’ warranties have

limited their vehicle’s use to B5 (5% bio-

diesel/95% petrodiesel) or B20. Diesel

powered Ford, Chevrolet, GMC, and Ram

light trucks are warranted for B20 as is

the Chevrolet Cruze Diesel, with more

B20 approvals in the wings. Vehicles can

run quite well on pure B100 biodiesel as

shown by a thriving homebuilt biodiesel

conversion community.

Combustion of biodiesel results in

reduced unburned hydrocarbons, carbon

monoxide, and particulate matter, with

a negligible increase in nitrogen oxide

emissions. Feedstocks absorb CO2 during

growth to make this biofuel essentially

carbon-neutral. There is no sulfur in

biodiesel so it works well with catalysts,

particulate traps, exhaust gas recircu-

lation, and other systems designed to

reduce diesel emissions.

We now have 90 ethanol-capable models totaling 16 million vehicles on American roads but only 3,250 E85 retail fueling stations.

Chevy’s 2015 Impala Bi-Fuel is the only factory-produced sedan in the U.S. that can run on CNG and gasoline.

HYDROGENHIGHWAYany believe hydrogen to

have the greatest potential

of all alternative fuels, not

only for vehicles but as a primary energy

source for all aspects of life. Used in fuel

cells to electrochemically create electrici-

ty for powering a vehicle’s electric motors,

hydrogen produces no emissions other

than water vapor and heat. There are no

CO2 or other greenhouse gases.

While hydrogen is largely extracted

from methane today, there are bigger

things on the horizon. Hydrogen is a vir-

tually unlimited resource when electro-

lyzing water using solar- or wind-gener-

ated electricity, a process that splits H2O

(water) into hydrogen (H) and oxygen

(O) molecules. Water covers much of the

Earth’s surface and is the most abundant

compound on the planet.

Many automakers have hydrogen vehi-

cle development programs underway and

some, like GM and Honda, are working

cooperatively to develop next-generation

fuel cell systems and hydrogen storage.

In recent years, Honda has been leasing

its FCX Clarity fuel cell sedan to limited

numbers of consumers in California and

Hyundai has recently followed suit with

its Tucson Fuel Cell crossover vehicle,

also available to limited numbers of

consumers in California where hydrogen

refueling is more readily available. Both

Honda and Toyota have announced plans

to introduce next-generation production

fuel cell vehicles for consumers in 2015.

As with any game-changing technol-

ogy, hydrogen vehicles come with their

challenges. Hydrogen vehicles are pres-

ently quite costly to produce, although

their cost to consumers who lease them

will surely be subsidized by manu-

facturers until this field matures. The

production of ‘green’ hydrogen through

electrolysis and other means is also pres-

ently limited and costly, plus the nation’s

hydrogen refueling infrastructure is

extremely sparse, although growing.

The hydrogen vehicle field contin-

ues to evolve. A new study by Sandia

National Laboratory focused on 70 gas

stations in California – the state with

the largest number of existing hydrogen

stations –to determine if any could add

hydrogen fueling based on requirements

of the 2011 NFPA 2 hydrogen technolo-

gies code. The conclusion is that 14 of

the 70 stations explored could readily

accept hydrogen fuel, with an additional

17 potentially able to integrate hydrogen

with property expansions. In this light,

expanding the network of hydrogen sta-

tions may be more straightforward than

previously thought.

Even amid these challenges, with

major commitments from automakers

like Honda, Toyota, GM, and others in

Europe and Asia, hydrogen vehicles are a

very real and exciting possibility for the

road ahead. - Ron Cogan

M



A steady stream of advanced powertrains, new fuel-efficient systems like stop/start, and more alternative

fuels have helped raise fuel economy to new heights in recent years, but the latest breakthrough in energy-

efficient cars may surprise you: safety technology.

You got it. Safety equals green. New safety systems are fuel economy game-changers, because fewer crashes

mean less congestion, less fuel use, and fewer carbon emissions.

Recently in a white paper on autonomous vehicles, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

(NHTSA) noted that “Vehicle control systems that automatically accelerate and brake with the flow of traffic

can conserve fuel more efficiently than the average driver. By eliminating a large number of vehicle crashes,

highly effective crash avoidance technologies can reduce fuel consumption by also eliminating the traffic con-

gestion that crashes cause every day on our roads.”

NHTSA is referring to a new generation of energy-saving, life-saving technologies on our roads – and often

these systems are money-saving and time-saving, too.

Real-time navigation in cars helps drivers keep their eyes on the road while diverting them around traffic. The

Texas Transportation Institute estimates that, in 2011, congestion in 498 metropolitan areas caused Americans

to travel 5.5 billion hours more and buy an extra 2.9 billion gallons of fuel, for a congestion cost of $121 billion.

Adaptive cruise control is a new driver assist that automatically keeps a safe distance from the car ahead, keep-

ing traffic running smoothly. A report by MIT estimates that a 20 percent reduction in accelerations and decelera-

tions should lead to a 5 percent reduction in fuel consumption and carbon emissions.

The Federal Highway Administration estimates that 25 percent of congestion is attributable to traffic incidents,

around half of which are crashes. Sophisticated automatic braking technology helps drivers avoid crashes, and fewer

fender benders improve fuel economy since drivers spend less time idling in traffic.

In the future, autonomous cars may enhance road safety while giving us a leg up on fuel

efficiency. After analyzing government data, Morgan Stanley observed, “To be conservative,

we assume an autonomous car can be 30 percent more efficient than an equivalent non-

autonomous car. Empirical tests have demonstrated that level of fuel savings from cruise

control use/smooth driving styles alone. If we were to reduce the nation’s $535 billion

gasoline bill by 30 percent that would save us $158 billion.”

With all these benefits, clearly the traditional definition of ‘fuel economy’ is restrictive

and counter-productive. We can achieve much more with a broader view. Here’s how.

The federal government established a national fuel economy/greenhouse gas program with the ambitious goal

to nearly double fuel economy by 2025. Our compliance is based on the fuel efficiency of what we sell, not what

we offer for sale. While consumers have more choices than ever in energy-efficient automobiles, if they don’t buy

them in large volumes, we fall short. So we will need every technology available to make this steep climb.

We can still squeeze more fuel savings from safety and congestion-mitigation technologies, but these sys-

tems reduce fuel use in ways not apparent in government mileage tests so the government doesn’t consider

them towards meeting federal standards.

The federal government should recognize the real-world fuel economy improvements from these safety technologies.

In fact, the government can encourage their deployment by allowing automakers to count the demonstrated fuel econ-

omy benefits of these safety technologies towards meeting their compliance with the federal fuel economy program.

While automakers don’t advocate speeding, we are urging regulators to put the pedal to the metal on this

priority. More rapid adoption of these new technologies will help keep drivers safer, avoid traffic congestion,

save time, save money, and reduce fuel use.

— Mitch Bainwol is president and CEO of the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, www.autoalliance.org

VOICES :: By Mitch Bainwol

>A HUGE BREAKTHROUGH IN FUEL ECONOMY

In the future, autonomous cars may enhance road safety while giving us a leg up on fuel efficiency.

DRIVING

>A HUGE BREAKTHROUGH IN FUEL ECONOMY

SPONSORED CONTENT

IT IS A CERTAINTY THAT ELECTRIC DRIVE will play an important part in our driving future.

Whether powered solely by batteries or electricity generated by an on-board hydrogen

fuel cell, vehicle electrification delivers high efficiency and zero localized emissions while

presenting an ultra-low carbon strategy for the road ahead.

Honda has a long history with vehicle electrification, from its hydrogen fuel cell electric

vehicle prototype in 1999 and Insight gasoline-electric hybrid production model introduced

that same year, to the recently-unveiled Honda FCEV Concept hydrogen fuel cell electric

vehicle. In between there have been many electrified Honda products including battery

electric, hybrid, and plug-in hybrid models, two generations of FCX limited production

hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles, and the FCX Clarity. Now, Honda is poised to introduce

its most advanced third generation fuel cell electric vehicle in 2015. MORE >>

DRIVINGT H E H Y D R O G E N F U T U R E

HONDA’S NEXT-GENERATION FUEL CELL ELECTRIC VEHICLE IS COMING IN 2015

Honda FCEV Concept

SPONSORED CONTENT

Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles present an ideal answer

to the need for sustainable mobility. They offer the efficiency

and emissions benefits of battery electric vehicles with some

important differences. In fuel cell vehicles, the electric motor is

powered by a fuel cell where on board hydrogen meets up with

oxygen to create electricity, without combustion or any emissions

other than water vapor. Hydrogen is the most abundant element

in the universe and can be created with many different energy

sources including renewables like solar, wind, and hydroelectric.

The early developmental vehicles that marked this field’s long

trajectory have made way to production fuel cell electric vehicles

like Honda’s FCX Clarity. Offered to retail consumers in 2008, this

remarkable fuel cell sedan featured crisp acceleration, excellent

handling, and an accommodating four-passenger cabin.

Driving range is a real advantage with hydrogen fuel cell

electric vehicles. The FCX Clarity could be driven 240 miles

between fill-ups, with refueling at a hydrogen station taking about

five minutes. The result? Anxiety-free zero-emission driving.

In other words, even though this sedan ran on hydrogen,

it provided a satisfying, fun-to-drive, and familiar driving

experience in every respect.

STAIRSTEPS TO THE FUTURE

Several decades of fuel cell research and development at Honda

have led to milestone achievements enabling this seamless

operation on hydrogen. Honda’s first-generation FCX fuel cell

hatchback introduced in 2002 gained extensive real-world

testing with government fleets and select individuals, paving the

way for the consumer friendly FCX Clarity. The next-generation

Honda fuel cell vehicle coming in 2015 benefits from the Clarity’s

real-world experience and that of the earlier FCX.

Along the way, Honda refined its fuel cell technology to operate

in hot and sub-freezing temperature extremes and damp coastal

environments. Additional breakthroughs were achieved in fuel

cell stack size, efficiency, and packaging, plus fuel cell vehicle

assembly line production. The FCX Clarity benefited from these

advancements, proving that hydrogen fuel cell technology could

be successfully integrated into a sedan in ways invisible to a driver.

In contrast to the incremental development curve of electric

car batteries, the pathway to hydrogen fuel cells is more a series

of ‘stairsteps’ in technology leaps. These leaps include Honda’s

amazing 33 percent reduction in fuel cell stack size and 60 percent

improvement in power density compared to the FCX Clarity that now

make it possible to package and integrate hydrogen fuel cell technology

in the engine bay of a sedan, with assembly line speed and precision as

is done today at Honda automobile production plants around the world.

These leaps will continue and are being supported with development

programs like Honda’s recently announced joint research work with

General Motors, which aims at fuel cell component cost reductions and

further improvements at the materials science level.

Honda is leading the way toward sustainable mobility with its coming

next-generation fuel cell electric vehicle and continuing electric

drivetrain development. As government, industry, stakeholders, and

consumers step up to drive the adoption of hydrogen fuel cell electric

vehicles and be pioneers in this evolving field, we’ll reach the goal of

low carbon and sustainable transportation sooner than imagined.

Honda FCX Clarity

For more information on Honda’s hydrogen fuel cell activities see world.honda.com/FuelCell

FUEL CELL HISTORY AT HONDA

Honda debuts world’s first Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicle prototype – Honda FCX-V1

Honda FCX becomes first Fuel Cell vehicle certified by U.S. government for commercial use

Honda increases FCX range to an EPA estimated 210 miles

Honda delivers FCX Clarity to first retail customer

Honda plans to bring to market an all-new Fuel Cell vehicle

Research on Fuel Cell powered vehicles begins at Honda R&D

Honda delivers FCX to world’s first individual Fuel

Cell customer

Honda and GM collaboration advances Fuel Cell technologies

toward the future

Honda debuts new Fuel Cell Concept at L.A. Auto Show

Honda debuts all-new FCX Clarity sedan, which delivers performance, driving range,

and comfort on par with a four-cylinder Accord Sedan

1999

2002

2006

2008

2015

1986

2005

2013thru

2020

2013

2007


VOICES :: By Dr. Alan Lloyd

>ELECTRIC DRIVE CAN GET US THEREIt is an exciting time to be involved with the auto industry, or to be in the market for a new car. The auto

industry has responded splendidly to the challenge of new emission, fuel economy, and safety standards. The

public is offered a greater than ever selection of vehicles with different powertrains, lightweight materials,

hybrids, and electric drive vehicles across many platforms. We see increasing numbers of clean diesel vehicles

and natural gas is making a resurgence, especially in the heavy-duty sector.

The positive response by the auto industry to the ever-tightening pollutant emission and fuel economy

standards includes tactics such as the use of aluminum in the Ford F-150 and the increased use of carbon

fiber by BMW, among many innovations introduced across many models and drivetrains. These evolutionary

changes are a major tribute to the automobile engineers who are wringing out the most they can in efficiency

and reduced emissions from gasoline and diesel engines. I view this evolutionary change as necessary, but not

sufficient to meet our greenhouse gas goals by 2050.

New car ownership is currently down in Europe and is leveling off in the U.S.

For global automotive manufacturers, however, this trend is offset by the dramatic

growth in places like China and India. The potential for dramatic growth in the

developing world is clearly evident: In the U.S., there are about 500 cars per thousand

people, compared to about 60 and 20 in China and India, respectively.

How can these trends be reconciled with the environmental and health concerns

due to climate change and adverse air quality in the developing world? The evidence

for climate change accumulates by the day. Hazardous air quality in many major cities in China has drawn

global attention, providing a visual reminder of how far the developed world has come and how much envi-

ronmental protection needs to be accelerated in the developing world. Damaging air pollution is increasingly

seen as a regional and even worldwide challenge. Dramatic economic growth in many developing countries is

generating pollution that knows no boundaries. Air pollution from China, for example, fumigates Korea and

Japan and is even transported across the Pacific to impact air quality in California and other Western states.

It will take a revolutionary change to provide personal mobility without unacceptable energy and envi-

ronmental consequences. As a recent National Academy of Sciences (NAS) document states, it is likely that

a major shift to electric drive vehicles would be required in the next 20 to 30 years. Electric drive vehicles,

coupled with renewable energy, can achieve essentially zero carbon and conventional pollutant emissions.

The NAS report also predicted that the costs of both battery and fuel-cell electric vehicles would be less than

advanced conventional vehicles in the 2035-2040 timeframe.

This transition will not occur overnight and we will be driving advanced conventional vehicles for many

years to come. In a study for the International Council on Clean Transportation, Dr. David Greene calculated

that the transition could take 10 to 15 years, requiring sustained investment in infrastructure and incentives

in order to achieve sustained penetration. While this investment is not inexpensive, it is projected that the

benefits of this investment will be 10 times greater than the costs.

I have little doubt that if we are serious about our energy, environmental, and greenhouse gas goals the revolu-

tion in technology will occur. All the major automobile companies seem to recognize this in their technology road-

map, which includes advanced conventional vehicles, plug-in hybrid vehicles, battery and fuel cell electric vehicles.

In conclusion, the next 25 years promise to be equally as challenging and exciting as the last 25 years. I

have little doubt that the automobile engineers are up to the task ahead, but whether we have the political

fortitude to stay the course to achieve the necessary air pollution and GHG reductions is far less certain.

— Dr. Alan Lloyd is President Emeritus of the nonprofit International Council on Clean Transportation, www.

theicct.org. He formerly served as Secretary of CalEPA and Chairman of the California Air Resources Board.

The next 25 years promise to be equally as challenging and exciting as the last 25 years.

Finalists Announced for 2015 Award Program

B Y G R E E N C A R E D I T O R S

he need for increasingly efficient and more environmentally positive

vehicles is an imperative. Automakers have stepped up to meet the chal-

lenge in a big way, transcending early efforts that focused primarily

on a few select hybrid models and smaller vehicles to a more inclusive approach

that now includes hybrids, electric vehicles, clean diesel, high efficiency gasoline,

and alternative fuel models in wide-ranging vehicle classes. Their use of innova-

tive ‘green’ technologies and efficiency measures is making a real difference in

reducing CO2 and tailpipe emissions and reducing environmental impact. These

achievements deserve to be recognized.

Green Car Journal has been honoring vehicles and technologies that raise the

bar in more environmentally positive mobility for a decade now, beginning with

the very first Green Car of the Year® award presented at the L.A. Auto Show in

late 2005. This program has now expanded to five awards at three North American

auto shows – the L.A. Auto Show in California, the San Antonio Auto & Truck Show

in Texas, and the Washington Auto Show in DC – illustrating just how far this

field has come and how important ‘green’ vehicles are to the automotive market.

Here, then, are the finalists for Green Car Journal’s five high-profile awards for

the 2015 model year.

TGreen Car Journal has been honoring vehicles

and technologies that raise the bar in more

environmentally positive mobility

for a decade now.



2015 GREEN CAR OF THE YEAR FINALISTS

Audi A3 TDIBMW i3

Chevrolet Impala Bi-FuelHonda FitVW Golf

*WINNER ANNOUNCED NOVEMBER 20 AT THE LOS ANGELES AUTO SHOW

2015 GREEN TRUCK OF THE YEAR FINALISTS

Chevrolet ColoradoFord F-150

GMC CanyonRam 1500 EcoDiesel

Ram 1500 HFE

*WINNER ANNOUNCED NOVEMBER 6 AT THE SAN ANTONIO AUTO & TRUCK SHOW

2015 GREEN CAR TECHNOLOGY AWARD FINALISTS

BMW i8 Plug-In Hybrid PowertrainBMW i3 REx Range Extender

Chevrolet CNG Bi-Fuel PowertrainFord F-150 Aluminum BodyFord 2.7-liter EcoBoost V-6

Honda 1.5-liter Earth Dreams EngineKia Soul Electric Powertrain

Tesla Dual Motor AWDVolvo Drive-E Powertrain

VW e-Golf Electric Powertrain

2015 GREEN SUV OF THE YEAR FINALISTS

Honda CR-VHyundai Tucson Fuel Cell

Jeep Grand Cherokee EcoDieselLexus NX 300h

Mazda CX-5

2015 LUXURY GREEN CAR OF THE YEAR FINALISTS

Audi A8 TDIBMW i8

Cadillac ELRPorsche Panamera S E-Hybrid

Tesla Model S

*WINNERS ANNOUNCED JANUARY 22 AT THE WASHINGTON AUTO SHOW


he Accord lineup that won

Green Car Journal’s 2014

Green Car of the Year® award

is sleek, stylish, and sophisticated in an

unassuming way. It’s also packed with

technology and comes with an array of

efficient powertrain choices including

high mpg gasoline, hybrid, and plug-in

hybrid variants, starting out at a very

approachable MSRP just over $22,000

with the hybrid a reasonable $29,900.

The fully-loaded $36,600 Accord Hybrid

Touring is the one we tapped for a year-

long test to experience daily life with

Honda’s 50 mpg sedan.

Unique design features distinguish the

Accord Hybrid from the already-pleas-

ingly aggressive style of the standard,

new-for-2014 Accord. These include LED

daytime running lights and blue-accents

on front light lenses, grille, and rear LED

tail lamps, plus a decklid spoiler and

unique wheels. Our tester is further dis-

tinguished with a dealer-installed Honda

aero package with front, rear, and aide

underbody spoilers.

Power is supplied by Honda’s Two-

Motor Hybrid Intelligent Multi-Mode

Drive (i-MMD) system, a mouthful-of-a-

name that earns its ‘intelligent’ designa-

T

LONG-TERM TEST>

2014 HONDAACCORD HYBRID

DRIVING 10,000 MILES IN OUR 2014 GREEN CAR OF THE YEARPhotography by Ian BillingsB Y R O N C O G A N


tion. The 196 horsepower hybrid system

achieves optimum efficiency through

intelligent and seamless transitions

between all-electric drive, internal com-

bustion drive, and hybrid drive depend-

ing on driving circumstances.

The hybrid sedan is responsive and

confident on the road with ample

power at the ready, delivered through a

capable electric continuously variable

transmission (E-CVT). Eco mode can

be selected to tone down performance

a bit to enhance fuel efficiency. The

Accord Hybrid’s regenerative braking

system feeds electricity back to the car’s

lithium-ion batteries immediately upon

lifting off the accelerator, rather than

starting when braking is applied.

All this brings a very impressive 50

mpg city fuel economy rating and 45 mpg

on the highway. With the Accord’s 12.2

gallon fuel tank, filling up always shows

a whopping miles-to-empty read of well

over 600 miles. This considerable driv-

ing range has come in handy many times

during extended road trips, including a

trek from California’s Central Coast to

San Diego and back on a single tank.

These drives are often made with the

Accord’s adaptive cruise control engaged,

a feature that automatically keeps a safe

driving distance from the car ahead. It

works seamlessly in adapting to traf-

fic speed and flow and is actually quite

amazing. Drives are smooth and comfort-

able both on the open road and in traffic.

Time spent in the Accord Hybrid

Touring’s accommodating cabin comes

with an immersion of advanced electron-

ics complemented by an 8-inch multi-

information display and an audio touch

screen compatible with smart phone

features. Its electronics user interface

is easy to use and driver assistive tech-

nologies invaluable, including Forward

Collision Warning, Lane Departure

Warning, and rear view camera with

LaneWatch blind spot display.

The bottom line: Great styling, a bevy

of advanced electronics, and impressive

efficiency – all wrapped in an aggres-

sively handsome design –make Honda’s

award-winning Accord Hybrid truly

hard to beat.


Our Favorite ‘Green’ Concepts Over The YearsB Y G R E E N C A R J O U R N A L E D I T O R S

he inspiring concept vehicles introduced at auto shows are windows to our

driving future. Some will never make it beyond their wild concept stage,

while others will lead directly to production models. All offer hints of future

styling direction or innovative on-board electronics and propulsion. We’ve appreciated

many concepts over the past 25 years and thought we’d share some of our favorites.

T

IMAGININGTHE ROAD AHEAD

Peter Horbury, head designer at Volvo and now VP of design at Volvo parent

Geely, designed the transformational Volvo Environmental Concept Car (ECC) we test

drove in 1992.

Volvo’s ECC championed hybrid power as an answer to California’s Zero Emission Vehicle mandate while sharing a revolutionary design

language that would influence future Volvo models.

Honda’s hydrogen-powered FCX concept presents an ideal example of how a concept car can lead directly to a limited production car with few changes. The FCX also previewed Honda’s design language in coming years.


Audi’s low-slung, carbon fiber e-tron Spyder is powered by a bi-turbo, 3.0-liter V-6 TDI at the rear and a pair of front-mounted electric

motors up front.

The gull-winged Ford Reflex concept showcased diesel-electric hybrid power up front and an

additional electric motor at the rear, with early integration of advanced lithium-ion batteries.

GM’s milestone Impact electric car prototype debuted at the 1990 L.A. Auto Show, leading the way to the modern

electric car age and the production EV1.

The swoopy Renault DeZir offered super car looks and efficient electric operation, with a 150 hp electric motor mounted mid-ship and a KERS kinetic energy recovery system for quick launches.

Cadillac’s Urban Luxury Concept combines aggressive crossover styling with a 1.0-liter engine and electric motor for efficiently driving crowded urban environments.

The ECC’s innovative HSG powerplant used a high-speed turbine generator to create electricity for driving an electric motor, a predictor of future hybrid power back in 1993.

Driving a concept car is a rare experience, but one we enjoyed between auto show appearances in Audi’s aggressively-styled diesel-electric e-tron Spyder.


Darth Vader meets crossover in the Nissan Mixim, a gull-winged concept conceived to

appeal to the computer generation with electric power and controls that mimic a game controller.

We could imagine a successor to the ubiquitous VW Microbus with VW’s Bulli concept, which

brings waves of nostalgia along with lithium-ion electric power and a purported 185 mile range.

The Volt concept car that led to the production Chevrolet Volt shared new GM design language and hot rod influence with its

top-chop style roofline.

Saab makes fighter jets as well as automobiles, something clearly illustrated by the automaker’s sensuous Aero X concept. Bioethanol powered its 400 horsepower, 2.8-liter V-6.While whimsical, the Ford Airstream concept

forwarded serious thought that a vehicle could be powered by a hybrid powertrain with lithium-ion batteries and an on-board fuel cell generator.

Hyundai showed how wickedly cool a crossover could be with its Nuvis concept, which incorporated gull wing doors and a sharp body design with hybrid power.

Collaboratively designed by Italdesign-Giugiaro and Toyota, the Alessandro Volta supercar concept integrated a 3.3-liter V-6 to create electricity for charging batteries and powering front and rear motors.

AUTOALLIANCE.ORGYOUR SOURCE FOR AUTO INFORMATION.

100% ELECTRIC NISSAN LEAF®

THE MOST PROVEN EV ON THE PLANETWith over 135,000 owners and 1 billion gas-free miles driven, the Nissan LEAF is the best-selling electric car in the world. Owners love LEAF’s instant acceleration, seating for five, and the convenience of never having to stop for gas again. So now, more than ever, the question is no longer why electric. It’s why gas?

Nissan. Innovation that Excites.TM NissanUSA.com/LEAF

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