GREEN BEAN CASSEROLE AND MIDWESTERN IDENTITYA REGIONAL FOODW AYS AESTHETIC AND ETHOS

Mass-produced factory-processed commercial foods have been a significant part ofAmerican food culture since industrialization allowed their development in the I800sMany of these foods have heen incorporated into family community and nationaltraditions for example ramen noodles Rice Krispies treats gelatin salads popcorn andCracker Jacks candy canes at Christmas and marshmallow bunnies at Easter2 Adoptionof such foods is frequently interpreted as resulting from skillful marketing capitalisthegemony class envy ignorance or poor taste Regardless of the motivations hehindtheir initial acceptance however such foods can hecome surprisingly meaningful carriersof idcntity and memory An exploration of these food traditions raises questions about thenature of food and identity Why do we cat what we eat4 flow do some foods take onspecial mean ings for particular cultures indi viduals or meals l~urthermore some of thesecommercial foods also scem to represent regional identities lI1d appear to reflect anattachment to place for example Spam in Hawaii Cincinnati chili California or Chicagopina and hot dogs and hamburgers throughout the nation In some cases the foodoriginated in a place and spread nationally from there in others the food wascOlllmercially distributed but became localiled taking on local ingredients forms usesor meaningss What docs it then say about a region to have such foods as a significant partof its identity

Much contemporary exploration of regional foods focuses on the presence oftcrroir---the French concept of the taste of the soil also translated as taste ofplace-emoodied through food For example the crops grown the animals raised in aparticular locale have a distinctive flavor and quality due to the physical characteristicsof that place-the type of soil the quantity of rainfall the types of flora and fauna andso on The food then literally represents place and is intrinsically attached to place as anobjective reality Commercial mass-produced and mass-distrihuted foods defy suchgcographic houndarics and blur the distinctions between regions Do regions that embracethose foods call into question their own attachment to place

Green bean casserole is an example of such a food Officially a baked mixture ofgrcen beans cream of mushroom soup and canned fried onions or some substitute thatadds crunch to the dish6 it was invented in 1955 hy the Campbell Soup Company Sincethen it has been marketed nationally with the recipe printed on the labels of its cannedingredients the recipe has been reproduced in womens magazines and today on theInternet The dish is the epitome or a mass-produced processed cOlllmercial rood yet itseeills [0 have become a common even expected part of family meals communitypollucks and holiday dinners throughout the nation

The dish seems to hold a special place in food ways of the Midwest Judging frominformal ethnographic research I have conducted in northwest Ohio an area represental ivcof the larger region green bean casserole is ubiquitous there showing up in public andprivate in everyday as well as celebratory meals crossing cthnic religious andsocioeconomic differences Every November local supermarkets display cans of friedonions mushroom soul and green beans in a sort of holiday asselllhiage foreshadowingthe Thanksgiving meal and suggesting that this dish is part of the proper national mealThe typical regional alt itude is expressed in the tagline with which one middlemiddotltlgedwoman ended her resl0nse to a query about her Thanksgiving dinner menu Ami ofcourse green bean casserole This area of the Midwest seems to have embraced the dishwholeheartedly and enthusiastically Considering the strong ongoing agricultural heritageof the area and its emphasis on family values why is this so And how does a recipe thati Ilvol ves little more cui inary ski II than open ing cans purchased from any food relai lermake sense in the conlext of the down-home Mom-and-apple-pie image of midwestlTncooking

As anyone who hlS grown up in the Midwest knows the COnll1l0n answer to theequestions in the midwestelll context would be a humorous and self-deprecating commenton the lack of tastc and culinary refinement stereotypical of the region 1I0wever suchfoods have a logic spccific to the culture using them and they relied an aesthetic ltlI1dethos essential to that cultures foodways Foodways aesthetic refers to the system forevaluating the quality the pleasingness (or tastiness) of a food and the activitiessurrounding the preparation and consumption of that food while fomlways ethos relcrsto the Jlloral and social values attached to food and eating~ The term foodways ratherthan food emphasies that food is more than just stuff we eat Borrowing fromfolklorist Don Yoders ddinition of foodways as the total cookery complex includingattitudes taboos and Jlleal systems-the whole range of cookery and food habits ill asociety (Yoder 1972325) I use the concept to refer to the network of activitieshabits and conceptual ilations surrounding food and cating (Long 199913) As a conccptfoodways emphasizes the systemic nature of food activities as well as the ways in wllidlmemories and meanings get attached to food onentimcs through seemingly trivialltlctivitiesltJ Poodways also implies that identily is expressed through food that thechoices we make COllCcming food activities are performances negotiating our pasts withour present identities and contexts Although some eating occasions and foods arcintentional articulations of identity many are not Ne choose foods out of hungercuriosity social etiquellc hcalth concerns and for many other reasons Idcntity sccpsthrough anyway 10 Grcn bean casserole in the llidwest seems to he in Illany eontexls anunintentional perfomnncc of identity but at other times a very purposeful expression oflocal identity If we extcnd lierre Bourdieu s observation that the slyle of a meal peopleo ITer is a good indication of the imagc they wish to give or avoid giving to others (quotedin Benlley 2()()2 179) to particular foods then what exactly is the image intended byserving and eating green bean casserole And since the Midwest tends to bc a regiundefined by a historical cOllllection to the land does that identity have any conncctioll to

region or place

I first realizcd that green bean casserole holds a special place in midwestern foodwayswhen I noticed that it frequently showed up in menus of family dinners particularlyThanksgiving meals that I collected from my studcnts at a state university in northwesternOhio an area that seems to typify midwestern physical and cultural landscapes Most ofthese students were middle-class to lower-middle-class with a number coming from blue-collar backgrounds and the first in their families to enter college Farming was also in theheritage and experiences of many of them I I Coming from a different regional heritage andfrom a family that cmphasized homegrown and homemade foods I was struck thatsomething so commercial so casy to make and so everyday was a significant part ofholiday meals aIllI family traditions Initially I wondered if it represented a generation thatis characterized by a family life disrupted by extracurricular activities and careerobligations with food being eaten on the go and valued for efficiency low pricehomogeneity and quantity over quality

I then began informally surveying people from the local community asking themwhether or not green bean casserole was a part of their own family traditions and askingtheir own responsc to the dish12 I found that it was a well-known favorite not only atmany evcryday family meals but also at potlucks and holiday meals includingThanksgiving dinner In many cases it seemed to bc the very characteristics that could beconsidered as diminishing its culinary and cultural value that were being praised in itsfavor it was inexpensive and quick to make it always turned out as expected and it waseasy to transport It was a dependable dish onc that cooks could rely upon and thatconsumers almost always liked

Personal reactions to the casserole varicd In many families it was the favorite dish[he one item that was never turncd into leftovers In some cases it was a favorite of anindividual family member For example during one interchange [had with local residentsa wire discovered that her husband liked green bean casserole After listening to herdescribc her mothers rccipe he askcd Why dont we have that I like it At churchl1otlucks its always the first thing I geL She rcsponded in surprise Really I gucsswell have it at Thanksgiving thcn

Those who liked the dish pointed to its aesthetic qualities They liked the saltiness ofthe canned soup and the crunchiness of the onions Thick and fattening it reminded themof home Moms cooking and comforting familiar tastes

Not everyone I interviewed appreciated grecn bean casserole and reasons rangedfrom pcrsonal aesthetics allll tasle to hcalth concerns as seen in some of theserepresentative responses

We always have grcen hcansmiddotmiddot-lresh green heans But green hean casserole) My mother used to it justdocsnt sccm hcatthymiddot-middotmiddotallthe salt in the canned stull [Fortyish woman midwestern born and hredl

lies always halcd that canned soup [he inteljccted glop so Inever made it but Irememher it in mylamily IThinyish woman midwestern hom and bred who usually purchases organic loodsl

Grecn bean casserole) Yuck It always looked gross kind of congealed with things sticking oul 01 itIFiftymiddotyear-old man midwcstern born and bred I

Evcn ifthcy did not catthc food thcmsclves thcsc individuals rccognicd it as a partof their local culinary universe Grecn bean casserole was considercd a normal standardcomponent of both everyday and ritualmcals Many pcoplc were awarc of its COll1n](~rcialorigins but that did not deter its integration into family foodways In fact the dish wasonn mentioncd with affcctionate irony because of its commercial character Mostindividuals howcver had never thought about the dish and assumed it was just onc ofthose foods that as onc pcrson statcd had always bcen there They did not think of itas a tradition because they did not consciously and intentionally prepare and consume itas an expression of idcntity or heritage

Like evcry region thc IVlidwest is both a physical objective space and a culturalmindsetan imagined community (Anderson 1983) of shared values experiences and expressi veforms Ranging from Ohio in the cast westward and north to Minnesota and Wisconsinit also includes Michig~1l1 Indiana Illinois Iowa and Missouri It represents both tileHinterland a backwater of social conservatism and pragmatism and thc Heartland thephysical land center of Amcrica as well as the bastion of the nations family values alllipioneer spirit (Lce 2()()ilxvii-xx vi Fertig 20m) Although there is widc di vcrsity withinthe rcgion particularly in urban ccnters such as Cleveland Sl Louis Sl PanlMinneapolis and Chicago there tend to be overarching cultural pattcrtls that arerecognizable to both iuiders and outsiders Several university townsmiddot--Ann Arbortvlichigan Madison isconsin and Antioch and Obcrlin in Ohio--stand out as llles llfartistic crcativity sllcial progressivism and political libcralism-dcmonstrating hycontrast a recognizable midwcstern identity Frequently rcsicknts think of thcmsel vcs ltIS

representing a mythicd Middle America with straightforward aHmiddotmiddotAmerican culturaltraditions Ironically this also translatcs into a perccption of lacking a spccific regiollalidentity

lalyses of thc Ilgions foodways affirm that rcpresentation of Middlc AmericaGeographer Richard Pillsbury states thaI the cuisine of thc Midwcst is mostly a productof th~ lndustrial Revoltllion and that the regions consumption patterns clearly rdicciIhe conservative character of the population (1998220 221) Other scholars Inledescribed midwestern loxl as plain and straightforward hearty and wholesome food Ihatsticks to your I ibs to gel you through thc day (Long 200428 I sce also lrosterman 2005and Shotridgc 20()J l The public iuwge of midwesterll food is nleat and p0(ltoes hlIecooking basic ingrediellt and few spices or surprises Other than a few cthnic disks itis not scen as having 111ctual cuisine thc perccption being that people jnst cook an I (Il

traditjolwl wholcsollw fmerican food without thinking too rllllch about it

My research focuscd on the northwest corner of Ohio solidly within the physical andcultural boundaries of the Midwest Encompassing an area known as the Great BlackSwamp this subrcgion of the Midwcst is on the eastern edge of the Great Plains so isdefined by a flat landscape and what used to be swamps and oak forests before drainagesystcms wcrc dcvcloped and the trees were cut for lumbcr in the mid-180C)s The earliestsettlers tcndcd to bc Anglo-Americans and German immigrants looking for farmlandNcstled at the southern tip of Lake Eric the largest city Toledo was anticipated in themid-1800s to become onc of the great interior ports and conduits for trade highly urbanand industrial Tolcdo attracted immigrants to its factories whilc the rest of the arearemained agricultural Bowling Grccn where I teach is a city of approximatcly thirtythousand (with another twenty thousand students) home to a state university BowlingGrecn is surrounded by farmland and small towns Since the mid-1990s the farmland hasbeen rapidly turning into housing devclopmcnts and the area between Bowling Green andToledo is now full of bedroom communities for commuters

Northwesl Ohios population today is a mix of urban and rural It has wide variationin sociocconomic class and is largcly Europcan with pockcts of African Amcrican andllispanic scttlcment Although secmingly homogl~ncous the subrcgion has widc divcrsityin that tlwre are numerous European ancestrics reprcscntcd from dcscendcnts of carlyAnglo-American colonists to nincteenth-ccntury Gcrmans and Irish to later immigrantsfrom castern Europc

The culture tends to bc a pragmatic and practical one with a conservatism shaped bya trust in hands-on expcrienee Its pcople gencrally do not romanticize the past or natureThe past is to be learned from and nature is there to be tamcd and made useful~or atIcast not dangerous--to humans It also tends to be economically conservative fullysupportive ofcapitalisl1l and commcrcialization At the samc time it has always embracedtechnology concentrating on developing machinery to improvc work and livingconditions ( Outside of Toledo northwcst Ohio is agricultural but the agriculture is ahighly illdustrialized and commcrcialized onc Along with large corporate farms producingcorn and soybeans the area is homc to major processing plants and canning factoriesincluding such well-established national companics as Heinz and Campbell Soup

Within this cultural contcxt food is fuel and is often evaluated by its energy-givingqualities rather than by aesthetic ones related to relined tastes Heavy on carbohydratesand starches local food ways 1Iso rellcct the German and British settlemcnt heritagc asscen in dishes such as roast beer potatoes meatloaf sausages cream sauces blends ofsweet and sour flavors and a heavy use or sugar Even though most families raised gardenvegetables thcse tcnded to bc preserved by canning so that using canned goods albeitCOlllllllTcially processed ones is a part of traditional preparation methods Tastes havebeen trained to accotlllllodate thc prescrvcd and proccssed foods This is a culture thenthat accepts cOllllTlercial and proeesscd foods as the normal and right way for food tobe Consislcnt witli tlris ethos the recipc 101green bean casserole~open cans mixlJltlke----can be rcad as a celebration of tcchnology

The green bean casseroles commercial identity is well established and its origination inthe food industry is in no way hidden Campbell Soups official histories and promotionalmaterials proudly claim it as its own invention stating that the green hean casserole is

both one of the companys top ranked and most recommended recipesThe official recipe as given on the companys Web site begins as follows

From Camlhdls Kilclun

IrepTimc 10 minules

Bakc Timc 30 minule

Serves 6

lugredientsI can ( I () 34 0) CalJllhelIs Condensed Crealll or Mushroom Soup OR CalJlphellsCi9 Coudensd

98X Fat Free Crcam or MusluoOIJI Soup

12 cup milk

I tsp soy sauce

dash ground black IIICI4 cups cooked CUi grceu heusI 3 cups frenchs(I) Ftench Fried Onions

(Camphdl Soup Compauy 2005aj

CUllpbells claims of the popularity of the casserole arc not hyperbole as is provcnby the inclusion of the recipe in most popular Americ1I1cookbooks allli by reference~ toit in the mass lnedia II is marketed nationally for Thanksgiving meals and secms to havebecome an accepted part of the holiday within mass-mediated culture lior example in aCinlillllmi Post colullln in 200 I a food reviewer gave these suggestions for a successfulThanksgiving First theres Green Bean Bake which is made of canned erealn of-mushroom soup and canned French-fried onions Countless families count on thisparticular dish being Ullong the dishes of stuffing cranberries mashed potatoes andturkey gravy She pre~enled the reeipc in case its not embedded in your brain andcontrasted the recipe Irom Durkee with thai of Campbells Soup the di(lerences heingminor the alllount of Illilk pepper (one-cighth teaspoon as opposed to a dash) and theinclusion of soy sauce by Campbells Another Web site lists a recipe for grcen hcancasserole asking Wlwl would the fall season be without the traditional AlnCricl1lfavorite (Chi (1Directory 2(07) Thc site also includes links to Thanksgi ving Rccipesand Dclicious (ass(roe Recipcs for your Holiday Season Other Web sites nldpublished recipes decrihc the casserolc as classic traditional a Thanksgiving~uUJdardThese rere clwes in popular culture both assume and affirm the place or grclllbean casserole in the public consciousness as a traditional dish and as a traditionalconlpollcnt of ThankTivilg dinm~rl

Part of this sense of traditionality attached to the dish may come from the long historyof the company that invented it and from that organizations place in American popularculture According to its Web site the Campbell Soup Company was founded in 1869 inNew Jersey by Joseph Campbell a fruit merchant and Abraham Anderson an iceboxmanufacturer In 1897 the company invented condensed soups selling them for a dimefor a ten-ounce can This condensed soup was displayed at the Paris Exhibition of 1900where it won a gold medal~an image of which is still shown today on the can labels In1916 the company published a cookbook HelpsfJr the Hostess that suggested ways toincorporatc condensed soups into cooking In 1931 they began radio ads including thesaying M m M 1111 Good which then entered into popular culture In 1934 cream ofmushroom sour was inventcd and was lhc first of Campbells soups to be promoted as asauce as well as a soup 1n 1955 thc green bean casserole was invented by Campbellhome economists Today morc than one million cans of soup arc used everyday and thegreen bcan casserolc is one of the most popular and most requested recipes from thecompany (Camphell Soup Company 20OSb)

()rigi nail y the Camphcll Soup (~ompany demonstrated moderni ty through its factoryproduclion markeling and emphasis on convenience lis products however have beenincorporated into the home cooking of many families to the point that their use hashecome traditional The canned soups havc been atlached to peorles memories of theirchildhood and 10 family lunches5 Canned tomato soup and a grilled cheese sandwich forexample is still a popular lunch for wintry days

Anotllcr factor in undcrstanding the acceplance of the green bean casserole into traditionis its categorization as a casscrole Casseroles have a special placc in American idenlityThey connotc comilltltlal eating sharing and generosity At office potlucks churchsuppers Iud community picnics casseroles are a staple This is partly due to theirconvenienee~thcy arc casy to transport their ingredients arc readily available andrelatively inexpensive and thcy are quick to prepare--but it is also due to theirdependability--lhcy require little culinary skill Referred to as hot dishes in the upperMidwest or bakcs in northwest Ohio casseroles actually represent a depm1ure from theusual British-based i +23 meal structure (featuring a piece of meat with twoIceoillpaniments) that undcrlies the American meal In fact nutritionists originallydiscouraged such mixing of ingredients siuce it was considered an obstacle to digestion(Benlley 2002 179) According to Sarah Rath however the casserole became integratedinto American foodway during the depressions of the 1890s and the 1930s when theeconomical casscrole provided a welcome way to stretch mcat fish and poultryRationing during World War I required cooks to rely on leftovers often recycling theminto casseroles Rath also poinls oul thai casseroles originally denoted culinarysophistication to American cooks but immigrants brought their own casserole recipes tothe New World in the nineteenth century and favorite ethnic and regional classicsevol ved (2004 194)

Like many foods that started out as high-class then the casserole filtered down to themiddle and lower classes According to Jack Goody (1997) this process occurredthroughout Europe where the adoption of new foods was a search for status a form ofsocial climbing by emulating the eating habits of the upper classes In the United Statesthe process may have taken a different turn in that the casserole seems to have beenadopted out of convenience rather than status-seeking It was then democratized used foreveryday as well as festive meals and turned into a familiar comfort food

Ironically the green bean casserole docs not satisfy the definition of the standardcasserole which is a mixture of a protein source-meat or fish--with a starch alllusually some chopped vegetables all bound together with a sauce The tuna-noodlecasserole also invented by the Campbell Company (in 1934) better fits the expectation(Like the green bean bake the tuna-noodle casserole uses a can of crcam of mushroomsoup and was invented purposely to expand the market for Campbells soups at the sametime it modernized the American casserole 1110re generally by specifying a topping ofpotato chips rather than the more traditional breadcrtlmbs) Although the green bl~anconcoction is not strictly speaking a casserole the fact thai Campbells marketed it as OIW

in 1955 suggests that the images of casseroles as traditional and homey were alreadyimplanted in the national American consciousness

One of the primary ways in which new materials whether mass-produced or handmadearc incorporated into lXisling cultural systems is through variations These variationsrepresent performances of identities and circumstances of the individuals and COmnllll1itiesadapting those materiils This proccss of folklorization (Degh 199423) akin totraditionalization (Ilymes 1975) then allows new materials to carry mcmories andmeanings sp(~cific to those performers While this is a naturally occurring processsuccessful Il1mketing Ilcognizes its usefulness and nudges consumers to feci that they mepersonalizing a recipe Ihrough variations

The current Web ite for Campbell Soup includes a number of aitelllatives tu theoriginal basic recipe For example a can of Condensed 911 Fat Free Cream uflvlushroom Soup Clt11lwplace the regnlar soup The basic recipe then uses one-Iwlf Clipof milk flavored with one teaspoon of soy sauce and a dash of ground blaek IWIPcrFour cups of cooked cut green heans are called for hntthe type of cut is not speci licdIII a list of preparation Iips variations on the beans are suggested frozen green beans (onehag or two packages) canned green beans (two sixteen-ounce cans) or fresh green belIls(oue and one-half pounds) It is interesting to note these as variations since many cookswould consider them obvious substitutions rather than creative alternatives Frellch sfrench-rried onions u e also said to he essential Everything except half or the onions ismixed together and hiked for twenlymiddot-five minutes in a 350-dcgrec lIVCII The rel1llilliniouions ilre then sprinkled over the top and the casserole is haked for live more minutesCampbells tips sUggJSI variations for a change of pilee for a creative twist for iIfctivc touch and lpr1 heartier Illllshroom flavor Again these variations seelllllliuiJr

substituting broccoli flowerets for green beans substituting Campbells CondensedGolden Mushroom Soup for Cream of Mushroom Soup and adding chopped redpepper (the assumption being that this is red sweet pepper not red chili pepper) A notefrom a Web site member states that she used slivered almonds to replace the fried onionssince she is allergic to onions-and it tastes really good (Campbell Soup Company2005a)

Campbells recipe is written in such a way as to make it sound more sophisticated andrequiring a bit more skill than the recipe in oral tradition which to quote an informantis Open a can a Illushroom soup two cans of green beans and a can of fried onions mixtogether in a pan and bake in the oven

Although suggesting the personalization of commercial products is a commonmarketing strategy il is also a way of encouraging individuals to attach their ownidentities to the product which can result in developing individual meanings Iteneonrages people 10 participate in recipe alteration thus creating a sense of ownershipof the resulting variant recipe That personal variations fit into the standard practices ofcooks and meet the artistic needs of individuals 10 experiment is suggested by thenumerous alternative recipes given in magazines and cookbooks For example in acolumn for the Cincinnati Post in 20() I the writer offered her own variations for greenbean casserole

I canl resisl an addition or tW( such as choppcd water chcstnuts or dieed jicama for more crunch than

thc fried onions give a cnpfnl 01 Iresh mushrooms sliced and sauleed over high heat 10 make the

mushroom suup more lIlushroom fresh green beans well cooked in place of canned or frozen french-cllt

hcans sour cream and a lot of dry sherry 10 jazz up the sonpy sauce

While particular hrands of ingredients arc frequently specified by cookbooks andpublished recipes-such as Campbells soup or Frenchs (previously Durkee) french-friedonions---in actual practice any number of variations arc possible None of them challengethe basic paradigm The beans can be fresh or rrozen they can be french-cut (ie in thinstrips) or regular The soup can he replaced with a hOlllemade white sauce (very daring)and sauteed Iresh lIlushroollls the canned onions can be substituted with potato stickscrumbled potato chips or toasted sli vered almonds These variations give individual cooksthe sense 01personal ownership of the recipe and ill fact people discussing the casseroleIrcl[uently refer to the recipes of specific individuals

Similarly in my research I found that people in my area of the Midwest oftendiscussed the variations of the casserole arguing for instance the merits of toastedslivered almonds over those of canned fried onions the besl amounts of salt and pepperor of soy sauce or the use 01frozen green beans ral her than canned ones (or home cannedrather than conunercially canned) Interestingly there did not seem to be variations thatwere unique to northwest Ohio-a regional oikotype of green bean casserole so tospeak Itgt F lowever the variant ingredients often carried personalized memories Forexample the canned green beans had been bought at the favorite grocery store or thehome canned ones had been cannecl by a relative Similarly the arrangement andpresenlation of the ingredients were often personalized One family had a white ceramic

dish that was always the green bean casserole dish Another had to have the fried onionssprinkled on top in a particular pattern

This critiquing of variations suggests first of all the existence of an aesthetic systema system for the evaluation of tastiness and satisfaction In my research sample it wascommon for individuals to have a favorite version of the recipe or to prerer onemaker--llsually a grandmother-over another The evaluation also freqnently includedthe merits of different brands of commercial goods and there tended to he a high degre(~of brand loyalty Ironically the ingredients were not speci fic to the Midwcst hut attentionto the idcntity of comlllcrcial products seemed to he common It may represent a localclhos that embraces the industrial incorporating it into personal tradition Brand loyallywas evident in other dishes-chili had to be made with a certain brand of beans and sauceand hot chicken sandwiches another local tradition had to he made with Roots cannedshredded chickcn

One point that repondents consistently hought up as an advantage of green bean casserolewas its familiarity MidVl~sterners particularly find the ingredients preparation and forlllof the casserole familiar One woman in describing its success suggested Its at everypotluck and its always popular Its so quick (0 make---pnfcct for the olliccpotluck--middotand I guess pcople like the familiar

This aura of familillity seemed to lend itself to the dish being perccived as cOn1l110nand normaL lts presence was assumed at group events and while lIwt presence usnallywasnt celebrated the casseroles absence would bc noticed and commented uponFlIltllCnnore the casscrole Illay appeal by virtue of its ability to neatly synthesize apparenloppositions It represents the familiar mundane and everyday in that it is thought of IS

an everyday conveniencc food yet it also represents the festive in that it is closelyassociated with potlncks Ind holiday meals Those festive events can he both scmipnblicinvolving members of oCupational recreational or religious cOlllnlnnities and privltewithin the family AI such events the casserole acts as a bridge between (wo real IllSconnecting puhlic and pi j vate domains making coworkers like fami Iy and making Lnlli Iyrelationships somewhat nlore formal and ceremonial than they might otherwise be

Green bean casserole also utilizes ingredients that arc generally familiar bUI in a m()l(~worked flshion that can connote festivity17 In Ilorthwest Ohio green beans ale acommon vegetable oftcn c()(lked and canned and served alongside meat and potatoes theyarc also made into a salad with a sweet-and-sour dressing Casseroles arc a familiar formhere connoting comrol ting sociability and canned cream soups arc COllUnon forlunchtime meals Dressing up familiar foods like these for holiday and special occasiollmeals lends itself to rituali7ation A recurring symbolic event (SantinolY94 II) thespecial dinner relies on sllhle components to ground it in peoples experiences as a ritutlcelebration Highlighting components that are familiar allows for more individuals toparticipate in the ritual ami to create a greater sense of unity throngh it In my sludy Ifound thallhis sense t1wt green bean casserole had been ritualized was part of what peopk

seemed to like about it Like the turkey dressing and mashed potatoes for Thanksgivingdinner the casserole appeared every year comforting in its reliability and consistency andconnoting family tradition and stability The fact that it was also found at other festiveoccasions and was not exclusive to Thanksgiving underscored its air of familiarity

1 also found a ludic or playful quality to many discussions of green bean casseroleMost of the individuals with whom 1 spoke were aware of the stereotypes of midwesternculture and cuisine and the ways in which the casserole fed into those stereotypes Theydiscussed the dish with a trace of sarcasm in their voices laughingly recounting the recipeOpen cans mix and bake They also recognized the apparent irony of this highlyprocessed food being a family tradition One infornlant describing her familys traditionaldinner rolled her eyes and recalled

Well elme tell you how my mOlher llIade il She opened a can of Camphells mushroom soup and a canof Del Monlemiddots green heans I her hnshand interjected and those onion things Yeah canned friedonions hUI she used polalo sticks t Ihink thats the way Sometimes she used atmonds sliveredalmonds

Such playfulness suggests that for at least some individuals the casserole was a ritualturning-upside-down of more elite assumptions about festive food and good food Thedish defies the usual qualities of fine cuisine and gourmet cooking and eating Bycelebrating such food the cullure surrounding it is also celebrated and affirmed IS

The meanings surrounding green hean casserole in northwest Ohio are multiple andsurprisingly complex orten representing conrtieting oppositions These meanings arc aninterplay of public commercially motivated meanings presented through marketing andadvertising and private meanings developed through informal use and experiences withthe dish On one hantL the casserole seellls to represent the traditional but it alsoreprcsents the modcrn an embracing of technology and corporate America It representsthe familiar and mundane yet also represents the festive and celebratory Likewise tbl~casserole is simultaneously fancy in that green beans have been worked into a morecultural product and plain in that the ingredients are familiar and available and thetecbniques for preparation arc minimal requiring no culinary skills other than wieldinga can opener Artislry however can be displayed in the casseroles presentation--as inthe choiec of a casserole dish and the arrangement of the onions on top-and personaltaste and identity can be expressed through variations in ingredients and preparationFinally the casserole is simultaneously national and regional While it is perceived ascOlllmon across the US it seems to resonate with midwestern eaters logically fitting intotheir family and community traditions

The casserole then suggests a regional roodways aesthetic in several ways a relianceOil canned processed foods a lack of spices other than pepper (the salt is bnilt into theeallned soup and onions) an emphasis 011 hearty and filling foods a conservative

approach to new tastes and ingredients and a pride in well-crafted functional dishes thatare economical and efficient Green bean casserole embodies and celebrates that aesthetic

These meanings of the casserole also suggest a regional foodways ethos a system forvaluing food and the activities surrounding it Dishes such as the green bean casserolelend themselves to COllllllllllitas the feeling of belonging to a community in whichmembers arc bound in nonhierarchical relationships (Turner 1969) No one is superiorno one is more of a gourmet In a sense the dish cuts across class in that it is available toall and draws from national rather than elite culture although it would probably bcscorned at gourmet mcals For those concerned with status however it is casily availablcfor manipulation to perform cJass Homcmade white sauce fresh green beans almondsinstead of canned fried (lnions and the addition of little cxtras---capers pimento greenpepper-middot-can all denote wealth and more rdined tastes In fact the ingredients amIpreparation methods of this dish are accessible to all regardless of class race gendcr andethnicity The cans of green beans cream of mushroom soup and french-fried onions arcdistributed nationally they arc inexpensive and available al almost any grocery store ~can all enjoy green heau casserole and we can even develop a connoisseurship of tillsubtle variations avai lable

The meanings associated with the casserole suggestlhat in midwestern culture foodfunctions not so much as cultural capital hut as social capital (BounJicu 19H4) It is uedto build md allinn relillionships in the family or cOllllllunity rather than 10 delllontratestatus In this culture valued foods and vahlld eating experiences arc those that bringpeople together and that crase the social distinctions of class gourmet tastes I1dindi vidualistic prefeiTIlces (reen bean casserole does just that

Corresponding with this finding personal taste seellls to playa secondary role to Iheinclllsionary funct ion of the dish In sOllie of the fami Iies I interviewld the casserole wasan obligatory ritwd part of a ritual meal a dish that had to be included but that IlO oneactually liked or atc In somc cases it was thc contribution of an extended LUllilymember and it was considered more important 10 accept tile contribution--1I1d byimplication the family JIIclllber--middottilaIl it was to have all the foods be well liked

Tile 101klorization tradi I ionll ization and rit ual ization or green bean clsselole suggest tllltltit is possible for a comllleIcial processed food to be broadly representational ami also 10

carry the emotional alllchment that a group may have [0 its region an attaellment llialgeograpller Yi-Fu Tuan refers to ltISlocal patriotism (1974 I() I) Sucll patriotism miglltwell be displayed throughout the Midwest whenever green bean casserole is served

Green bean casserole then rather than reflecting a lack of taste a lack of culinaryskill and sophisticatiol or perilaps worse a passive acceptance or mass-producedcommercial foods and Ileanings represents a regional roodway aesthetic and cthos Tilepopular stcreotype of the Midwest as having no distinctive identity is well kuowll hymidwcstcrners and comes into play whenever the region is discussed Their aWlITllCsuggests that their pliyrulncss with green bean casserole is a rheturiclI slr(cgy

acknowledging and celebrating this representation of midwcstern identity (see also Kakik1984) Furthermore the dish is used by its midwestern consumers in their ownunderstanding of their region as a performative discourse (Bourdieu 1991 223) that notonly claims the Midwest as an identity but also helps to construct a sense of the characterof that identity Such perronnativity was evident in many of the interviews and informaldiscussions of green bean casserole Initially individuals responding to my questionsabout the casserole orten displayed surprise at the idea that this dish could be takenserionsly as a food and as a tradition They orten considered it a tasty food and a part oftheir family customs but since it did not qualify as fine cuisine or as publicly celebratedsymbol they did not associate a meaningful significance with il20 That surprise thenturned to acknowledgment almost a sense of discovery that there is indeed a distinctivemidwestern regional identity and that foods having commercial origins can holdmeaningful places in individuals memories and foodways The very qualities of greenbean casserole that might seem to work against it as a meaningful regionaltradition-mass-production and factory-processing of ingredients case of preparationmllndaneness heaviness in calories and carhohydrates~are the very ones that make it alogical representation or local identity

I For Inorc discussions of the history of the industrialilation of food in thc US see Levenstein 1988 alld20m Cirabaccia 1998 Pi Iisbury 1))8 and Counihan 2002 Scathing critiqucs of the impact of industrializationof food on American ting habits arc orlred by Nestle 2002 and Pollan 2006 For the acceptance by womenin parlicular of progress in cooking see Inllcss 2001 and Shapiro 2004

2 Iur a discussion of the adoption of conulllrcially produced mass-mediated products into contemporarylIadition see Santino 199h

1 Most analyses of contcmpurary Alnerican rood habits condude Ihat Americans lack an appreciation forrefined cooking hecanse onr nalional eulturc has emplwsied quantity over quality packaging over content andspecd and sill as measnres of valur Capitalism is usually hlamed and while I agree that the capitalist systemhas encouraged such valnes I think we also nced 10 look at Ihe ethos and historical conditions that allowedAmcricans to cmbrace such a world view In exccllent analysis of the philosophical foundations of Westernthonght can be found in Barndt 2004 Wllich explores how the reductionist philosophy of Descartes and the anti-nature theologizing of Bacon created a mindsel that allowed North Americans (she includes Canadians in herindictment) 10 sever their conncctions with nature and thc naturalthruugh food

I ani not looking here at why people Ihink something tastcs good or at how panieular tastes develop Thepsychology or taste is a fidd in itsclr and addresses the biological physiological and psychologieal factors intaste My lcns is 011 how a dish comes to make scnsc as part of a meal to a group or people For psychologicalapproaches see Macbcth 1)97 Tasie as a philosophical issue is discussed in Korsmeyer 1lt)99 and Curtin andIleldke 1992

5 t eoutd also use glocalicd here since the spread ordishcs such as green bean casserole is due partiallyto snccessfulmarketing as wcll as to a hegemonic power of such companies as Campbell Soup to define whatis considered the norm of American food The term glocaliation comes from sociologist Roland Robertson(1992) For a comprehensive discussion of theories ollhe relationship of food to place see Bell and Valentine1997

G Roland Barthes identified crisp as a basic American food aesthetic and as the binary opposite ofsweet ([1961]199723)

7 In a holiday assemblage various items are artfnlly ammged to signify the holiday The individual itemsIllay have publicly established symbolism-such as a pumpkin carved into a jack-o -lantern or a baby in amangcr----hut the items may also have either no or too Illany meanings on their own in this case a can of cream

of Illnshroolll soup does not represent Thanksgiving until it is juxtaposed with a can of fried onions and callSof green beans For holiday ltIssenlblage see Santino 199434-41

8 These are my own terms although the ideas are explored and discussed hy philosophers andanthropologists of food fOi example Deane Curtin and I jsa Ilcldke (1992) My ose of the WOld foodways isspecific to folklore in that il refers to a netwOIk of activities and meanings sUITouuding food

9 For more explanatioll of foodways see Yoder 1972 and Long 1999IO For more discussion of identity bcing expressed in food see articles in Ihe volullle edited by I uda

Keller Brown and Kay Msell particularly one by Susau Kalcik (1984) My own approach tothe expression01 iiltntily through lood drmvs heavily from performauce theory in folklore as articulated by Richard Ibulllall(1197711984) and DelllIvlIlcs (1974) see Long 1)99n3i

I I This collect ing was not done as a statist ica I survey although that kind of in format ion would be hel pfiliThe focus ill these c1a~ses VIS Oil the hasic concepts of hDW food traditions carry and construct idclllily I 1Iso

collected information from grlduate students hut tiley tended to have Illore v~Jried hackgrounds alld were l10l

representativc 01 the regiollJ 2 While this ellulllgr1)hy was not systematic I did make sure that I talked to botlliollgiinle residents f

the area and newcomers Soci11 distinclions in this area tend to bc along occupational and political lines ratllerthan racial ethnic or sociocconomic Olles so I atlendcd politicks at cOIllIllunity events ohserved rcacli(llls In

a culinary expo at a locallllall and gave workshops and talks in the area on a Vltlriety 01 food-rated lopicsJndging from responseS to Illy lentative conclusions I keltllat I accurately assessed tile uses and llIeanin~s 01green bean casserole aeross town gown lines as well as the spcctrum of political bcliefs

13lnthe late 1980s I cOlldneted fieldwork for an exllibit Oil folk art ill this region Instead oflhe expectedpaintillgs sculptures and texlile arts I found tllat the artistic impulse tended to be expressed througll praglnaticforms such as farm implcnlents and machinery neatly aligned tree rows and yards and well-organized lanlers(Long II)l)O)

14 A reeeni advertisenllnl suggesting green bean casserole for Easler plays upon tllis idea statingtllatldisll is not only for Thanksgiving anymore The advcrtiscnlent which was copyrigllted in 2006 has aplarcd111 womens magarincs such as Family Circle

11 Longtime Bowlin (inen residcnt Tom Md Iuglrlin recalled tllal tile local dillns and lIalllburgerjinlsserved canned sonps in the I )IOs and 19iOs Wilen soop was ordered the cook would sinlply open a can 01Campbells soup (interview 6262(07)

16 Oikotype is more commonly used to refer to narrative variants that arc found in a parlieular Icdeaud tllal display some aspect of local culture (Brunvand I1)l)8 I n)

17 Claude Levi-Strauss suggests thatllunlans have to act upon the raw iugrcdients in ordcr to tnrn Ilrcnlinto a cultural item known IS fOOl11l1968J1997)

18 Such riles of rever Irc significant ways in whicll dominated cnlturcs maintain a sense of identity aswell as vellt anger at oppression While the American Midwest is in no way all oppressed cullure its residenls

often express frustration at tile hek of awareness and appreciatiun of their rcgion by other areas of tbe eounlryparticularly the coasts

19 Cranbcrry sauce 1111a similar place particularly in its canned jellied form Students expressed disgnstwith botlltlrcse qualities and wondered wily such sauce was part olthe nationalparadiglll

20 This reflects eomllion llIispnceptions of the nature of these phenomena rather than a lack of Ineallillgof green bean casserole itself Disbes to be celebrated tend to be thought of as eitber g011lmel (reprenli~evidence of the mastery or spc-cific culinary arts and usually displaying a higher socioeconolnic status) or asha ving a long hisICl) even 111lt1l1ghthat history may he a mythical une (eg furkly for Tilallk~givillg appk pit

or certain elhnie dishes) Silllillttrly many informants seemed to tbink of th casseroles ritual place in tllifamily as due to inertia lnd lack of curiosity so that it could bc a tmdition but not OIHto be celebrated IPillsbury 1998 pp 11-13 fr a discussion of tradition as inertia) In either case informanls did not cOIlid-rthemselves arbiters of whal ddines Food and Tradition

Anderson Benedict R 11)83 Imagined Canllnllnilies Ref7ec1iol1s 011Ihe Origin and Spread of NationalismLondon Verso

Barndt Deborah 2004 7IIlgied Roules Women Work and (Iobalizalion onlhe I)fwlo Trail Lanham MdRowman and Liuleficld

Barthes Roland 1997 Toward a Psychosoeiology of Contemporary Food Consumption In Food and CullureA Reader ed Carole Counihan and Penny Van ESlerik pp 20--27 (reprinted from 19GI) New YorkRoutledge

Bauman Richard (1971) I)84 Verbal Arl as Ierfinllwe Prospect Heights III WavelandBell David and Gill Valentine I9n Consuming (eographies We Are Where We Eat New York RoutledgeBentley Amy 2002 Islands of Serenity Gender Race and Ordered Meals during World War n In Food il1lhe

USA il RCllder cd Carole M Counihan Pl 171-192Ilourdicu Pierre 1984 Igtislinilioll il Soial Crilique oIhe Judgemenl or 11111 Trans Richard Nice

(alnl11idge Mass Ilarvard lIniversity Inss1991 lInguage and Svmlwlii Ioller Cunbrid~e Polity

Ilrnnvand Jail Ilaroid 11)98 The Stndy of American 1lklore 1n Intl~oduction New York W W Norton ampCompany

(ampbell Soup Company 200l1 hllplwwwcamphcllkitdlcncolll rccipedetailaspxlrceipeID=24099accessed 91 I i200iJ

200ib hltpllwwlVeampbellsoupeompanyeolnhistoryasp accessed 91512006(hilT Directory 2007 htt plwwwchiITcomagreen-bean-casscrolehtm accessed 9152006(ininnali 1011200 I Food reviewCounihan Carole M cd 2002 Iood inlhe USA A Reader New York RutledgeCurtin Deanc W and Lisa M Ilddke cds 1992 Cooking Filling Illinking rr(lsfiml1atlle Philosophies of

Iood Ilioollllngton Indiana University PressDeglr Linda 1994 AlllerillIn Folkillre IIlId Ihe MIIss Media Illoonlington Indiana University PressFertig Judith M 20m The Midwest In middotIII1llopedlaof Food alld Cullure cd Solomon H Katz pp 414--417

New York Charles Scribners SonsUabaccia Donna R 1)1)8 We I( Whol We Eal FlllIlic Food olld Ihe Makillg IIIAmericllnl Cambridge

Mass Ilarvani University Presst ioody lack 1997 Industrial Food Towards tire Deve(llment of a World Cuisine In Food alld Cllilure A

Rellder ed Carole Counilnl and Penny Van Eslerik PI 317middot369 New York RoutledgelIynles Dell 1974 Ways of Speaking In Eplorali(I1s ill IiiI lolhllograph1 oSpeakillg cd Richard Ballman

and Joel Shercr pp 431-412 Calnbridge Cambridge Univcrsity Press- - ----- 1971 Breakthrough into Perfornlanee In Folklore PeljimnallCl alld COlllmullicalioll cd Dan

Ikn-Amos and Kenneth S Goldstein PI 11--74 The llague Moutonluness Slrerrie 1 200 I Dillller (oles ilIIniulli WOIIICllalld Culil1O) Cullure Iowa City University of Iowa

Press

Kalcik Susan 1984 Ethnic Foodways in America Symbol and the Performance of Identity In Elhllic alldNegiollill Foods illihe lJlliler SillIes Illc ojimllllllce o(Group Idelllll1 cd Linda Keller Brown and KayMussell pp 37-(1 Knoxville University of Tennessee Press

Korsmeyer Carolyn I tJ99 Mokillg Sellse 0 Tosle Food alld hilosoph Ithaea NY Cornell UniversityPress

Lee Juditlr Yaross 2004 Introduction lu the Midwesl ed Joseph W Slade and Jndith Yaross Lee PIXIImiddot--XXX Vcstport Conn Greenwood

Levensteiu llarvey 1988 RelOllIlioll III Ihe ]ie Tile IiIlIlSfimnatioll 0 the Alllerican Diel CambridgeOxford University Press

__ _----2003 Paradox 0 1111)A Social History 0 Flllillg in Modem America Los Angeles Universityof California Press

The dish seems to hold a special place in food ways of the Midwest Judging frominformal ethnographic research I have conducted in northwest Ohio an area represental ivcof the larger region green bean casserole is ubiquitous there showing up in public andprivate in everyday as well as celebratory meals crossing cthnic religious andsocioeconomic differences Every November local supermarkets display cans of friedonions mushroom soul and green beans in a sort of holiday asselllhiage foreshadowingthe Thanksgiving meal and suggesting that this dish is part of the proper national mealThe typical regional alt itude is expressed in the tagline with which one middlemiddotltlgedwoman ended her resl0nse to a query about her Thanksgiving dinner menu Ami ofcourse green bean casserole This area of the Midwest seems to have embraced the dishwholeheartedly and enthusiastically Considering the strong ongoing agricultural heritageof the area and its emphasis on family values why is this so And how does a recipe thati Ilvol ves little more cui inary ski II than open ing cans purchased from any food relai lermake sense in the conlext of the down-home Mom-and-apple-pie image of midwestlTncooking

As anyone who hlS grown up in the Midwest knows the COnll1l0n answer to theequestions in the midwestelll context would be a humorous and self-deprecating commenton the lack of tastc and culinary refinement stereotypical of the region 1I0wever suchfoods have a logic spccific to the culture using them and they relied an aesthetic ltlI1dethos essential to that cultures foodways Foodways aesthetic refers to the system forevaluating the quality the pleasingness (or tastiness) of a food and the activitiessurrounding the preparation and consumption of that food while fomlways ethos relcrsto the Jlloral and social values attached to food and eating~ The term foodways ratherthan food emphasies that food is more than just stuff we eat Borrowing fromfolklorist Don Yoders ddinition of foodways as the total cookery complex includingattitudes taboos and Jlleal systems-the whole range of cookery and food habits ill asociety (Yoder 1972325) I use the concept to refer to the network of activitieshabits and conceptual ilations surrounding food and cating (Long 199913) As a conccptfoodways emphasizes the systemic nature of food activities as well as the ways in wllidlmemories and meanings get attached to food onentimcs through seemingly trivialltlctivitiesltJ Poodways also implies that identily is expressed through food that thechoices we make COllCcming food activities are performances negotiating our pasts withour present identities and contexts Although some eating occasions and foods arcintentional articulations of identity many are not Ne choose foods out of hungercuriosity social etiquellc hcalth concerns and for many other reasons Idcntity sccpsthrough anyway 10 Grcn bean casserole in the llidwest seems to he in Illany eontexls anunintentional perfomnncc of identity but at other times a very purposeful expression oflocal identity If we extcnd lierre Bourdieu s observation that the slyle of a meal peopleo ITer is a good indication of the imagc they wish to give or avoid giving to others (quotedin Benlley 2()()2 179) to particular foods then what exactly is the image intended byserving and eating green bean casserole And since the Midwest tends to bc a regiundefined by a historical cOllllection to the land does that identity have any conncctioll to

region or place

I first realizcd that green bean casserole holds a special place in midwestern foodwayswhen I noticed that it frequently showed up in menus of family dinners particularlyThanksgiving meals that I collected from my studcnts at a state university in northwesternOhio an area that seems to typify midwestern physical and cultural landscapes Most ofthese students were middle-class to lower-middle-class with a number coming from blue-collar backgrounds and the first in their families to enter college Farming was also in theheritage and experiences of many of them I I Coming from a different regional heritage andfrom a family that cmphasized homegrown and homemade foods I was struck thatsomething so commercial so casy to make and so everyday was a significant part ofholiday meals aIllI family traditions Initially I wondered if it represented a generation thatis characterized by a family life disrupted by extracurricular activities and careerobligations with food being eaten on the go and valued for efficiency low pricehomogeneity and quantity over quality

I then began informally surveying people from the local community asking themwhether or not green bean casserole was a part of their own family traditions and askingtheir own responsc to the dish12 I found that it was a well-known favorite not only atmany evcryday family meals but also at potlucks and holiday meals includingThanksgiving dinner In many cases it seemed to bc the very characteristics that could beconsidered as diminishing its culinary and cultural value that were being praised in itsfavor it was inexpensive and quick to make it always turned out as expected and it waseasy to transport It was a dependable dish onc that cooks could rely upon and thatconsumers almost always liked

Personal reactions to the casserole varicd In many families it was the favorite dish[he one item that was never turncd into leftovers In some cases it was a favorite of anindividual family member For example during one interchange [had with local residentsa wire discovered that her husband liked green bean casserole After listening to herdescribc her mothers rccipe he askcd Why dont we have that I like it At churchl1otlucks its always the first thing I geL She rcsponded in surprise Really I gucsswell have it at Thanksgiving thcn

Those who liked the dish pointed to its aesthetic qualities They liked the saltiness ofthe canned soup and the crunchiness of the onions Thick and fattening it reminded themof home Moms cooking and comforting familiar tastes

Not everyone I interviewed appreciated grecn bean casserole and reasons rangedfrom pcrsonal aesthetics allll tasle to hcalth concerns as seen in some of theserepresentative responses

We always have grcen hcansmiddotmiddot-lresh green heans But green hean casserole) My mother used to it justdocsnt sccm hcatthymiddot-middotmiddotallthe salt in the canned stull [Fortyish woman midwestern born and hredl

lies always halcd that canned soup [he inteljccted glop so Inever made it but Irememher it in mylamily IThinyish woman midwestern hom and bred who usually purchases organic loodsl

Grecn bean casserole) Yuck It always looked gross kind of congealed with things sticking oul 01 itIFiftymiddotyear-old man midwcstern born and bred I

Evcn ifthcy did not catthc food thcmsclves thcsc individuals rccognicd it as a partof their local culinary universe Grecn bean casserole was considercd a normal standardcomponent of both everyday and ritualmcals Many pcoplc were awarc of its COll1n](~rcialorigins but that did not deter its integration into family foodways In fact the dish wasonn mentioncd with affcctionate irony because of its commercial character Mostindividuals howcver had never thought about the dish and assumed it was just onc ofthose foods that as onc pcrson statcd had always bcen there They did not think of itas a tradition because they did not consciously and intentionally prepare and consume itas an expression of idcntity or heritage

Like evcry region thc IVlidwest is both a physical objective space and a culturalmindsetan imagined community (Anderson 1983) of shared values experiences and expressi veforms Ranging from Ohio in the cast westward and north to Minnesota and Wisconsinit also includes Michig~1l1 Indiana Illinois Iowa and Missouri It represents both tileHinterland a backwater of social conservatism and pragmatism and thc Heartland thephysical land center of Amcrica as well as the bastion of the nations family values alllipioneer spirit (Lce 2()()ilxvii-xx vi Fertig 20m) Although there is widc di vcrsity withinthe rcgion particularly in urban ccnters such as Cleveland Sl Louis Sl PanlMinneapolis and Chicago there tend to be overarching cultural pattcrtls that arerecognizable to both iuiders and outsiders Several university townsmiddot--Ann Arbortvlichigan Madison isconsin and Antioch and Obcrlin in Ohio--stand out as llles llfartistic crcativity sllcial progressivism and political libcralism-dcmonstrating hycontrast a recognizable midwcstern identity Frequently rcsicknts think of thcmsel vcs ltIS

representing a mythicd Middle America with straightforward aHmiddotmiddotAmerican culturaltraditions Ironically this also translatcs into a perccption of lacking a spccific regiollalidentity

lalyses of thc Ilgions foodways affirm that rcpresentation of Middlc AmericaGeographer Richard Pillsbury states thaI the cuisine of thc Midwcst is mostly a productof th~ lndustrial Revoltllion and that the regions consumption patterns clearly rdicciIhe conservative character of the population (1998220 221) Other scholars Inledescribed midwestern loxl as plain and straightforward hearty and wholesome food Ihatsticks to your I ibs to gel you through thc day (Long 200428 I sce also lrosterman 2005and Shotridgc 20()J l The public iuwge of midwesterll food is nleat and p0(ltoes hlIecooking basic ingrediellt and few spices or surprises Other than a few cthnic disks itis not scen as having 111ctual cuisine thc perccption being that people jnst cook an I (Il

traditjolwl wholcsollw fmerican food without thinking too rllllch about it

My research focuscd on the northwest corner of Ohio solidly within the physical andcultural boundaries of the Midwest Encompassing an area known as the Great BlackSwamp this subrcgion of the Midwcst is on the eastern edge of the Great Plains so isdefined by a flat landscape and what used to be swamps and oak forests before drainagesystcms wcrc dcvcloped and the trees were cut for lumbcr in the mid-180C)s The earliestsettlers tcndcd to bc Anglo-Americans and German immigrants looking for farmlandNcstled at the southern tip of Lake Eric the largest city Toledo was anticipated in themid-1800s to become onc of the great interior ports and conduits for trade highly urbanand industrial Tolcdo attracted immigrants to its factories whilc the rest of the arearemained agricultural Bowling Grccn where I teach is a city of approximatcly thirtythousand (with another twenty thousand students) home to a state university BowlingGrecn is surrounded by farmland and small towns Since the mid-1990s the farmland hasbeen rapidly turning into housing devclopmcnts and the area between Bowling Green andToledo is now full of bedroom communities for commuters

Northwesl Ohios population today is a mix of urban and rural It has wide variationin sociocconomic class and is largcly Europcan with pockcts of African Amcrican andllispanic scttlcment Although secmingly homogl~ncous the subrcgion has widc divcrsityin that tlwre are numerous European ancestrics reprcscntcd from dcscendcnts of carlyAnglo-American colonists to nincteenth-ccntury Gcrmans and Irish to later immigrantsfrom castern Europc

The culture tends to bc a pragmatic and practical one with a conservatism shaped bya trust in hands-on expcrienee Its pcople gencrally do not romanticize the past or natureThe past is to be learned from and nature is there to be tamcd and made useful~or atIcast not dangerous--to humans It also tends to be economically conservative fullysupportive ofcapitalisl1l and commcrcialization At the samc time it has always embracedtechnology concentrating on developing machinery to improvc work and livingconditions ( Outside of Toledo northwcst Ohio is agricultural but the agriculture is ahighly illdustrialized and commcrcialized onc Along with large corporate farms producingcorn and soybeans the area is homc to major processing plants and canning factoriesincluding such well-established national companics as Heinz and Campbell Soup

Within this cultural contcxt food is fuel and is often evaluated by its energy-givingqualities rather than by aesthetic ones related to relined tastes Heavy on carbohydratesand starches local food ways 1Iso rellcct the German and British settlemcnt heritagc asscen in dishes such as roast beer potatoes meatloaf sausages cream sauces blends ofsweet and sour flavors and a heavy use or sugar Even though most families raised gardenvegetables thcse tcnded to bc preserved by canning so that using canned goods albeitCOlllllllTcially processed ones is a part of traditional preparation methods Tastes havebeen trained to accotlllllodate thc prescrvcd and proccssed foods This is a culture thenthat accepts cOllllTlercial and proeesscd foods as the normal and right way for food tobe Consislcnt witli tlris ethos the recipc 101green bean casserole~open cans mixlJltlke----can be rcad as a celebration of tcchnology

The green bean casseroles commercial identity is well established and its origination inthe food industry is in no way hidden Campbell Soups official histories and promotionalmaterials proudly claim it as its own invention stating that the green hean casserole is

both one of the companys top ranked and most recommended recipesThe official recipe as given on the companys Web site begins as follows

From Camlhdls Kilclun

IrepTimc 10 minules

Bakc Timc 30 minule

Serves 6

lugredientsI can ( I () 34 0) CalJllhelIs Condensed Crealll or Mushroom Soup OR CalJlphellsCi9 Coudensd

98X Fat Free Crcam or MusluoOIJI Soup

12 cup milk

I tsp soy sauce

dash ground black IIICI4 cups cooked CUi grceu heusI 3 cups frenchs(I) Ftench Fried Onions

(Camphdl Soup Compauy 2005aj

CUllpbells claims of the popularity of the casserole arc not hyperbole as is provcnby the inclusion of the recipe in most popular Americ1I1cookbooks allli by reference~ toit in the mass lnedia II is marketed nationally for Thanksgiving meals and secms to havebecome an accepted part of the holiday within mass-mediated culture lior example in aCinlillllmi Post colullln in 200 I a food reviewer gave these suggestions for a successfulThanksgiving First theres Green Bean Bake which is made of canned erealn of-mushroom soup and canned French-fried onions Countless families count on thisparticular dish being Ullong the dishes of stuffing cranberries mashed potatoes andturkey gravy She pre~enled the reeipc in case its not embedded in your brain andcontrasted the recipe Irom Durkee with thai of Campbells Soup the di(lerences heingminor the alllount of Illilk pepper (one-cighth teaspoon as opposed to a dash) and theinclusion of soy sauce by Campbells Another Web site lists a recipe for grcen hcancasserole asking Wlwl would the fall season be without the traditional AlnCricl1lfavorite (Chi (1Directory 2(07) Thc site also includes links to Thanksgi ving Rccipesand Dclicious (ass(roe Recipcs for your Holiday Season Other Web sites nldpublished recipes decrihc the casserolc as classic traditional a Thanksgiving~uUJdardThese rere clwes in popular culture both assume and affirm the place or grclllbean casserole in the public consciousness as a traditional dish and as a traditionalconlpollcnt of ThankTivilg dinm~rl

Part of this sense of traditionality attached to the dish may come from the long historyof the company that invented it and from that organizations place in American popularculture According to its Web site the Campbell Soup Company was founded in 1869 inNew Jersey by Joseph Campbell a fruit merchant and Abraham Anderson an iceboxmanufacturer In 1897 the company invented condensed soups selling them for a dimefor a ten-ounce can This condensed soup was displayed at the Paris Exhibition of 1900where it won a gold medal~an image of which is still shown today on the can labels In1916 the company published a cookbook HelpsfJr the Hostess that suggested ways toincorporatc condensed soups into cooking In 1931 they began radio ads including thesaying M m M 1111 Good which then entered into popular culture In 1934 cream ofmushroom sour was inventcd and was lhc first of Campbells soups to be promoted as asauce as well as a soup 1n 1955 thc green bean casserole was invented by Campbellhome economists Today morc than one million cans of soup arc used everyday and thegreen bcan casserolc is one of the most popular and most requested recipes from thecompany (Camphell Soup Company 20OSb)

()rigi nail y the Camphcll Soup (~ompany demonstrated moderni ty through its factoryproduclion markeling and emphasis on convenience lis products however have beenincorporated into the home cooking of many families to the point that their use hashecome traditional The canned soups havc been atlached to peorles memories of theirchildhood and 10 family lunches5 Canned tomato soup and a grilled cheese sandwich forexample is still a popular lunch for wintry days

Anotllcr factor in undcrstanding the acceplance of the green bean casserole into traditionis its categorization as a casscrole Casseroles have a special placc in American idenlityThey connotc comilltltlal eating sharing and generosity At office potlucks churchsuppers Iud community picnics casseroles are a staple This is partly due to theirconvenienee~thcy arc casy to transport their ingredients arc readily available andrelatively inexpensive and thcy are quick to prepare--but it is also due to theirdependability--lhcy require little culinary skill Referred to as hot dishes in the upperMidwest or bakcs in northwest Ohio casseroles actually represent a depm1ure from theusual British-based i +23 meal structure (featuring a piece of meat with twoIceoillpaniments) that undcrlies the American meal In fact nutritionists originallydiscouraged such mixing of ingredients siuce it was considered an obstacle to digestion(Benlley 2002 179) According to Sarah Rath however the casserole became integratedinto American foodway during the depressions of the 1890s and the 1930s when theeconomical casscrole provided a welcome way to stretch mcat fish and poultryRationing during World War I required cooks to rely on leftovers often recycling theminto casseroles Rath also poinls oul thai casseroles originally denoted culinarysophistication to American cooks but immigrants brought their own casserole recipes tothe New World in the nineteenth century and favorite ethnic and regional classicsevol ved (2004 194)

Like many foods that started out as high-class then the casserole filtered down to themiddle and lower classes According to Jack Goody (1997) this process occurredthroughout Europe where the adoption of new foods was a search for status a form ofsocial climbing by emulating the eating habits of the upper classes In the United Statesthe process may have taken a different turn in that the casserole seems to have beenadopted out of convenience rather than status-seeking It was then democratized used foreveryday as well as festive meals and turned into a familiar comfort food

Ironically the green bean casserole docs not satisfy the definition of the standardcasserole which is a mixture of a protein source-meat or fish--with a starch alllusually some chopped vegetables all bound together with a sauce The tuna-noodlecasserole also invented by the Campbell Company (in 1934) better fits the expectation(Like the green bean bake the tuna-noodle casserole uses a can of crcam of mushroomsoup and was invented purposely to expand the market for Campbells soups at the sametime it modernized the American casserole 1110re generally by specifying a topping ofpotato chips rather than the more traditional breadcrtlmbs) Although the green bl~anconcoction is not strictly speaking a casserole the fact thai Campbells marketed it as OIW

in 1955 suggests that the images of casseroles as traditional and homey were alreadyimplanted in the national American consciousness

One of the primary ways in which new materials whether mass-produced or handmadearc incorporated into lXisling cultural systems is through variations These variationsrepresent performances of identities and circumstances of the individuals and COmnllll1itiesadapting those materiils This proccss of folklorization (Degh 199423) akin totraditionalization (Ilymes 1975) then allows new materials to carry mcmories andmeanings sp(~cific to those performers While this is a naturally occurring processsuccessful Il1mketing Ilcognizes its usefulness and nudges consumers to feci that they mepersonalizing a recipe Ihrough variations

The current Web ite for Campbell Soup includes a number of aitelllatives tu theoriginal basic recipe For example a can of Condensed 911 Fat Free Cream uflvlushroom Soup Clt11lwplace the regnlar soup The basic recipe then uses one-Iwlf Clipof milk flavored with one teaspoon of soy sauce and a dash of ground blaek IWIPcrFour cups of cooked cut green heans are called for hntthe type of cut is not speci licdIII a list of preparation Iips variations on the beans are suggested frozen green beans (onehag or two packages) canned green beans (two sixteen-ounce cans) or fresh green belIls(oue and one-half pounds) It is interesting to note these as variations since many cookswould consider them obvious substitutions rather than creative alternatives Frellch sfrench-rried onions u e also said to he essential Everything except half or the onions ismixed together and hiked for twenlymiddot-five minutes in a 350-dcgrec lIVCII The rel1llilliniouions ilre then sprinkled over the top and the casserole is haked for live more minutesCampbells tips sUggJSI variations for a change of pilee for a creative twist for iIfctivc touch and lpr1 heartier Illllshroom flavor Again these variations seelllllliuiJr

substituting broccoli flowerets for green beans substituting Campbells CondensedGolden Mushroom Soup for Cream of Mushroom Soup and adding chopped redpepper (the assumption being that this is red sweet pepper not red chili pepper) A notefrom a Web site member states that she used slivered almonds to replace the fried onionssince she is allergic to onions-and it tastes really good (Campbell Soup Company2005a)

Campbells recipe is written in such a way as to make it sound more sophisticated andrequiring a bit more skill than the recipe in oral tradition which to quote an informantis Open a can a Illushroom soup two cans of green beans and a can of fried onions mixtogether in a pan and bake in the oven

Although suggesting the personalization of commercial products is a commonmarketing strategy il is also a way of encouraging individuals to attach their ownidentities to the product which can result in developing individual meanings Iteneonrages people 10 participate in recipe alteration thus creating a sense of ownershipof the resulting variant recipe That personal variations fit into the standard practices ofcooks and meet the artistic needs of individuals 10 experiment is suggested by thenumerous alternative recipes given in magazines and cookbooks For example in acolumn for the Cincinnati Post in 20() I the writer offered her own variations for greenbean casserole

I canl resisl an addition or tW( such as choppcd water chcstnuts or dieed jicama for more crunch than

thc fried onions give a cnpfnl 01 Iresh mushrooms sliced and sauleed over high heat 10 make the

mushroom suup more lIlushroom fresh green beans well cooked in place of canned or frozen french-cllt

hcans sour cream and a lot of dry sherry 10 jazz up the sonpy sauce

While particular hrands of ingredients arc frequently specified by cookbooks andpublished recipes-such as Campbells soup or Frenchs (previously Durkee) french-friedonions---in actual practice any number of variations arc possible None of them challengethe basic paradigm The beans can be fresh or rrozen they can be french-cut (ie in thinstrips) or regular The soup can he replaced with a hOlllemade white sauce (very daring)and sauteed Iresh lIlushroollls the canned onions can be substituted with potato stickscrumbled potato chips or toasted sli vered almonds These variations give individual cooksthe sense 01personal ownership of the recipe and ill fact people discussing the casseroleIrcl[uently refer to the recipes of specific individuals

Similarly in my research I found that people in my area of the Midwest oftendiscussed the variations of the casserole arguing for instance the merits of toastedslivered almonds over those of canned fried onions the besl amounts of salt and pepperor of soy sauce or the use 01frozen green beans ral her than canned ones (or home cannedrather than conunercially canned) Interestingly there did not seem to be variations thatwere unique to northwest Ohio-a regional oikotype of green bean casserole so tospeak Itgt F lowever the variant ingredients often carried personalized memories Forexample the canned green beans had been bought at the favorite grocery store or thehome canned ones had been cannecl by a relative Similarly the arrangement andpresenlation of the ingredients were often personalized One family had a white ceramic

dish that was always the green bean casserole dish Another had to have the fried onionssprinkled on top in a particular pattern

This critiquing of variations suggests first of all the existence of an aesthetic systema system for the evaluation of tastiness and satisfaction In my research sample it wascommon for individuals to have a favorite version of the recipe or to prerer onemaker--llsually a grandmother-over another The evaluation also freqnently includedthe merits of different brands of commercial goods and there tended to he a high degre(~of brand loyalty Ironically the ingredients were not speci fic to the Midwcst hut attentionto the idcntity of comlllcrcial products seemed to he common It may represent a localclhos that embraces the industrial incorporating it into personal tradition Brand loyallywas evident in other dishes-chili had to be made with a certain brand of beans and sauceand hot chicken sandwiches another local tradition had to he made with Roots cannedshredded chickcn

One point that repondents consistently hought up as an advantage of green bean casserolewas its familiarity MidVl~sterners particularly find the ingredients preparation and forlllof the casserole familiar One woman in describing its success suggested Its at everypotluck and its always popular Its so quick (0 make---pnfcct for the olliccpotluck--middotand I guess pcople like the familiar

This aura of familillity seemed to lend itself to the dish being perccived as cOn1l110nand normaL lts presence was assumed at group events and while lIwt presence usnallywasnt celebrated the casseroles absence would bc noticed and commented uponFlIltllCnnore the casscrole Illay appeal by virtue of its ability to neatly synthesize apparenloppositions It represents the familiar mundane and everyday in that it is thought of IS

an everyday conveniencc food yet it also represents the festive in that it is closelyassociated with potlncks Ind holiday meals Those festive events can he both scmipnblicinvolving members of oCupational recreational or religious cOlllnlnnities and privltewithin the family AI such events the casserole acts as a bridge between (wo real IllSconnecting puhlic and pi j vate domains making coworkers like fami Iy and making Lnlli Iyrelationships somewhat nlore formal and ceremonial than they might otherwise be

Green bean casserole also utilizes ingredients that arc generally familiar bUI in a m()l(~worked flshion that can connote festivity17 In Ilorthwest Ohio green beans ale acommon vegetable oftcn c()(lked and canned and served alongside meat and potatoes theyarc also made into a salad with a sweet-and-sour dressing Casseroles arc a familiar formhere connoting comrol ting sociability and canned cream soups arc COllUnon forlunchtime meals Dressing up familiar foods like these for holiday and special occasiollmeals lends itself to rituali7ation A recurring symbolic event (SantinolY94 II) thespecial dinner relies on sllhle components to ground it in peoples experiences as a ritutlcelebration Highlighting components that are familiar allows for more individuals toparticipate in the ritual ami to create a greater sense of unity throngh it In my sludy Ifound thallhis sense t1wt green bean casserole had been ritualized was part of what peopk

seemed to like about it Like the turkey dressing and mashed potatoes for Thanksgivingdinner the casserole appeared every year comforting in its reliability and consistency andconnoting family tradition and stability The fact that it was also found at other festiveoccasions and was not exclusive to Thanksgiving underscored its air of familiarity

1 also found a ludic or playful quality to many discussions of green bean casseroleMost of the individuals with whom 1 spoke were aware of the stereotypes of midwesternculture and cuisine and the ways in which the casserole fed into those stereotypes Theydiscussed the dish with a trace of sarcasm in their voices laughingly recounting the recipeOpen cans mix and bake They also recognized the apparent irony of this highlyprocessed food being a family tradition One infornlant describing her familys traditionaldinner rolled her eyes and recalled

Well elme tell you how my mOlher llIade il She opened a can of Camphells mushroom soup and a canof Del Monlemiddots green heans I her hnshand interjected and those onion things Yeah canned friedonions hUI she used polalo sticks t Ihink thats the way Sometimes she used atmonds sliveredalmonds

Such playfulness suggests that for at least some individuals the casserole was a ritualturning-upside-down of more elite assumptions about festive food and good food Thedish defies the usual qualities of fine cuisine and gourmet cooking and eating Bycelebrating such food the cullure surrounding it is also celebrated and affirmed IS

The meanings surrounding green hean casserole in northwest Ohio are multiple andsurprisingly complex orten representing conrtieting oppositions These meanings arc aninterplay of public commercially motivated meanings presented through marketing andadvertising and private meanings developed through informal use and experiences withthe dish On one hantL the casserole seellls to represent the traditional but it alsoreprcsents the modcrn an embracing of technology and corporate America It representsthe familiar and mundane yet also represents the festive and celebratory Likewise tbl~casserole is simultaneously fancy in that green beans have been worked into a morecultural product and plain in that the ingredients are familiar and available and thetecbniques for preparation arc minimal requiring no culinary skills other than wieldinga can opener Artislry however can be displayed in the casseroles presentation--as inthe choiec of a casserole dish and the arrangement of the onions on top-and personaltaste and identity can be expressed through variations in ingredients and preparationFinally the casserole is simultaneously national and regional While it is perceived ascOlllmon across the US it seems to resonate with midwestern eaters logically fitting intotheir family and community traditions

The casserole then suggests a regional roodways aesthetic in several ways a relianceOil canned processed foods a lack of spices other than pepper (the salt is bnilt into theeallned soup and onions) an emphasis 011 hearty and filling foods a conservative

approach to new tastes and ingredients and a pride in well-crafted functional dishes thatare economical and efficient Green bean casserole embodies and celebrates that aesthetic

These meanings of the casserole also suggest a regional foodways ethos a system forvaluing food and the activities surrounding it Dishes such as the green bean casserolelend themselves to COllllllllllitas the feeling of belonging to a community in whichmembers arc bound in nonhierarchical relationships (Turner 1969) No one is superiorno one is more of a gourmet In a sense the dish cuts across class in that it is available toall and draws from national rather than elite culture although it would probably bcscorned at gourmet mcals For those concerned with status however it is casily availablcfor manipulation to perform cJass Homcmade white sauce fresh green beans almondsinstead of canned fried (lnions and the addition of little cxtras---capers pimento greenpepper-middot-can all denote wealth and more rdined tastes In fact the ingredients amIpreparation methods of this dish are accessible to all regardless of class race gendcr andethnicity The cans of green beans cream of mushroom soup and french-fried onions arcdistributed nationally they arc inexpensive and available al almost any grocery store ~can all enjoy green heau casserole and we can even develop a connoisseurship of tillsubtle variations avai lable

The meanings associated with the casserole suggestlhat in midwestern culture foodfunctions not so much as cultural capital hut as social capital (BounJicu 19H4) It is uedto build md allinn relillionships in the family or cOllllllunity rather than 10 delllontratestatus In this culture valued foods and vahlld eating experiences arc those that bringpeople together and that crase the social distinctions of class gourmet tastes I1dindi vidualistic prefeiTIlces (reen bean casserole does just that

Corresponding with this finding personal taste seellls to playa secondary role to Iheinclllsionary funct ion of the dish In sOllie of the fami Iies I interviewld the casserole wasan obligatory ritwd part of a ritual meal a dish that had to be included but that IlO oneactually liked or atc In somc cases it was thc contribution of an extended LUllilymember and it was considered more important 10 accept tile contribution--1I1d byimplication the family JIIclllber--middottilaIl it was to have all the foods be well liked

Tile 101klorization tradi I ionll ization and rit ual ization or green bean clsselole suggest tllltltit is possible for a comllleIcial processed food to be broadly representational ami also 10

carry the emotional alllchment that a group may have [0 its region an attaellment llialgeograpller Yi-Fu Tuan refers to ltISlocal patriotism (1974 I() I) Sucll patriotism miglltwell be displayed throughout the Midwest whenever green bean casserole is served

Green bean casserole then rather than reflecting a lack of taste a lack of culinaryskill and sophisticatiol or perilaps worse a passive acceptance or mass-producedcommercial foods and Ileanings represents a regional roodway aesthetic and cthos Tilepopular stcreotype of the Midwest as having no distinctive identity is well kuowll hymidwcstcrners and comes into play whenever the region is discussed Their aWlITllCsuggests that their pliyrulncss with green bean casserole is a rheturiclI slr(cgy

acknowledging and celebrating this representation of midwcstern identity (see also Kakik1984) Furthermore the dish is used by its midwestern consumers in their ownunderstanding of their region as a performative discourse (Bourdieu 1991 223) that notonly claims the Midwest as an identity but also helps to construct a sense of the characterof that identity Such perronnativity was evident in many of the interviews and informaldiscussions of green bean casserole Initially individuals responding to my questionsabout the casserole orten displayed surprise at the idea that this dish could be takenserionsly as a food and as a tradition They orten considered it a tasty food and a part oftheir family customs but since it did not qualify as fine cuisine or as publicly celebratedsymbol they did not associate a meaningful significance with il20 That surprise thenturned to acknowledgment almost a sense of discovery that there is indeed a distinctivemidwestern regional identity and that foods having commercial origins can holdmeaningful places in individuals memories and foodways The very qualities of greenbean casserole that might seem to work against it as a meaningful regionaltradition-mass-production and factory-processing of ingredients case of preparationmllndaneness heaviness in calories and carhohydrates~are the very ones that make it alogical representation or local identity

I For Inorc discussions of the history of the industrialilation of food in thc US see Levenstein 1988 alld20m Cirabaccia 1998 Pi Iisbury 1))8 and Counihan 2002 Scathing critiqucs of the impact of industrializationof food on American ting habits arc orlred by Nestle 2002 and Pollan 2006 For the acceptance by womenin parlicular of progress in cooking see Inllcss 2001 and Shapiro 2004

2 Iur a discussion of the adoption of conulllrcially produced mass-mediated products into contemporarylIadition see Santino 199h

1 Most analyses of contcmpurary Alnerican rood habits condude Ihat Americans lack an appreciation forrefined cooking hecanse onr nalional eulturc has emplwsied quantity over quality packaging over content andspecd and sill as measnres of valur Capitalism is usually hlamed and while I agree that the capitalist systemhas encouraged such valnes I think we also nced 10 look at Ihe ethos and historical conditions that allowedAmcricans to cmbrace such a world view In exccllent analysis of the philosophical foundations of Westernthonght can be found in Barndt 2004 Wllich explores how the reductionist philosophy of Descartes and the anti-nature theologizing of Bacon created a mindsel that allowed North Americans (she includes Canadians in herindictment) 10 sever their conncctions with nature and thc naturalthruugh food

I ani not looking here at why people Ihink something tastcs good or at how panieular tastes develop Thepsychology or taste is a fidd in itsclr and addresses the biological physiological and psychologieal factors intaste My lcns is 011 how a dish comes to make scnsc as part of a meal to a group or people For psychologicalapproaches see Macbcth 1)97 Tasie as a philosophical issue is discussed in Korsmeyer 1lt)99 and Curtin andIleldke 1992

5 t eoutd also use glocalicd here since the spread ordishcs such as green bean casserole is due partiallyto snccessfulmarketing as wcll as to a hegemonic power of such companies as Campbell Soup to define whatis considered the norm of American food The term glocaliation comes from sociologist Roland Robertson(1992) For a comprehensive discussion of theories ollhe relationship of food to place see Bell and Valentine1997

G Roland Barthes identified crisp as a basic American food aesthetic and as the binary opposite ofsweet ([1961]199723)

7 In a holiday assemblage various items are artfnlly ammged to signify the holiday The individual itemsIllay have publicly established symbolism-such as a pumpkin carved into a jack-o -lantern or a baby in amangcr----hut the items may also have either no or too Illany meanings on their own in this case a can of cream

of Illnshroolll soup does not represent Thanksgiving until it is juxtaposed with a can of fried onions and callSof green beans For holiday ltIssenlblage see Santino 199434-41

8 These are my own terms although the ideas are explored and discussed hy philosophers andanthropologists of food fOi example Deane Curtin and I jsa Ilcldke (1992) My ose of the WOld foodways isspecific to folklore in that il refers to a netwOIk of activities and meanings sUITouuding food

9 For more explanatioll of foodways see Yoder 1972 and Long 1999IO For more discussion of identity bcing expressed in food see articles in Ihe volullle edited by I uda

Keller Brown and Kay Msell particularly one by Susau Kalcik (1984) My own approach tothe expression01 iiltntily through lood drmvs heavily from performauce theory in folklore as articulated by Richard Ibulllall(1197711984) and DelllIvlIlcs (1974) see Long 1)99n3i

I I This collect ing was not done as a statist ica I survey although that kind of in format ion would be hel pfiliThe focus ill these c1a~ses VIS Oil the hasic concepts of hDW food traditions carry and construct idclllily I 1Iso

collected information from grlduate students hut tiley tended to have Illore v~Jried hackgrounds alld were l10l

representativc 01 the regiollJ 2 While this ellulllgr1)hy was not systematic I did make sure that I talked to botlliollgiinle residents f

the area and newcomers Soci11 distinclions in this area tend to bc along occupational and political lines ratllerthan racial ethnic or sociocconomic Olles so I atlendcd politicks at cOIllIllunity events ohserved rcacli(llls In

a culinary expo at a locallllall and gave workshops and talks in the area on a Vltlriety 01 food-rated lopicsJndging from responseS to Illy lentative conclusions I keltllat I accurately assessed tile uses and llIeanin~s 01green bean casserole aeross town gown lines as well as the spcctrum of political bcliefs

13lnthe late 1980s I cOlldneted fieldwork for an exllibit Oil folk art ill this region Instead oflhe expectedpaintillgs sculptures and texlile arts I found tllat the artistic impulse tended to be expressed througll praglnaticforms such as farm implcnlents and machinery neatly aligned tree rows and yards and well-organized lanlers(Long II)l)O)

14 A reeeni advertisenllnl suggesting green bean casserole for Easler plays upon tllis idea statingtllatldisll is not only for Thanksgiving anymore The advcrtiscnlent which was copyrigllted in 2006 has aplarcd111 womens magarincs such as Family Circle

11 Longtime Bowlin (inen residcnt Tom Md Iuglrlin recalled tllal tile local dillns and lIalllburgerjinlsserved canned sonps in the I )IOs and 19iOs Wilen soop was ordered the cook would sinlply open a can 01Campbells soup (interview 6262(07)

16 Oikotype is more commonly used to refer to narrative variants that arc found in a parlieular Icdeaud tllal display some aspect of local culture (Brunvand I1)l)8 I n)

17 Claude Levi-Strauss suggests thatllunlans have to act upon the raw iugrcdients in ordcr to tnrn Ilrcnlinto a cultural item known IS fOOl11l1968J1997)

18 Such riles of rever Irc significant ways in whicll dominated cnlturcs maintain a sense of identity aswell as vellt anger at oppression While the American Midwest is in no way all oppressed cullure its residenls

often express frustration at tile hek of awareness and appreciatiun of their rcgion by other areas of tbe eounlryparticularly the coasts

19 Cranbcrry sauce 1111a similar place particularly in its canned jellied form Students expressed disgnstwith botlltlrcse qualities and wondered wily such sauce was part olthe nationalparadiglll

20 This reflects eomllion llIispnceptions of the nature of these phenomena rather than a lack of Ineallillgof green bean casserole itself Disbes to be celebrated tend to be thought of as eitber g011lmel (reprenli~evidence of the mastery or spc-cific culinary arts and usually displaying a higher socioeconolnic status) or asha ving a long hisICl) even 111lt1l1ghthat history may he a mythical une (eg furkly for Tilallk~givillg appk pit

or certain elhnie dishes) Silllillttrly many informants seemed to tbink of th casseroles ritual place in tllifamily as due to inertia lnd lack of curiosity so that it could bc a tmdition but not OIHto be celebrated IPillsbury 1998 pp 11-13 fr a discussion of tradition as inertia) In either case informanls did not cOIlid-rthemselves arbiters of whal ddines Food and Tradition

Anderson Benedict R 11)83 Imagined Canllnllnilies Ref7ec1iol1s 011Ihe Origin and Spread of NationalismLondon Verso

Barndt Deborah 2004 7IIlgied Roules Women Work and (Iobalizalion onlhe I)fwlo Trail Lanham MdRowman and Liuleficld

Barthes Roland 1997 Toward a Psychosoeiology of Contemporary Food Consumption In Food and CullureA Reader ed Carole Counihan and Penny Van ESlerik pp 20--27 (reprinted from 19GI) New YorkRoutledge

Bauman Richard (1971) I)84 Verbal Arl as Ierfinllwe Prospect Heights III WavelandBell David and Gill Valentine I9n Consuming (eographies We Are Where We Eat New York RoutledgeBentley Amy 2002 Islands of Serenity Gender Race and Ordered Meals during World War n In Food il1lhe

USA il RCllder cd Carole M Counihan Pl 171-192Ilourdicu Pierre 1984 Igtislinilioll il Soial Crilique oIhe Judgemenl or 11111 Trans Richard Nice

(alnl11idge Mass Ilarvard lIniversity Inss1991 lInguage and Svmlwlii Ioller Cunbrid~e Polity

Ilrnnvand Jail Ilaroid 11)98 The Stndy of American 1lklore 1n Intl~oduction New York W W Norton ampCompany

(ampbell Soup Company 200l1 hllplwwwcamphcllkitdlcncolll rccipedetailaspxlrceipeID=24099accessed 91 I i200iJ

200ib hltpllwwlVeampbellsoupeompanyeolnhistoryasp accessed 91512006(hilT Directory 2007 htt plwwwchiITcomagreen-bean-casscrolehtm accessed 9152006(ininnali 1011200 I Food reviewCounihan Carole M cd 2002 Iood inlhe USA A Reader New York RutledgeCurtin Deanc W and Lisa M Ilddke cds 1992 Cooking Filling Illinking rr(lsfiml1atlle Philosophies of

Iood Ilioollllngton Indiana University PressDeglr Linda 1994 AlllerillIn Folkillre IIlId Ihe MIIss Media Illoonlington Indiana University PressFertig Judith M 20m The Midwest In middotIII1llopedlaof Food alld Cullure cd Solomon H Katz pp 414--417

New York Charles Scribners SonsUabaccia Donna R 1)1)8 We I( Whol We Eal FlllIlic Food olld Ihe Makillg IIIAmericllnl Cambridge

Mass Ilarvani University Presst ioody lack 1997 Industrial Food Towards tire Deve(llment of a World Cuisine In Food alld Cllilure A

Rellder ed Carole Counilnl and Penny Van Eslerik PI 317middot369 New York RoutledgelIynles Dell 1974 Ways of Speaking In Eplorali(I1s ill IiiI lolhllograph1 oSpeakillg cd Richard Ballman

and Joel Shercr pp 431-412 Calnbridge Cambridge Univcrsity Press- - ----- 1971 Breakthrough into Perfornlanee In Folklore PeljimnallCl alld COlllmullicalioll cd Dan

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Kalcik Susan 1984 Ethnic Foodways in America Symbol and the Performance of Identity In Elhllic alldNegiollill Foods illihe lJlliler SillIes Illc ojimllllllce o(Group Idelllll1 cd Linda Keller Brown and KayMussell pp 37-(1 Knoxville University of Tennessee Press

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Grecn bean casserole) Yuck It always looked gross kind of congealed with things sticking oul 01 itIFiftymiddotyear-old man midwcstern born and bred I

Evcn ifthcy did not catthc food thcmsclves thcsc individuals rccognicd it as a partof their local culinary universe Grecn bean casserole was considercd a normal standardcomponent of both everyday and ritualmcals Many pcoplc were awarc of its COll1n](~rcialorigins but that did not deter its integration into family foodways In fact the dish wasonn mentioncd with affcctionate irony because of its commercial character Mostindividuals howcver had never thought about the dish and assumed it was just onc ofthose foods that as onc pcrson statcd had always bcen there They did not think of itas a tradition because they did not consciously and intentionally prepare and consume itas an expression of idcntity or heritage

Like evcry region thc IVlidwest is both a physical objective space and a culturalmindsetan imagined community (Anderson 1983) of shared values experiences and expressi veforms Ranging from Ohio in the cast westward and north to Minnesota and Wisconsinit also includes Michig~1l1 Indiana Illinois Iowa and Missouri It represents both tileHinterland a backwater of social conservatism and pragmatism and thc Heartland thephysical land center of Amcrica as well as the bastion of the nations family values alllipioneer spirit (Lce 2()()ilxvii-xx vi Fertig 20m) Although there is widc di vcrsity withinthe rcgion particularly in urban ccnters such as Cleveland Sl Louis Sl PanlMinneapolis and Chicago there tend to be overarching cultural pattcrtls that arerecognizable to both iuiders and outsiders Several university townsmiddot--Ann Arbortvlichigan Madison isconsin and Antioch and Obcrlin in Ohio--stand out as llles llfartistic crcativity sllcial progressivism and political libcralism-dcmonstrating hycontrast a recognizable midwcstern identity Frequently rcsicknts think of thcmsel vcs ltIS

representing a mythicd Middle America with straightforward aHmiddotmiddotAmerican culturaltraditions Ironically this also translatcs into a perccption of lacking a spccific regiollalidentity

lalyses of thc Ilgions foodways affirm that rcpresentation of Middlc AmericaGeographer Richard Pillsbury states thaI the cuisine of thc Midwcst is mostly a productof th~ lndustrial Revoltllion and that the regions consumption patterns clearly rdicciIhe conservative character of the population (1998220 221) Other scholars Inledescribed midwestern loxl as plain and straightforward hearty and wholesome food Ihatsticks to your I ibs to gel you through thc day (Long 200428 I sce also lrosterman 2005and Shotridgc 20()J l The public iuwge of midwesterll food is nleat and p0(ltoes hlIecooking basic ingrediellt and few spices or surprises Other than a few cthnic disks itis not scen as having 111ctual cuisine thc perccption being that people jnst cook an I (Il

traditjolwl wholcsollw fmerican food without thinking too rllllch about it

My research focuscd on the northwest corner of Ohio solidly within the physical andcultural boundaries of the Midwest Encompassing an area known as the Great BlackSwamp this subrcgion of the Midwcst is on the eastern edge of the Great Plains so isdefined by a flat landscape and what used to be swamps and oak forests before drainagesystcms wcrc dcvcloped and the trees were cut for lumbcr in the mid-180C)s The earliestsettlers tcndcd to bc Anglo-Americans and German immigrants looking for farmlandNcstled at the southern tip of Lake Eric the largest city Toledo was anticipated in themid-1800s to become onc of the great interior ports and conduits for trade highly urbanand industrial Tolcdo attracted immigrants to its factories whilc the rest of the arearemained agricultural Bowling Grccn where I teach is a city of approximatcly thirtythousand (with another twenty thousand students) home to a state university BowlingGrecn is surrounded by farmland and small towns Since the mid-1990s the farmland hasbeen rapidly turning into housing devclopmcnts and the area between Bowling Green andToledo is now full of bedroom communities for commuters

Northwesl Ohios population today is a mix of urban and rural It has wide variationin sociocconomic class and is largcly Europcan with pockcts of African Amcrican andllispanic scttlcment Although secmingly homogl~ncous the subrcgion has widc divcrsityin that tlwre are numerous European ancestrics reprcscntcd from dcscendcnts of carlyAnglo-American colonists to nincteenth-ccntury Gcrmans and Irish to later immigrantsfrom castern Europc

The culture tends to bc a pragmatic and practical one with a conservatism shaped bya trust in hands-on expcrienee Its pcople gencrally do not romanticize the past or natureThe past is to be learned from and nature is there to be tamcd and made useful~or atIcast not dangerous--to humans It also tends to be economically conservative fullysupportive ofcapitalisl1l and commcrcialization At the samc time it has always embracedtechnology concentrating on developing machinery to improvc work and livingconditions ( Outside of Toledo northwcst Ohio is agricultural but the agriculture is ahighly illdustrialized and commcrcialized onc Along with large corporate farms producingcorn and soybeans the area is homc to major processing plants and canning factoriesincluding such well-established national companics as Heinz and Campbell Soup

Within this cultural contcxt food is fuel and is often evaluated by its energy-givingqualities rather than by aesthetic ones related to relined tastes Heavy on carbohydratesand starches local food ways 1Iso rellcct the German and British settlemcnt heritagc asscen in dishes such as roast beer potatoes meatloaf sausages cream sauces blends ofsweet and sour flavors and a heavy use or sugar Even though most families raised gardenvegetables thcse tcnded to bc preserved by canning so that using canned goods albeitCOlllllllTcially processed ones is a part of traditional preparation methods Tastes havebeen trained to accotlllllodate thc prescrvcd and proccssed foods This is a culture thenthat accepts cOllllTlercial and proeesscd foods as the normal and right way for food tobe Consislcnt witli tlris ethos the recipc 101green bean casserole~open cans mixlJltlke----can be rcad as a celebration of tcchnology

The green bean casseroles commercial identity is well established and its origination inthe food industry is in no way hidden Campbell Soups official histories and promotionalmaterials proudly claim it as its own invention stating that the green hean casserole is

both one of the companys top ranked and most recommended recipesThe official recipe as given on the companys Web site begins as follows

From Camlhdls Kilclun

IrepTimc 10 minules

Bakc Timc 30 minule

Serves 6

lugredientsI can ( I () 34 0) CalJllhelIs Condensed Crealll or Mushroom Soup OR CalJlphellsCi9 Coudensd

98X Fat Free Crcam or MusluoOIJI Soup

12 cup milk

I tsp soy sauce

dash ground black IIICI4 cups cooked CUi grceu heusI 3 cups frenchs(I) Ftench Fried Onions

(Camphdl Soup Compauy 2005aj

CUllpbells claims of the popularity of the casserole arc not hyperbole as is provcnby the inclusion of the recipe in most popular Americ1I1cookbooks allli by reference~ toit in the mass lnedia II is marketed nationally for Thanksgiving meals and secms to havebecome an accepted part of the holiday within mass-mediated culture lior example in aCinlillllmi Post colullln in 200 I a food reviewer gave these suggestions for a successfulThanksgiving First theres Green Bean Bake which is made of canned erealn of-mushroom soup and canned French-fried onions Countless families count on thisparticular dish being Ullong the dishes of stuffing cranberries mashed potatoes andturkey gravy She pre~enled the reeipc in case its not embedded in your brain andcontrasted the recipe Irom Durkee with thai of Campbells Soup the di(lerences heingminor the alllount of Illilk pepper (one-cighth teaspoon as opposed to a dash) and theinclusion of soy sauce by Campbells Another Web site lists a recipe for grcen hcancasserole asking Wlwl would the fall season be without the traditional AlnCricl1lfavorite (Chi (1Directory 2(07) Thc site also includes links to Thanksgi ving Rccipesand Dclicious (ass(roe Recipcs for your Holiday Season Other Web sites nldpublished recipes decrihc the casserolc as classic traditional a Thanksgiving~uUJdardThese rere clwes in popular culture both assume and affirm the place or grclllbean casserole in the public consciousness as a traditional dish and as a traditionalconlpollcnt of ThankTivilg dinm~rl

Part of this sense of traditionality attached to the dish may come from the long historyof the company that invented it and from that organizations place in American popularculture According to its Web site the Campbell Soup Company was founded in 1869 inNew Jersey by Joseph Campbell a fruit merchant and Abraham Anderson an iceboxmanufacturer In 1897 the company invented condensed soups selling them for a dimefor a ten-ounce can This condensed soup was displayed at the Paris Exhibition of 1900where it won a gold medal~an image of which is still shown today on the can labels In1916 the company published a cookbook HelpsfJr the Hostess that suggested ways toincorporatc condensed soups into cooking In 1931 they began radio ads including thesaying M m M 1111 Good which then entered into popular culture In 1934 cream ofmushroom sour was inventcd and was lhc first of Campbells soups to be promoted as asauce as well as a soup 1n 1955 thc green bean casserole was invented by Campbellhome economists Today morc than one million cans of soup arc used everyday and thegreen bcan casserolc is one of the most popular and most requested recipes from thecompany (Camphell Soup Company 20OSb)

()rigi nail y the Camphcll Soup (~ompany demonstrated moderni ty through its factoryproduclion markeling and emphasis on convenience lis products however have beenincorporated into the home cooking of many families to the point that their use hashecome traditional The canned soups havc been atlached to peorles memories of theirchildhood and 10 family lunches5 Canned tomato soup and a grilled cheese sandwich forexample is still a popular lunch for wintry days

Anotllcr factor in undcrstanding the acceplance of the green bean casserole into traditionis its categorization as a casscrole Casseroles have a special placc in American idenlityThey connotc comilltltlal eating sharing and generosity At office potlucks churchsuppers Iud community picnics casseroles are a staple This is partly due to theirconvenienee~thcy arc casy to transport their ingredients arc readily available andrelatively inexpensive and thcy are quick to prepare--but it is also due to theirdependability--lhcy require little culinary skill Referred to as hot dishes in the upperMidwest or bakcs in northwest Ohio casseroles actually represent a depm1ure from theusual British-based i +23 meal structure (featuring a piece of meat with twoIceoillpaniments) that undcrlies the American meal In fact nutritionists originallydiscouraged such mixing of ingredients siuce it was considered an obstacle to digestion(Benlley 2002 179) According to Sarah Rath however the casserole became integratedinto American foodway during the depressions of the 1890s and the 1930s when theeconomical casscrole provided a welcome way to stretch mcat fish and poultryRationing during World War I required cooks to rely on leftovers often recycling theminto casseroles Rath also poinls oul thai casseroles originally denoted culinarysophistication to American cooks but immigrants brought their own casserole recipes tothe New World in the nineteenth century and favorite ethnic and regional classicsevol ved (2004 194)

Like many foods that started out as high-class then the casserole filtered down to themiddle and lower classes According to Jack Goody (1997) this process occurredthroughout Europe where the adoption of new foods was a search for status a form ofsocial climbing by emulating the eating habits of the upper classes In the United Statesthe process may have taken a different turn in that the casserole seems to have beenadopted out of convenience rather than status-seeking It was then democratized used foreveryday as well as festive meals and turned into a familiar comfort food

Ironically the green bean casserole docs not satisfy the definition of the standardcasserole which is a mixture of a protein source-meat or fish--with a starch alllusually some chopped vegetables all bound together with a sauce The tuna-noodlecasserole also invented by the Campbell Company (in 1934) better fits the expectation(Like the green bean bake the tuna-noodle casserole uses a can of crcam of mushroomsoup and was invented purposely to expand the market for Campbells soups at the sametime it modernized the American casserole 1110re generally by specifying a topping ofpotato chips rather than the more traditional breadcrtlmbs) Although the green bl~anconcoction is not strictly speaking a casserole the fact thai Campbells marketed it as OIW

in 1955 suggests that the images of casseroles as traditional and homey were alreadyimplanted in the national American consciousness

One of the primary ways in which new materials whether mass-produced or handmadearc incorporated into lXisling cultural systems is through variations These variationsrepresent performances of identities and circumstances of the individuals and COmnllll1itiesadapting those materiils This proccss of folklorization (Degh 199423) akin totraditionalization (Ilymes 1975) then allows new materials to carry mcmories andmeanings sp(~cific to those performers While this is a naturally occurring processsuccessful Il1mketing Ilcognizes its usefulness and nudges consumers to feci that they mepersonalizing a recipe Ihrough variations

The current Web ite for Campbell Soup includes a number of aitelllatives tu theoriginal basic recipe For example a can of Condensed 911 Fat Free Cream uflvlushroom Soup Clt11lwplace the regnlar soup The basic recipe then uses one-Iwlf Clipof milk flavored with one teaspoon of soy sauce and a dash of ground blaek IWIPcrFour cups of cooked cut green heans are called for hntthe type of cut is not speci licdIII a list of preparation Iips variations on the beans are suggested frozen green beans (onehag or two packages) canned green beans (two sixteen-ounce cans) or fresh green belIls(oue and one-half pounds) It is interesting to note these as variations since many cookswould consider them obvious substitutions rather than creative alternatives Frellch sfrench-rried onions u e also said to he essential Everything except half or the onions ismixed together and hiked for twenlymiddot-five minutes in a 350-dcgrec lIVCII The rel1llilliniouions ilre then sprinkled over the top and the casserole is haked for live more minutesCampbells tips sUggJSI variations for a change of pilee for a creative twist for iIfctivc touch and lpr1 heartier Illllshroom flavor Again these variations seelllllliuiJr

substituting broccoli flowerets for green beans substituting Campbells CondensedGolden Mushroom Soup for Cream of Mushroom Soup and adding chopped redpepper (the assumption being that this is red sweet pepper not red chili pepper) A notefrom a Web site member states that she used slivered almonds to replace the fried onionssince she is allergic to onions-and it tastes really good (Campbell Soup Company2005a)

Campbells recipe is written in such a way as to make it sound more sophisticated andrequiring a bit more skill than the recipe in oral tradition which to quote an informantis Open a can a Illushroom soup two cans of green beans and a can of fried onions mixtogether in a pan and bake in the oven

Although suggesting the personalization of commercial products is a commonmarketing strategy il is also a way of encouraging individuals to attach their ownidentities to the product which can result in developing individual meanings Iteneonrages people 10 participate in recipe alteration thus creating a sense of ownershipof the resulting variant recipe That personal variations fit into the standard practices ofcooks and meet the artistic needs of individuals 10 experiment is suggested by thenumerous alternative recipes given in magazines and cookbooks For example in acolumn for the Cincinnati Post in 20() I the writer offered her own variations for greenbean casserole

I canl resisl an addition or tW( such as choppcd water chcstnuts or dieed jicama for more crunch than

thc fried onions give a cnpfnl 01 Iresh mushrooms sliced and sauleed over high heat 10 make the

mushroom suup more lIlushroom fresh green beans well cooked in place of canned or frozen french-cllt

hcans sour cream and a lot of dry sherry 10 jazz up the sonpy sauce

While particular hrands of ingredients arc frequently specified by cookbooks andpublished recipes-such as Campbells soup or Frenchs (previously Durkee) french-friedonions---in actual practice any number of variations arc possible None of them challengethe basic paradigm The beans can be fresh or rrozen they can be french-cut (ie in thinstrips) or regular The soup can he replaced with a hOlllemade white sauce (very daring)and sauteed Iresh lIlushroollls the canned onions can be substituted with potato stickscrumbled potato chips or toasted sli vered almonds These variations give individual cooksthe sense 01personal ownership of the recipe and ill fact people discussing the casseroleIrcl[uently refer to the recipes of specific individuals

Similarly in my research I found that people in my area of the Midwest oftendiscussed the variations of the casserole arguing for instance the merits of toastedslivered almonds over those of canned fried onions the besl amounts of salt and pepperor of soy sauce or the use 01frozen green beans ral her than canned ones (or home cannedrather than conunercially canned) Interestingly there did not seem to be variations thatwere unique to northwest Ohio-a regional oikotype of green bean casserole so tospeak Itgt F lowever the variant ingredients often carried personalized memories Forexample the canned green beans had been bought at the favorite grocery store or thehome canned ones had been cannecl by a relative Similarly the arrangement andpresenlation of the ingredients were often personalized One family had a white ceramic

dish that was always the green bean casserole dish Another had to have the fried onionssprinkled on top in a particular pattern

This critiquing of variations suggests first of all the existence of an aesthetic systema system for the evaluation of tastiness and satisfaction In my research sample it wascommon for individuals to have a favorite version of the recipe or to prerer onemaker--llsually a grandmother-over another The evaluation also freqnently includedthe merits of different brands of commercial goods and there tended to he a high degre(~of brand loyalty Ironically the ingredients were not speci fic to the Midwcst hut attentionto the idcntity of comlllcrcial products seemed to he common It may represent a localclhos that embraces the industrial incorporating it into personal tradition Brand loyallywas evident in other dishes-chili had to be made with a certain brand of beans and sauceand hot chicken sandwiches another local tradition had to he made with Roots cannedshredded chickcn

One point that repondents consistently hought up as an advantage of green bean casserolewas its familiarity MidVl~sterners particularly find the ingredients preparation and forlllof the casserole familiar One woman in describing its success suggested Its at everypotluck and its always popular Its so quick (0 make---pnfcct for the olliccpotluck--middotand I guess pcople like the familiar

This aura of familillity seemed to lend itself to the dish being perccived as cOn1l110nand normaL lts presence was assumed at group events and while lIwt presence usnallywasnt celebrated the casseroles absence would bc noticed and commented uponFlIltllCnnore the casscrole Illay appeal by virtue of its ability to neatly synthesize apparenloppositions It represents the familiar mundane and everyday in that it is thought of IS

an everyday conveniencc food yet it also represents the festive in that it is closelyassociated with potlncks Ind holiday meals Those festive events can he both scmipnblicinvolving members of oCupational recreational or religious cOlllnlnnities and privltewithin the family AI such events the casserole acts as a bridge between (wo real IllSconnecting puhlic and pi j vate domains making coworkers like fami Iy and making Lnlli Iyrelationships somewhat nlore formal and ceremonial than they might otherwise be

Green bean casserole also utilizes ingredients that arc generally familiar bUI in a m()l(~worked flshion that can connote festivity17 In Ilorthwest Ohio green beans ale acommon vegetable oftcn c()(lked and canned and served alongside meat and potatoes theyarc also made into a salad with a sweet-and-sour dressing Casseroles arc a familiar formhere connoting comrol ting sociability and canned cream soups arc COllUnon forlunchtime meals Dressing up familiar foods like these for holiday and special occasiollmeals lends itself to rituali7ation A recurring symbolic event (SantinolY94 II) thespecial dinner relies on sllhle components to ground it in peoples experiences as a ritutlcelebration Highlighting components that are familiar allows for more individuals toparticipate in the ritual ami to create a greater sense of unity throngh it In my sludy Ifound thallhis sense t1wt green bean casserole had been ritualized was part of what peopk

seemed to like about it Like the turkey dressing and mashed potatoes for Thanksgivingdinner the casserole appeared every year comforting in its reliability and consistency andconnoting family tradition and stability The fact that it was also found at other festiveoccasions and was not exclusive to Thanksgiving underscored its air of familiarity

1 also found a ludic or playful quality to many discussions of green bean casseroleMost of the individuals with whom 1 spoke were aware of the stereotypes of midwesternculture and cuisine and the ways in which the casserole fed into those stereotypes Theydiscussed the dish with a trace of sarcasm in their voices laughingly recounting the recipeOpen cans mix and bake They also recognized the apparent irony of this highlyprocessed food being a family tradition One infornlant describing her familys traditionaldinner rolled her eyes and recalled

Well elme tell you how my mOlher llIade il She opened a can of Camphells mushroom soup and a canof Del Monlemiddots green heans I her hnshand interjected and those onion things Yeah canned friedonions hUI she used polalo sticks t Ihink thats the way Sometimes she used atmonds sliveredalmonds

Such playfulness suggests that for at least some individuals the casserole was a ritualturning-upside-down of more elite assumptions about festive food and good food Thedish defies the usual qualities of fine cuisine and gourmet cooking and eating Bycelebrating such food the cullure surrounding it is also celebrated and affirmed IS

The meanings surrounding green hean casserole in northwest Ohio are multiple andsurprisingly complex orten representing conrtieting oppositions These meanings arc aninterplay of public commercially motivated meanings presented through marketing andadvertising and private meanings developed through informal use and experiences withthe dish On one hantL the casserole seellls to represent the traditional but it alsoreprcsents the modcrn an embracing of technology and corporate America It representsthe familiar and mundane yet also represents the festive and celebratory Likewise tbl~casserole is simultaneously fancy in that green beans have been worked into a morecultural product and plain in that the ingredients are familiar and available and thetecbniques for preparation arc minimal requiring no culinary skills other than wieldinga can opener Artislry however can be displayed in the casseroles presentation--as inthe choiec of a casserole dish and the arrangement of the onions on top-and personaltaste and identity can be expressed through variations in ingredients and preparationFinally the casserole is simultaneously national and regional While it is perceived ascOlllmon across the US it seems to resonate with midwestern eaters logically fitting intotheir family and community traditions

The casserole then suggests a regional roodways aesthetic in several ways a relianceOil canned processed foods a lack of spices other than pepper (the salt is bnilt into theeallned soup and onions) an emphasis 011 hearty and filling foods a conservative

approach to new tastes and ingredients and a pride in well-crafted functional dishes thatare economical and efficient Green bean casserole embodies and celebrates that aesthetic

These meanings of the casserole also suggest a regional foodways ethos a system forvaluing food and the activities surrounding it Dishes such as the green bean casserolelend themselves to COllllllllllitas the feeling of belonging to a community in whichmembers arc bound in nonhierarchical relationships (Turner 1969) No one is superiorno one is more of a gourmet In a sense the dish cuts across class in that it is available toall and draws from national rather than elite culture although it would probably bcscorned at gourmet mcals For those concerned with status however it is casily availablcfor manipulation to perform cJass Homcmade white sauce fresh green beans almondsinstead of canned fried (lnions and the addition of little cxtras---capers pimento greenpepper-middot-can all denote wealth and more rdined tastes In fact the ingredients amIpreparation methods of this dish are accessible to all regardless of class race gendcr andethnicity The cans of green beans cream of mushroom soup and french-fried onions arcdistributed nationally they arc inexpensive and available al almost any grocery store ~can all enjoy green heau casserole and we can even develop a connoisseurship of tillsubtle variations avai lable

The meanings associated with the casserole suggestlhat in midwestern culture foodfunctions not so much as cultural capital hut as social capital (BounJicu 19H4) It is uedto build md allinn relillionships in the family or cOllllllunity rather than 10 delllontratestatus In this culture valued foods and vahlld eating experiences arc those that bringpeople together and that crase the social distinctions of class gourmet tastes I1dindi vidualistic prefeiTIlces (reen bean casserole does just that

Corresponding with this finding personal taste seellls to playa secondary role to Iheinclllsionary funct ion of the dish In sOllie of the fami Iies I interviewld the casserole wasan obligatory ritwd part of a ritual meal a dish that had to be included but that IlO oneactually liked or atc In somc cases it was thc contribution of an extended LUllilymember and it was considered more important 10 accept tile contribution--1I1d byimplication the family JIIclllber--middottilaIl it was to have all the foods be well liked

Tile 101klorization tradi I ionll ization and rit ual ization or green bean clsselole suggest tllltltit is possible for a comllleIcial processed food to be broadly representational ami also 10

carry the emotional alllchment that a group may have [0 its region an attaellment llialgeograpller Yi-Fu Tuan refers to ltISlocal patriotism (1974 I() I) Sucll patriotism miglltwell be displayed throughout the Midwest whenever green bean casserole is served

Green bean casserole then rather than reflecting a lack of taste a lack of culinaryskill and sophisticatiol or perilaps worse a passive acceptance or mass-producedcommercial foods and Ileanings represents a regional roodway aesthetic and cthos Tilepopular stcreotype of the Midwest as having no distinctive identity is well kuowll hymidwcstcrners and comes into play whenever the region is discussed Their aWlITllCsuggests that their pliyrulncss with green bean casserole is a rheturiclI slr(cgy

acknowledging and celebrating this representation of midwcstern identity (see also Kakik1984) Furthermore the dish is used by its midwestern consumers in their ownunderstanding of their region as a performative discourse (Bourdieu 1991 223) that notonly claims the Midwest as an identity but also helps to construct a sense of the characterof that identity Such perronnativity was evident in many of the interviews and informaldiscussions of green bean casserole Initially individuals responding to my questionsabout the casserole orten displayed surprise at the idea that this dish could be takenserionsly as a food and as a tradition They orten considered it a tasty food and a part oftheir family customs but since it did not qualify as fine cuisine or as publicly celebratedsymbol they did not associate a meaningful significance with il20 That surprise thenturned to acknowledgment almost a sense of discovery that there is indeed a distinctivemidwestern regional identity and that foods having commercial origins can holdmeaningful places in individuals memories and foodways The very qualities of greenbean casserole that might seem to work against it as a meaningful regionaltradition-mass-production and factory-processing of ingredients case of preparationmllndaneness heaviness in calories and carhohydrates~are the very ones that make it alogical representation or local identity

I For Inorc discussions of the history of the industrialilation of food in thc US see Levenstein 1988 alld20m Cirabaccia 1998 Pi Iisbury 1))8 and Counihan 2002 Scathing critiqucs of the impact of industrializationof food on American ting habits arc orlred by Nestle 2002 and Pollan 2006 For the acceptance by womenin parlicular of progress in cooking see Inllcss 2001 and Shapiro 2004

2 Iur a discussion of the adoption of conulllrcially produced mass-mediated products into contemporarylIadition see Santino 199h

1 Most analyses of contcmpurary Alnerican rood habits condude Ihat Americans lack an appreciation forrefined cooking hecanse onr nalional eulturc has emplwsied quantity over quality packaging over content andspecd and sill as measnres of valur Capitalism is usually hlamed and while I agree that the capitalist systemhas encouraged such valnes I think we also nced 10 look at Ihe ethos and historical conditions that allowedAmcricans to cmbrace such a world view In exccllent analysis of the philosophical foundations of Westernthonght can be found in Barndt 2004 Wllich explores how the reductionist philosophy of Descartes and the anti-nature theologizing of Bacon created a mindsel that allowed North Americans (she includes Canadians in herindictment) 10 sever their conncctions with nature and thc naturalthruugh food

I ani not looking here at why people Ihink something tastcs good or at how panieular tastes develop Thepsychology or taste is a fidd in itsclr and addresses the biological physiological and psychologieal factors intaste My lcns is 011 how a dish comes to make scnsc as part of a meal to a group or people For psychologicalapproaches see Macbcth 1)97 Tasie as a philosophical issue is discussed in Korsmeyer 1lt)99 and Curtin andIleldke 1992

5 t eoutd also use glocalicd here since the spread ordishcs such as green bean casserole is due partiallyto snccessfulmarketing as wcll as to a hegemonic power of such companies as Campbell Soup to define whatis considered the norm of American food The term glocaliation comes from sociologist Roland Robertson(1992) For a comprehensive discussion of theories ollhe relationship of food to place see Bell and Valentine1997

G Roland Barthes identified crisp as a basic American food aesthetic and as the binary opposite ofsweet ([1961]199723)

7 In a holiday assemblage various items are artfnlly ammged to signify the holiday The individual itemsIllay have publicly established symbolism-such as a pumpkin carved into a jack-o -lantern or a baby in amangcr----hut the items may also have either no or too Illany meanings on their own in this case a can of cream

of Illnshroolll soup does not represent Thanksgiving until it is juxtaposed with a can of fried onions and callSof green beans For holiday ltIssenlblage see Santino 199434-41

8 These are my own terms although the ideas are explored and discussed hy philosophers andanthropologists of food fOi example Deane Curtin and I jsa Ilcldke (1992) My ose of the WOld foodways isspecific to folklore in that il refers to a netwOIk of activities and meanings sUITouuding food

9 For more explanatioll of foodways see Yoder 1972 and Long 1999IO For more discussion of identity bcing expressed in food see articles in Ihe volullle edited by I uda

Keller Brown and Kay Msell particularly one by Susau Kalcik (1984) My own approach tothe expression01 iiltntily through lood drmvs heavily from performauce theory in folklore as articulated by Richard Ibulllall(1197711984) and DelllIvlIlcs (1974) see Long 1)99n3i

I I This collect ing was not done as a statist ica I survey although that kind of in format ion would be hel pfiliThe focus ill these c1a~ses VIS Oil the hasic concepts of hDW food traditions carry and construct idclllily I 1Iso

collected information from grlduate students hut tiley tended to have Illore v~Jried hackgrounds alld were l10l

representativc 01 the regiollJ 2 While this ellulllgr1)hy was not systematic I did make sure that I talked to botlliollgiinle residents f

the area and newcomers Soci11 distinclions in this area tend to bc along occupational and political lines ratllerthan racial ethnic or sociocconomic Olles so I atlendcd politicks at cOIllIllunity events ohserved rcacli(llls In

a culinary expo at a locallllall and gave workshops and talks in the area on a Vltlriety 01 food-rated lopicsJndging from responseS to Illy lentative conclusions I keltllat I accurately assessed tile uses and llIeanin~s 01green bean casserole aeross town gown lines as well as the spcctrum of political bcliefs

13lnthe late 1980s I cOlldneted fieldwork for an exllibit Oil folk art ill this region Instead oflhe expectedpaintillgs sculptures and texlile arts I found tllat the artistic impulse tended to be expressed througll praglnaticforms such as farm implcnlents and machinery neatly aligned tree rows and yards and well-organized lanlers(Long II)l)O)

14 A reeeni advertisenllnl suggesting green bean casserole for Easler plays upon tllis idea statingtllatldisll is not only for Thanksgiving anymore The advcrtiscnlent which was copyrigllted in 2006 has aplarcd111 womens magarincs such as Family Circle

11 Longtime Bowlin (inen residcnt Tom Md Iuglrlin recalled tllal tile local dillns and lIalllburgerjinlsserved canned sonps in the I )IOs and 19iOs Wilen soop was ordered the cook would sinlply open a can 01Campbells soup (interview 6262(07)

16 Oikotype is more commonly used to refer to narrative variants that arc found in a parlieular Icdeaud tllal display some aspect of local culture (Brunvand I1)l)8 I n)

17 Claude Levi-Strauss suggests thatllunlans have to act upon the raw iugrcdients in ordcr to tnrn Ilrcnlinto a cultural item known IS fOOl11l1968J1997)

18 Such riles of rever Irc significant ways in whicll dominated cnlturcs maintain a sense of identity aswell as vellt anger at oppression While the American Midwest is in no way all oppressed cullure its residenls

often express frustration at tile hek of awareness and appreciatiun of their rcgion by other areas of tbe eounlryparticularly the coasts

19 Cranbcrry sauce 1111a similar place particularly in its canned jellied form Students expressed disgnstwith botlltlrcse qualities and wondered wily such sauce was part olthe nationalparadiglll

20 This reflects eomllion llIispnceptions of the nature of these phenomena rather than a lack of Ineallillgof green bean casserole itself Disbes to be celebrated tend to be thought of as eitber g011lmel (reprenli~evidence of the mastery or spc-cific culinary arts and usually displaying a higher socioeconolnic status) or asha ving a long hisICl) even 111lt1l1ghthat history may he a mythical une (eg furkly for Tilallk~givillg appk pit

or certain elhnie dishes) Silllillttrly many informants seemed to tbink of th casseroles ritual place in tllifamily as due to inertia lnd lack of curiosity so that it could bc a tmdition but not OIHto be celebrated IPillsbury 1998 pp 11-13 fr a discussion of tradition as inertia) In either case informanls did not cOIlid-rthemselves arbiters of whal ddines Food and Tradition

Anderson Benedict R 11)83 Imagined Canllnllnilies Ref7ec1iol1s 011Ihe Origin and Spread of NationalismLondon Verso

Barndt Deborah 2004 7IIlgied Roules Women Work and (Iobalizalion onlhe I)fwlo Trail Lanham MdRowman and Liuleficld

Barthes Roland 1997 Toward a Psychosoeiology of Contemporary Food Consumption In Food and CullureA Reader ed Carole Counihan and Penny Van ESlerik pp 20--27 (reprinted from 19GI) New YorkRoutledge

Bauman Richard (1971) I)84 Verbal Arl as Ierfinllwe Prospect Heights III WavelandBell David and Gill Valentine I9n Consuming (eographies We Are Where We Eat New York RoutledgeBentley Amy 2002 Islands of Serenity Gender Race and Ordered Meals during World War n In Food il1lhe

USA il RCllder cd Carole M Counihan Pl 171-192Ilourdicu Pierre 1984 Igtislinilioll il Soial Crilique oIhe Judgemenl or 11111 Trans Richard Nice

(alnl11idge Mass Ilarvard lIniversity Inss1991 lInguage and Svmlwlii Ioller Cunbrid~e Polity

Ilrnnvand Jail Ilaroid 11)98 The Stndy of American 1lklore 1n Intl~oduction New York W W Norton ampCompany

(ampbell Soup Company 200l1 hllplwwwcamphcllkitdlcncolll rccipedetailaspxlrceipeID=24099accessed 91 I i200iJ

200ib hltpllwwlVeampbellsoupeompanyeolnhistoryasp accessed 91512006(hilT Directory 2007 htt plwwwchiITcomagreen-bean-casscrolehtm accessed 9152006(ininnali 1011200 I Food reviewCounihan Carole M cd 2002 Iood inlhe USA A Reader New York RutledgeCurtin Deanc W and Lisa M Ilddke cds 1992 Cooking Filling Illinking rr(lsfiml1atlle Philosophies of

Iood Ilioollllngton Indiana University PressDeglr Linda 1994 AlllerillIn Folkillre IIlId Ihe MIIss Media Illoonlington Indiana University PressFertig Judith M 20m The Midwest In middotIII1llopedlaof Food alld Cullure cd Solomon H Katz pp 414--417

New York Charles Scribners SonsUabaccia Donna R 1)1)8 We I( Whol We Eal FlllIlic Food olld Ihe Makillg IIIAmericllnl Cambridge

Mass Ilarvani University Presst ioody lack 1997 Industrial Food Towards tire Deve(llment of a World Cuisine In Food alld Cllilure A

Rellder ed Carole Counilnl and Penny Van Eslerik PI 317middot369 New York RoutledgelIynles Dell 1974 Ways of Speaking In Eplorali(I1s ill IiiI lolhllograph1 oSpeakillg cd Richard Ballman

and Joel Shercr pp 431-412 Calnbridge Cambridge Univcrsity Press- - ----- 1971 Breakthrough into Perfornlanee In Folklore PeljimnallCl alld COlllmullicalioll cd Dan

Ikn-Amos and Kenneth S Goldstein PI 11--74 The llague Moutonluness Slrerrie 1 200 I Dillller (oles ilIIniulli WOIIICllalld Culil1O) Cullure Iowa City University of Iowa

Press

Kalcik Susan 1984 Ethnic Foodways in America Symbol and the Performance of Identity In Elhllic alldNegiollill Foods illihe lJlliler SillIes Illc ojimllllllce o(Group Idelllll1 cd Linda Keller Brown and KayMussell pp 37-(1 Knoxville University of Tennessee Press

Korsmeyer Carolyn I tJ99 Mokillg Sellse 0 Tosle Food alld hilosoph Ithaea NY Cornell UniversityPress

Lee Juditlr Yaross 2004 Introduction lu the Midwesl ed Joseph W Slade and Jndith Yaross Lee PIXIImiddot--XXX Vcstport Conn Greenwood

Levensteiu llarvey 1988 RelOllIlioll III Ihe ]ie Tile IiIlIlSfimnatioll 0 the Alllerican Diel CambridgeOxford University Press

__ _----2003 Paradox 0 1111)A Social History 0 Flllillg in Modem America Los Angeles Universityof California Press

The green bean casseroles commercial identity is well established and its origination inthe food industry is in no way hidden Campbell Soups official histories and promotionalmaterials proudly claim it as its own invention stating that the green hean casserole is

both one of the companys top ranked and most recommended recipesThe official recipe as given on the companys Web site begins as follows

From Camlhdls Kilclun

IrepTimc 10 minules

Bakc Timc 30 minule

Serves 6

lugredientsI can ( I () 34 0) CalJllhelIs Condensed Crealll or Mushroom Soup OR CalJlphellsCi9 Coudensd

98X Fat Free Crcam or MusluoOIJI Soup

12 cup milk

I tsp soy sauce

dash ground black IIICI4 cups cooked CUi grceu heusI 3 cups frenchs(I) Ftench Fried Onions

(Camphdl Soup Compauy 2005aj

CUllpbells claims of the popularity of the casserole arc not hyperbole as is provcnby the inclusion of the recipe in most popular Americ1I1cookbooks allli by reference~ toit in the mass lnedia II is marketed nationally for Thanksgiving meals and secms to havebecome an accepted part of the holiday within mass-mediated culture lior example in aCinlillllmi Post colullln in 200 I a food reviewer gave these suggestions for a successfulThanksgiving First theres Green Bean Bake which is made of canned erealn of-mushroom soup and canned French-fried onions Countless families count on thisparticular dish being Ullong the dishes of stuffing cranberries mashed potatoes andturkey gravy She pre~enled the reeipc in case its not embedded in your brain andcontrasted the recipe Irom Durkee with thai of Campbells Soup the di(lerences heingminor the alllount of Illilk pepper (one-cighth teaspoon as opposed to a dash) and theinclusion of soy sauce by Campbells Another Web site lists a recipe for grcen hcancasserole asking Wlwl would the fall season be without the traditional AlnCricl1lfavorite (Chi (1Directory 2(07) Thc site also includes links to Thanksgi ving Rccipesand Dclicious (ass(roe Recipcs for your Holiday Season Other Web sites nldpublished recipes decrihc the casserolc as classic traditional a Thanksgiving~uUJdardThese rere clwes in popular culture both assume and affirm the place or grclllbean casserole in the public consciousness as a traditional dish and as a traditionalconlpollcnt of ThankTivilg dinm~rl

Part of this sense of traditionality attached to the dish may come from the long historyof the company that invented it and from that organizations place in American popularculture According to its Web site the Campbell Soup Company was founded in 1869 inNew Jersey by Joseph Campbell a fruit merchant and Abraham Anderson an iceboxmanufacturer In 1897 the company invented condensed soups selling them for a dimefor a ten-ounce can This condensed soup was displayed at the Paris Exhibition of 1900where it won a gold medal~an image of which is still shown today on the can labels In1916 the company published a cookbook HelpsfJr the Hostess that suggested ways toincorporatc condensed soups into cooking In 1931 they began radio ads including thesaying M m M 1111 Good which then entered into popular culture In 1934 cream ofmushroom sour was inventcd and was lhc first of Campbells soups to be promoted as asauce as well as a soup 1n 1955 thc green bean casserole was invented by Campbellhome economists Today morc than one million cans of soup arc used everyday and thegreen bcan casserolc is one of the most popular and most requested recipes from thecompany (Camphell Soup Company 20OSb)

()rigi nail y the Camphcll Soup (~ompany demonstrated moderni ty through its factoryproduclion markeling and emphasis on convenience lis products however have beenincorporated into the home cooking of many families to the point that their use hashecome traditional The canned soups havc been atlached to peorles memories of theirchildhood and 10 family lunches5 Canned tomato soup and a grilled cheese sandwich forexample is still a popular lunch for wintry days

Anotllcr factor in undcrstanding the acceplance of the green bean casserole into traditionis its categorization as a casscrole Casseroles have a special placc in American idenlityThey connotc comilltltlal eating sharing and generosity At office potlucks churchsuppers Iud community picnics casseroles are a staple This is partly due to theirconvenienee~thcy arc casy to transport their ingredients arc readily available andrelatively inexpensive and thcy are quick to prepare--but it is also due to theirdependability--lhcy require little culinary skill Referred to as hot dishes in the upperMidwest or bakcs in northwest Ohio casseroles actually represent a depm1ure from theusual British-based i +23 meal structure (featuring a piece of meat with twoIceoillpaniments) that undcrlies the American meal In fact nutritionists originallydiscouraged such mixing of ingredients siuce it was considered an obstacle to digestion(Benlley 2002 179) According to Sarah Rath however the casserole became integratedinto American foodway during the depressions of the 1890s and the 1930s when theeconomical casscrole provided a welcome way to stretch mcat fish and poultryRationing during World War I required cooks to rely on leftovers often recycling theminto casseroles Rath also poinls oul thai casseroles originally denoted culinarysophistication to American cooks but immigrants brought their own casserole recipes tothe New World in the nineteenth century and favorite ethnic and regional classicsevol ved (2004 194)

Like many foods that started out as high-class then the casserole filtered down to themiddle and lower classes According to Jack Goody (1997) this process occurredthroughout Europe where the adoption of new foods was a search for status a form ofsocial climbing by emulating the eating habits of the upper classes In the United Statesthe process may have taken a different turn in that the casserole seems to have beenadopted out of convenience rather than status-seeking It was then democratized used foreveryday as well as festive meals and turned into a familiar comfort food

Ironically the green bean casserole docs not satisfy the definition of the standardcasserole which is a mixture of a protein source-meat or fish--with a starch alllusually some chopped vegetables all bound together with a sauce The tuna-noodlecasserole also invented by the Campbell Company (in 1934) better fits the expectation(Like the green bean bake the tuna-noodle casserole uses a can of crcam of mushroomsoup and was invented purposely to expand the market for Campbells soups at the sametime it modernized the American casserole 1110re generally by specifying a topping ofpotato chips rather than the more traditional breadcrtlmbs) Although the green bl~anconcoction is not strictly speaking a casserole the fact thai Campbells marketed it as OIW

in 1955 suggests that the images of casseroles as traditional and homey were alreadyimplanted in the national American consciousness

One of the primary ways in which new materials whether mass-produced or handmadearc incorporated into lXisling cultural systems is through variations These variationsrepresent performances of identities and circumstances of the individuals and COmnllll1itiesadapting those materiils This proccss of folklorization (Degh 199423) akin totraditionalization (Ilymes 1975) then allows new materials to carry mcmories andmeanings sp(~cific to those performers While this is a naturally occurring processsuccessful Il1mketing Ilcognizes its usefulness and nudges consumers to feci that they mepersonalizing a recipe Ihrough variations

The current Web ite for Campbell Soup includes a number of aitelllatives tu theoriginal basic recipe For example a can of Condensed 911 Fat Free Cream uflvlushroom Soup Clt11lwplace the regnlar soup The basic recipe then uses one-Iwlf Clipof milk flavored with one teaspoon of soy sauce and a dash of ground blaek IWIPcrFour cups of cooked cut green heans are called for hntthe type of cut is not speci licdIII a list of preparation Iips variations on the beans are suggested frozen green beans (onehag or two packages) canned green beans (two sixteen-ounce cans) or fresh green belIls(oue and one-half pounds) It is interesting to note these as variations since many cookswould consider them obvious substitutions rather than creative alternatives Frellch sfrench-rried onions u e also said to he essential Everything except half or the onions ismixed together and hiked for twenlymiddot-five minutes in a 350-dcgrec lIVCII The rel1llilliniouions ilre then sprinkled over the top and the casserole is haked for live more minutesCampbells tips sUggJSI variations for a change of pilee for a creative twist for iIfctivc touch and lpr1 heartier Illllshroom flavor Again these variations seelllllliuiJr

substituting broccoli flowerets for green beans substituting Campbells CondensedGolden Mushroom Soup for Cream of Mushroom Soup and adding chopped redpepper (the assumption being that this is red sweet pepper not red chili pepper) A notefrom a Web site member states that she used slivered almonds to replace the fried onionssince she is allergic to onions-and it tastes really good (Campbell Soup Company2005a)

Campbells recipe is written in such a way as to make it sound more sophisticated andrequiring a bit more skill than the recipe in oral tradition which to quote an informantis Open a can a Illushroom soup two cans of green beans and a can of fried onions mixtogether in a pan and bake in the oven

Although suggesting the personalization of commercial products is a commonmarketing strategy il is also a way of encouraging individuals to attach their ownidentities to the product which can result in developing individual meanings Iteneonrages people 10 participate in recipe alteration thus creating a sense of ownershipof the resulting variant recipe That personal variations fit into the standard practices ofcooks and meet the artistic needs of individuals 10 experiment is suggested by thenumerous alternative recipes given in magazines and cookbooks For example in acolumn for the Cincinnati Post in 20() I the writer offered her own variations for greenbean casserole

I canl resisl an addition or tW( such as choppcd water chcstnuts or dieed jicama for more crunch than

thc fried onions give a cnpfnl 01 Iresh mushrooms sliced and sauleed over high heat 10 make the

mushroom suup more lIlushroom fresh green beans well cooked in place of canned or frozen french-cllt

hcans sour cream and a lot of dry sherry 10 jazz up the sonpy sauce

While particular hrands of ingredients arc frequently specified by cookbooks andpublished recipes-such as Campbells soup or Frenchs (previously Durkee) french-friedonions---in actual practice any number of variations arc possible None of them challengethe basic paradigm The beans can be fresh or rrozen they can be french-cut (ie in thinstrips) or regular The soup can he replaced with a hOlllemade white sauce (very daring)and sauteed Iresh lIlushroollls the canned onions can be substituted with potato stickscrumbled potato chips or toasted sli vered almonds These variations give individual cooksthe sense 01personal ownership of the recipe and ill fact people discussing the casseroleIrcl[uently refer to the recipes of specific individuals

Similarly in my research I found that people in my area of the Midwest oftendiscussed the variations of the casserole arguing for instance the merits of toastedslivered almonds over those of canned fried onions the besl amounts of salt and pepperor of soy sauce or the use 01frozen green beans ral her than canned ones (or home cannedrather than conunercially canned) Interestingly there did not seem to be variations thatwere unique to northwest Ohio-a regional oikotype of green bean casserole so tospeak Itgt F lowever the variant ingredients often carried personalized memories Forexample the canned green beans had been bought at the favorite grocery store or thehome canned ones had been cannecl by a relative Similarly the arrangement andpresenlation of the ingredients were often personalized One family had a white ceramic

dish that was always the green bean casserole dish Another had to have the fried onionssprinkled on top in a particular pattern

This critiquing of variations suggests first of all the existence of an aesthetic systema system for the evaluation of tastiness and satisfaction In my research sample it wascommon for individuals to have a favorite version of the recipe or to prerer onemaker--llsually a grandmother-over another The evaluation also freqnently includedthe merits of different brands of commercial goods and there tended to he a high degre(~of brand loyalty Ironically the ingredients were not speci fic to the Midwcst hut attentionto the idcntity of comlllcrcial products seemed to he common It may represent a localclhos that embraces the industrial incorporating it into personal tradition Brand loyallywas evident in other dishes-chili had to be made with a certain brand of beans and sauceand hot chicken sandwiches another local tradition had to he made with Roots cannedshredded chickcn

One point that repondents consistently hought up as an advantage of green bean casserolewas its familiarity MidVl~sterners particularly find the ingredients preparation and forlllof the casserole familiar One woman in describing its success suggested Its at everypotluck and its always popular Its so quick (0 make---pnfcct for the olliccpotluck--middotand I guess pcople like the familiar

This aura of familillity seemed to lend itself to the dish being perccived as cOn1l110nand normaL lts presence was assumed at group events and while lIwt presence usnallywasnt celebrated the casseroles absence would bc noticed and commented uponFlIltllCnnore the casscrole Illay appeal by virtue of its ability to neatly synthesize apparenloppositions It represents the familiar mundane and everyday in that it is thought of IS

an everyday conveniencc food yet it also represents the festive in that it is closelyassociated with potlncks Ind holiday meals Those festive events can he both scmipnblicinvolving members of oCupational recreational or religious cOlllnlnnities and privltewithin the family AI such events the casserole acts as a bridge between (wo real IllSconnecting puhlic and pi j vate domains making coworkers like fami Iy and making Lnlli Iyrelationships somewhat nlore formal and ceremonial than they might otherwise be

Green bean casserole also utilizes ingredients that arc generally familiar bUI in a m()l(~worked flshion that can connote festivity17 In Ilorthwest Ohio green beans ale acommon vegetable oftcn c()(lked and canned and served alongside meat and potatoes theyarc also made into a salad with a sweet-and-sour dressing Casseroles arc a familiar formhere connoting comrol ting sociability and canned cream soups arc COllUnon forlunchtime meals Dressing up familiar foods like these for holiday and special occasiollmeals lends itself to rituali7ation A recurring symbolic event (SantinolY94 II) thespecial dinner relies on sllhle components to ground it in peoples experiences as a ritutlcelebration Highlighting components that are familiar allows for more individuals toparticipate in the ritual ami to create a greater sense of unity throngh it In my sludy Ifound thallhis sense t1wt green bean casserole had been ritualized was part of what peopk

seemed to like about it Like the turkey dressing and mashed potatoes for Thanksgivingdinner the casserole appeared every year comforting in its reliability and consistency andconnoting family tradition and stability The fact that it was also found at other festiveoccasions and was not exclusive to Thanksgiving underscored its air of familiarity

1 also found a ludic or playful quality to many discussions of green bean casseroleMost of the individuals with whom 1 spoke were aware of the stereotypes of midwesternculture and cuisine and the ways in which the casserole fed into those stereotypes Theydiscussed the dish with a trace of sarcasm in their voices laughingly recounting the recipeOpen cans mix and bake They also recognized the apparent irony of this highlyprocessed food being a family tradition One infornlant describing her familys traditionaldinner rolled her eyes and recalled

Well elme tell you how my mOlher llIade il She opened a can of Camphells mushroom soup and a canof Del Monlemiddots green heans I her hnshand interjected and those onion things Yeah canned friedonions hUI she used polalo sticks t Ihink thats the way Sometimes she used atmonds sliveredalmonds

Such playfulness suggests that for at least some individuals the casserole was a ritualturning-upside-down of more elite assumptions about festive food and good food Thedish defies the usual qualities of fine cuisine and gourmet cooking and eating Bycelebrating such food the cullure surrounding it is also celebrated and affirmed IS

The meanings surrounding green hean casserole in northwest Ohio are multiple andsurprisingly complex orten representing conrtieting oppositions These meanings arc aninterplay of public commercially motivated meanings presented through marketing andadvertising and private meanings developed through informal use and experiences withthe dish On one hantL the casserole seellls to represent the traditional but it alsoreprcsents the modcrn an embracing of technology and corporate America It representsthe familiar and mundane yet also represents the festive and celebratory Likewise tbl~casserole is simultaneously fancy in that green beans have been worked into a morecultural product and plain in that the ingredients are familiar and available and thetecbniques for preparation arc minimal requiring no culinary skills other than wieldinga can opener Artislry however can be displayed in the casseroles presentation--as inthe choiec of a casserole dish and the arrangement of the onions on top-and personaltaste and identity can be expressed through variations in ingredients and preparationFinally the casserole is simultaneously national and regional While it is perceived ascOlllmon across the US it seems to resonate with midwestern eaters logically fitting intotheir family and community traditions

The casserole then suggests a regional roodways aesthetic in several ways a relianceOil canned processed foods a lack of spices other than pepper (the salt is bnilt into theeallned soup and onions) an emphasis 011 hearty and filling foods a conservative

approach to new tastes and ingredients and a pride in well-crafted functional dishes thatare economical and efficient Green bean casserole embodies and celebrates that aesthetic

These meanings of the casserole also suggest a regional foodways ethos a system forvaluing food and the activities surrounding it Dishes such as the green bean casserolelend themselves to COllllllllllitas the feeling of belonging to a community in whichmembers arc bound in nonhierarchical relationships (Turner 1969) No one is superiorno one is more of a gourmet In a sense the dish cuts across class in that it is available toall and draws from national rather than elite culture although it would probably bcscorned at gourmet mcals For those concerned with status however it is casily availablcfor manipulation to perform cJass Homcmade white sauce fresh green beans almondsinstead of canned fried (lnions and the addition of little cxtras---capers pimento greenpepper-middot-can all denote wealth and more rdined tastes In fact the ingredients amIpreparation methods of this dish are accessible to all regardless of class race gendcr andethnicity The cans of green beans cream of mushroom soup and french-fried onions arcdistributed nationally they arc inexpensive and available al almost any grocery store ~can all enjoy green heau casserole and we can even develop a connoisseurship of tillsubtle variations avai lable

The meanings associated with the casserole suggestlhat in midwestern culture foodfunctions not so much as cultural capital hut as social capital (BounJicu 19H4) It is uedto build md allinn relillionships in the family or cOllllllunity rather than 10 delllontratestatus In this culture valued foods and vahlld eating experiences arc those that bringpeople together and that crase the social distinctions of class gourmet tastes I1dindi vidualistic prefeiTIlces (reen bean casserole does just that

Corresponding with this finding personal taste seellls to playa secondary role to Iheinclllsionary funct ion of the dish In sOllie of the fami Iies I interviewld the casserole wasan obligatory ritwd part of a ritual meal a dish that had to be included but that IlO oneactually liked or atc In somc cases it was thc contribution of an extended LUllilymember and it was considered more important 10 accept tile contribution--1I1d byimplication the family JIIclllber--middottilaIl it was to have all the foods be well liked

Tile 101klorization tradi I ionll ization and rit ual ization or green bean clsselole suggest tllltltit is possible for a comllleIcial processed food to be broadly representational ami also 10

carry the emotional alllchment that a group may have [0 its region an attaellment llialgeograpller Yi-Fu Tuan refers to ltISlocal patriotism (1974 I() I) Sucll patriotism miglltwell be displayed throughout the Midwest whenever green bean casserole is served

Green bean casserole then rather than reflecting a lack of taste a lack of culinaryskill and sophisticatiol or perilaps worse a passive acceptance or mass-producedcommercial foods and Ileanings represents a regional roodway aesthetic and cthos Tilepopular stcreotype of the Midwest as having no distinctive identity is well kuowll hymidwcstcrners and comes into play whenever the region is discussed Their aWlITllCsuggests that their pliyrulncss with green bean casserole is a rheturiclI slr(cgy

acknowledging and celebrating this representation of midwcstern identity (see also Kakik1984) Furthermore the dish is used by its midwestern consumers in their ownunderstanding of their region as a performative discourse (Bourdieu 1991 223) that notonly claims the Midwest as an identity but also helps to construct a sense of the characterof that identity Such perronnativity was evident in many of the interviews and informaldiscussions of green bean casserole Initially individuals responding to my questionsabout the casserole orten displayed surprise at the idea that this dish could be takenserionsly as a food and as a tradition They orten considered it a tasty food and a part oftheir family customs but since it did not qualify as fine cuisine or as publicly celebratedsymbol they did not associate a meaningful significance with il20 That surprise thenturned to acknowledgment almost a sense of discovery that there is indeed a distinctivemidwestern regional identity and that foods having commercial origins can holdmeaningful places in individuals memories and foodways The very qualities of greenbean casserole that might seem to work against it as a meaningful regionaltradition-mass-production and factory-processing of ingredients case of preparationmllndaneness heaviness in calories and carhohydrates~are the very ones that make it alogical representation or local identity

I For Inorc discussions of the history of the industrialilation of food in thc US see Levenstein 1988 alld20m Cirabaccia 1998 Pi Iisbury 1))8 and Counihan 2002 Scathing critiqucs of the impact of industrializationof food on American ting habits arc orlred by Nestle 2002 and Pollan 2006 For the acceptance by womenin parlicular of progress in cooking see Inllcss 2001 and Shapiro 2004

2 Iur a discussion of the adoption of conulllrcially produced mass-mediated products into contemporarylIadition see Santino 199h

1 Most analyses of contcmpurary Alnerican rood habits condude Ihat Americans lack an appreciation forrefined cooking hecanse onr nalional eulturc has emplwsied quantity over quality packaging over content andspecd and sill as measnres of valur Capitalism is usually hlamed and while I agree that the capitalist systemhas encouraged such valnes I think we also nced 10 look at Ihe ethos and historical conditions that allowedAmcricans to cmbrace such a world view In exccllent analysis of the philosophical foundations of Westernthonght can be found in Barndt 2004 Wllich explores how the reductionist philosophy of Descartes and the anti-nature theologizing of Bacon created a mindsel that allowed North Americans (she includes Canadians in herindictment) 10 sever their conncctions with nature and thc naturalthruugh food

I ani not looking here at why people Ihink something tastcs good or at how panieular tastes develop Thepsychology or taste is a fidd in itsclr and addresses the biological physiological and psychologieal factors intaste My lcns is 011 how a dish comes to make scnsc as part of a meal to a group or people For psychologicalapproaches see Macbcth 1)97 Tasie as a philosophical issue is discussed in Korsmeyer 1lt)99 and Curtin andIleldke 1992

5 t eoutd also use glocalicd here since the spread ordishcs such as green bean casserole is due partiallyto snccessfulmarketing as wcll as to a hegemonic power of such companies as Campbell Soup to define whatis considered the norm of American food The term glocaliation comes from sociologist Roland Robertson(1992) For a comprehensive discussion of theories ollhe relationship of food to place see Bell and Valentine1997

G Roland Barthes identified crisp as a basic American food aesthetic and as the binary opposite ofsweet ([1961]199723)

7 In a holiday assemblage various items are artfnlly ammged to signify the holiday The individual itemsIllay have publicly established symbolism-such as a pumpkin carved into a jack-o -lantern or a baby in amangcr----hut the items may also have either no or too Illany meanings on their own in this case a can of cream

of Illnshroolll soup does not represent Thanksgiving until it is juxtaposed with a can of fried onions and callSof green beans For holiday ltIssenlblage see Santino 199434-41

8 These are my own terms although the ideas are explored and discussed hy philosophers andanthropologists of food fOi example Deane Curtin and I jsa Ilcldke (1992) My ose of the WOld foodways isspecific to folklore in that il refers to a netwOIk of activities and meanings sUITouuding food

9 For more explanatioll of foodways see Yoder 1972 and Long 1999IO For more discussion of identity bcing expressed in food see articles in Ihe volullle edited by I uda

Keller Brown and Kay Msell particularly one by Susau Kalcik (1984) My own approach tothe expression01 iiltntily through lood drmvs heavily from performauce theory in folklore as articulated by Richard Ibulllall(1197711984) and DelllIvlIlcs (1974) see Long 1)99n3i

I I This collect ing was not done as a statist ica I survey although that kind of in format ion would be hel pfiliThe focus ill these c1a~ses VIS Oil the hasic concepts of hDW food traditions carry and construct idclllily I 1Iso

collected information from grlduate students hut tiley tended to have Illore v~Jried hackgrounds alld were l10l

representativc 01 the regiollJ 2 While this ellulllgr1)hy was not systematic I did make sure that I talked to botlliollgiinle residents f

the area and newcomers Soci11 distinclions in this area tend to bc along occupational and political lines ratllerthan racial ethnic or sociocconomic Olles so I atlendcd politicks at cOIllIllunity events ohserved rcacli(llls In

a culinary expo at a locallllall and gave workshops and talks in the area on a Vltlriety 01 food-rated lopicsJndging from responseS to Illy lentative conclusions I keltllat I accurately assessed tile uses and llIeanin~s 01green bean casserole aeross town gown lines as well as the spcctrum of political bcliefs

13lnthe late 1980s I cOlldneted fieldwork for an exllibit Oil folk art ill this region Instead oflhe expectedpaintillgs sculptures and texlile arts I found tllat the artistic impulse tended to be expressed througll praglnaticforms such as farm implcnlents and machinery neatly aligned tree rows and yards and well-organized lanlers(Long II)l)O)

14 A reeeni advertisenllnl suggesting green bean casserole for Easler plays upon tllis idea statingtllatldisll is not only for Thanksgiving anymore The advcrtiscnlent which was copyrigllted in 2006 has aplarcd111 womens magarincs such as Family Circle

11 Longtime Bowlin (inen residcnt Tom Md Iuglrlin recalled tllal tile local dillns and lIalllburgerjinlsserved canned sonps in the I )IOs and 19iOs Wilen soop was ordered the cook would sinlply open a can 01Campbells soup (interview 6262(07)

16 Oikotype is more commonly used to refer to narrative variants that arc found in a parlieular Icdeaud tllal display some aspect of local culture (Brunvand I1)l)8 I n)

17 Claude Levi-Strauss suggests thatllunlans have to act upon the raw iugrcdients in ordcr to tnrn Ilrcnlinto a cultural item known IS fOOl11l1968J1997)

18 Such riles of rever Irc significant ways in whicll dominated cnlturcs maintain a sense of identity aswell as vellt anger at oppression While the American Midwest is in no way all oppressed cullure its residenls

often express frustration at tile hek of awareness and appreciatiun of their rcgion by other areas of tbe eounlryparticularly the coasts

19 Cranbcrry sauce 1111a similar place particularly in its canned jellied form Students expressed disgnstwith botlltlrcse qualities and wondered wily such sauce was part olthe nationalparadiglll

20 This reflects eomllion llIispnceptions of the nature of these phenomena rather than a lack of Ineallillgof green bean casserole itself Disbes to be celebrated tend to be thought of as eitber g011lmel (reprenli~evidence of the mastery or spc-cific culinary arts and usually displaying a higher socioeconolnic status) or asha ving a long hisICl) even 111lt1l1ghthat history may he a mythical une (eg furkly for Tilallk~givillg appk pit

or certain elhnie dishes) Silllillttrly many informants seemed to tbink of th casseroles ritual place in tllifamily as due to inertia lnd lack of curiosity so that it could bc a tmdition but not OIHto be celebrated IPillsbury 1998 pp 11-13 fr a discussion of tradition as inertia) In either case informanls did not cOIlid-rthemselves arbiters of whal ddines Food and Tradition

Anderson Benedict R 11)83 Imagined Canllnllnilies Ref7ec1iol1s 011Ihe Origin and Spread of NationalismLondon Verso

Barndt Deborah 2004 7IIlgied Roules Women Work and (Iobalizalion onlhe I)fwlo Trail Lanham MdRowman and Liuleficld

Barthes Roland 1997 Toward a Psychosoeiology of Contemporary Food Consumption In Food and CullureA Reader ed Carole Counihan and Penny Van ESlerik pp 20--27 (reprinted from 19GI) New YorkRoutledge

Bauman Richard (1971) I)84 Verbal Arl as Ierfinllwe Prospect Heights III WavelandBell David and Gill Valentine I9n Consuming (eographies We Are Where We Eat New York RoutledgeBentley Amy 2002 Islands of Serenity Gender Race and Ordered Meals during World War n In Food il1lhe

USA il RCllder cd Carole M Counihan Pl 171-192Ilourdicu Pierre 1984 Igtislinilioll il Soial Crilique oIhe Judgemenl or 11111 Trans Richard Nice

(alnl11idge Mass Ilarvard lIniversity Inss1991 lInguage and Svmlwlii Ioller Cunbrid~e Polity

Ilrnnvand Jail Ilaroid 11)98 The Stndy of American 1lklore 1n Intl~oduction New York W W Norton ampCompany

(ampbell Soup Company 200l1 hllplwwwcamphcllkitdlcncolll rccipedetailaspxlrceipeID=24099accessed 91 I i200iJ

200ib hltpllwwlVeampbellsoupeompanyeolnhistoryasp accessed 91512006(hilT Directory 2007 htt plwwwchiITcomagreen-bean-casscrolehtm accessed 9152006(ininnali 1011200 I Food reviewCounihan Carole M cd 2002 Iood inlhe USA A Reader New York RutledgeCurtin Deanc W and Lisa M Ilddke cds 1992 Cooking Filling Illinking rr(lsfiml1atlle Philosophies of

Iood Ilioollllngton Indiana University PressDeglr Linda 1994 AlllerillIn Folkillre IIlId Ihe MIIss Media Illoonlington Indiana University PressFertig Judith M 20m The Midwest In middotIII1llopedlaof Food alld Cullure cd Solomon H Katz pp 414--417

New York Charles Scribners SonsUabaccia Donna R 1)1)8 We I( Whol We Eal FlllIlic Food olld Ihe Makillg IIIAmericllnl Cambridge

Mass Ilarvani University Presst ioody lack 1997 Industrial Food Towards tire Deve(llment of a World Cuisine In Food alld Cllilure A

Rellder ed Carole Counilnl and Penny Van Eslerik PI 317middot369 New York RoutledgelIynles Dell 1974 Ways of Speaking In Eplorali(I1s ill IiiI lolhllograph1 oSpeakillg cd Richard Ballman

and Joel Shercr pp 431-412 Calnbridge Cambridge Univcrsity Press- - ----- 1971 Breakthrough into Perfornlanee In Folklore PeljimnallCl alld COlllmullicalioll cd Dan

Ikn-Amos and Kenneth S Goldstein PI 11--74 The llague Moutonluness Slrerrie 1 200 I Dillller (oles ilIIniulli WOIIICllalld Culil1O) Cullure Iowa City University of Iowa

Press

Kalcik Susan 1984 Ethnic Foodways in America Symbol and the Performance of Identity In Elhllic alldNegiollill Foods illihe lJlliler SillIes Illc ojimllllllce o(Group Idelllll1 cd Linda Keller Brown and KayMussell pp 37-(1 Knoxville University of Tennessee Press

Korsmeyer Carolyn I tJ99 Mokillg Sellse 0 Tosle Food alld hilosoph Ithaea NY Cornell UniversityPress

Lee Juditlr Yaross 2004 Introduction lu the Midwesl ed Joseph W Slade and Jndith Yaross Lee PIXIImiddot--XXX Vcstport Conn Greenwood

Levensteiu llarvey 1988 RelOllIlioll III Ihe ]ie Tile IiIlIlSfimnatioll 0 the Alllerican Diel CambridgeOxford University Press

__ _----2003 Paradox 0 1111)A Social History 0 Flllillg in Modem America Los Angeles Universityof California Press

Like many foods that started out as high-class then the casserole filtered down to themiddle and lower classes According to Jack Goody (1997) this process occurredthroughout Europe where the adoption of new foods was a search for status a form ofsocial climbing by emulating the eating habits of the upper classes In the United Statesthe process may have taken a different turn in that the casserole seems to have beenadopted out of convenience rather than status-seeking It was then democratized used foreveryday as well as festive meals and turned into a familiar comfort food

Ironically the green bean casserole docs not satisfy the definition of the standardcasserole which is a mixture of a protein source-meat or fish--with a starch alllusually some chopped vegetables all bound together with a sauce The tuna-noodlecasserole also invented by the Campbell Company (in 1934) better fits the expectation(Like the green bean bake the tuna-noodle casserole uses a can of crcam of mushroomsoup and was invented purposely to expand the market for Campbells soups at the sametime it modernized the American casserole 1110re generally by specifying a topping ofpotato chips rather than the more traditional breadcrtlmbs) Although the green bl~anconcoction is not strictly speaking a casserole the fact thai Campbells marketed it as OIW

in 1955 suggests that the images of casseroles as traditional and homey were alreadyimplanted in the national American consciousness

One of the primary ways in which new materials whether mass-produced or handmadearc incorporated into lXisling cultural systems is through variations These variationsrepresent performances of identities and circumstances of the individuals and COmnllll1itiesadapting those materiils This proccss of folklorization (Degh 199423) akin totraditionalization (Ilymes 1975) then allows new materials to carry mcmories andmeanings sp(~cific to those performers While this is a naturally occurring processsuccessful Il1mketing Ilcognizes its usefulness and nudges consumers to feci that they mepersonalizing a recipe Ihrough variations

The current Web ite for Campbell Soup includes a number of aitelllatives tu theoriginal basic recipe For example a can of Condensed 911 Fat Free Cream uflvlushroom Soup Clt11lwplace the regnlar soup The basic recipe then uses one-Iwlf Clipof milk flavored with one teaspoon of soy sauce and a dash of ground blaek IWIPcrFour cups of cooked cut green heans are called for hntthe type of cut is not speci licdIII a list of preparation Iips variations on the beans are suggested frozen green beans (onehag or two packages) canned green beans (two sixteen-ounce cans) or fresh green belIls(oue and one-half pounds) It is interesting to note these as variations since many cookswould consider them obvious substitutions rather than creative alternatives Frellch sfrench-rried onions u e also said to he essential Everything except half or the onions ismixed together and hiked for twenlymiddot-five minutes in a 350-dcgrec lIVCII The rel1llilliniouions ilre then sprinkled over the top and the casserole is haked for live more minutesCampbells tips sUggJSI variations for a change of pilee for a creative twist for iIfctivc touch and lpr1 heartier Illllshroom flavor Again these variations seelllllliuiJr

substituting broccoli flowerets for green beans substituting Campbells CondensedGolden Mushroom Soup for Cream of Mushroom Soup and adding chopped redpepper (the assumption being that this is red sweet pepper not red chili pepper) A notefrom a Web site member states that she used slivered almonds to replace the fried onionssince she is allergic to onions-and it tastes really good (Campbell Soup Company2005a)

Campbells recipe is written in such a way as to make it sound more sophisticated andrequiring a bit more skill than the recipe in oral tradition which to quote an informantis Open a can a Illushroom soup two cans of green beans and a can of fried onions mixtogether in a pan and bake in the oven

Although suggesting the personalization of commercial products is a commonmarketing strategy il is also a way of encouraging individuals to attach their ownidentities to the product which can result in developing individual meanings Iteneonrages people 10 participate in recipe alteration thus creating a sense of ownershipof the resulting variant recipe That personal variations fit into the standard practices ofcooks and meet the artistic needs of individuals 10 experiment is suggested by thenumerous alternative recipes given in magazines and cookbooks For example in acolumn for the Cincinnati Post in 20() I the writer offered her own variations for greenbean casserole

I canl resisl an addition or tW( such as choppcd water chcstnuts or dieed jicama for more crunch than

thc fried onions give a cnpfnl 01 Iresh mushrooms sliced and sauleed over high heat 10 make the

mushroom suup more lIlushroom fresh green beans well cooked in place of canned or frozen french-cllt

hcans sour cream and a lot of dry sherry 10 jazz up the sonpy sauce

While particular hrands of ingredients arc frequently specified by cookbooks andpublished recipes-such as Campbells soup or Frenchs (previously Durkee) french-friedonions---in actual practice any number of variations arc possible None of them challengethe basic paradigm The beans can be fresh or rrozen they can be french-cut (ie in thinstrips) or regular The soup can he replaced with a hOlllemade white sauce (very daring)and sauteed Iresh lIlushroollls the canned onions can be substituted with potato stickscrumbled potato chips or toasted sli vered almonds These variations give individual cooksthe sense 01personal ownership of the recipe and ill fact people discussing the casseroleIrcl[uently refer to the recipes of specific individuals

Similarly in my research I found that people in my area of the Midwest oftendiscussed the variations of the casserole arguing for instance the merits of toastedslivered almonds over those of canned fried onions the besl amounts of salt and pepperor of soy sauce or the use 01frozen green beans ral her than canned ones (or home cannedrather than conunercially canned) Interestingly there did not seem to be variations thatwere unique to northwest Ohio-a regional oikotype of green bean casserole so tospeak Itgt F lowever the variant ingredients often carried personalized memories Forexample the canned green beans had been bought at the favorite grocery store or thehome canned ones had been cannecl by a relative Similarly the arrangement andpresenlation of the ingredients were often personalized One family had a white ceramic

dish that was always the green bean casserole dish Another had to have the fried onionssprinkled on top in a particular pattern

This critiquing of variations suggests first of all the existence of an aesthetic systema system for the evaluation of tastiness and satisfaction In my research sample it wascommon for individuals to have a favorite version of the recipe or to prerer onemaker--llsually a grandmother-over another The evaluation also freqnently includedthe merits of different brands of commercial goods and there tended to he a high degre(~of brand loyalty Ironically the ingredients were not speci fic to the Midwcst hut attentionto the idcntity of comlllcrcial products seemed to he common It may represent a localclhos that embraces the industrial incorporating it into personal tradition Brand loyallywas evident in other dishes-chili had to be made with a certain brand of beans and sauceand hot chicken sandwiches another local tradition had to he made with Roots cannedshredded chickcn

One point that repondents consistently hought up as an advantage of green bean casserolewas its familiarity MidVl~sterners particularly find the ingredients preparation and forlllof the casserole familiar One woman in describing its success suggested Its at everypotluck and its always popular Its so quick (0 make---pnfcct for the olliccpotluck--middotand I guess pcople like the familiar

This aura of familillity seemed to lend itself to the dish being perccived as cOn1l110nand normaL lts presence was assumed at group events and while lIwt presence usnallywasnt celebrated the casseroles absence would bc noticed and commented uponFlIltllCnnore the casscrole Illay appeal by virtue of its ability to neatly synthesize apparenloppositions It represents the familiar mundane and everyday in that it is thought of IS

an everyday conveniencc food yet it also represents the festive in that it is closelyassociated with potlncks Ind holiday meals Those festive events can he both scmipnblicinvolving members of oCupational recreational or religious cOlllnlnnities and privltewithin the family AI such events the casserole acts as a bridge between (wo real IllSconnecting puhlic and pi j vate domains making coworkers like fami Iy and making Lnlli Iyrelationships somewhat nlore formal and ceremonial than they might otherwise be

Green bean casserole also utilizes ingredients that arc generally familiar bUI in a m()l(~worked flshion that can connote festivity17 In Ilorthwest Ohio green beans ale acommon vegetable oftcn c()(lked and canned and served alongside meat and potatoes theyarc also made into a salad with a sweet-and-sour dressing Casseroles arc a familiar formhere connoting comrol ting sociability and canned cream soups arc COllUnon forlunchtime meals Dressing up familiar foods like these for holiday and special occasiollmeals lends itself to rituali7ation A recurring symbolic event (SantinolY94 II) thespecial dinner relies on sllhle components to ground it in peoples experiences as a ritutlcelebration Highlighting components that are familiar allows for more individuals toparticipate in the ritual ami to create a greater sense of unity throngh it In my sludy Ifound thallhis sense t1wt green bean casserole had been ritualized was part of what peopk

seemed to like about it Like the turkey dressing and mashed potatoes for Thanksgivingdinner the casserole appeared every year comforting in its reliability and consistency andconnoting family tradition and stability The fact that it was also found at other festiveoccasions and was not exclusive to Thanksgiving underscored its air of familiarity

1 also found a ludic or playful quality to many discussions of green bean casseroleMost of the individuals with whom 1 spoke were aware of the stereotypes of midwesternculture and cuisine and the ways in which the casserole fed into those stereotypes Theydiscussed the dish with a trace of sarcasm in their voices laughingly recounting the recipeOpen cans mix and bake They also recognized the apparent irony of this highlyprocessed food being a family tradition One infornlant describing her familys traditionaldinner rolled her eyes and recalled

Well elme tell you how my mOlher llIade il She opened a can of Camphells mushroom soup and a canof Del Monlemiddots green heans I her hnshand interjected and those onion things Yeah canned friedonions hUI she used polalo sticks t Ihink thats the way Sometimes she used atmonds sliveredalmonds

Such playfulness suggests that for at least some individuals the casserole was a ritualturning-upside-down of more elite assumptions about festive food and good food Thedish defies the usual qualities of fine cuisine and gourmet cooking and eating Bycelebrating such food the cullure surrounding it is also celebrated and affirmed IS

The meanings surrounding green hean casserole in northwest Ohio are multiple andsurprisingly complex orten representing conrtieting oppositions These meanings arc aninterplay of public commercially motivated meanings presented through marketing andadvertising and private meanings developed through informal use and experiences withthe dish On one hantL the casserole seellls to represent the traditional but it alsoreprcsents the modcrn an embracing of technology and corporate America It representsthe familiar and mundane yet also represents the festive and celebratory Likewise tbl~casserole is simultaneously fancy in that green beans have been worked into a morecultural product and plain in that the ingredients are familiar and available and thetecbniques for preparation arc minimal requiring no culinary skills other than wieldinga can opener Artislry however can be displayed in the casseroles presentation--as inthe choiec of a casserole dish and the arrangement of the onions on top-and personaltaste and identity can be expressed through variations in ingredients and preparationFinally the casserole is simultaneously national and regional While it is perceived ascOlllmon across the US it seems to resonate with midwestern eaters logically fitting intotheir family and community traditions

The casserole then suggests a regional roodways aesthetic in several ways a relianceOil canned processed foods a lack of spices other than pepper (the salt is bnilt into theeallned soup and onions) an emphasis 011 hearty and filling foods a conservative

approach to new tastes and ingredients and a pride in well-crafted functional dishes thatare economical and efficient Green bean casserole embodies and celebrates that aesthetic

These meanings of the casserole also suggest a regional foodways ethos a system forvaluing food and the activities surrounding it Dishes such as the green bean casserolelend themselves to COllllllllllitas the feeling of belonging to a community in whichmembers arc bound in nonhierarchical relationships (Turner 1969) No one is superiorno one is more of a gourmet In a sense the dish cuts across class in that it is available toall and draws from national rather than elite culture although it would probably bcscorned at gourmet mcals For those concerned with status however it is casily availablcfor manipulation to perform cJass Homcmade white sauce fresh green beans almondsinstead of canned fried (lnions and the addition of little cxtras---capers pimento greenpepper-middot-can all denote wealth and more rdined tastes In fact the ingredients amIpreparation methods of this dish are accessible to all regardless of class race gendcr andethnicity The cans of green beans cream of mushroom soup and french-fried onions arcdistributed nationally they arc inexpensive and available al almost any grocery store ~can all enjoy green heau casserole and we can even develop a connoisseurship of tillsubtle variations avai lable

The meanings associated with the casserole suggestlhat in midwestern culture foodfunctions not so much as cultural capital hut as social capital (BounJicu 19H4) It is uedto build md allinn relillionships in the family or cOllllllunity rather than 10 delllontratestatus In this culture valued foods and vahlld eating experiences arc those that bringpeople together and that crase the social distinctions of class gourmet tastes I1dindi vidualistic prefeiTIlces (reen bean casserole does just that

Corresponding with this finding personal taste seellls to playa secondary role to Iheinclllsionary funct ion of the dish In sOllie of the fami Iies I interviewld the casserole wasan obligatory ritwd part of a ritual meal a dish that had to be included but that IlO oneactually liked or atc In somc cases it was thc contribution of an extended LUllilymember and it was considered more important 10 accept tile contribution--1I1d byimplication the family JIIclllber--middottilaIl it was to have all the foods be well liked

Tile 101klorization tradi I ionll ization and rit ual ization or green bean clsselole suggest tllltltit is possible for a comllleIcial processed food to be broadly representational ami also 10

carry the emotional alllchment that a group may have [0 its region an attaellment llialgeograpller Yi-Fu Tuan refers to ltISlocal patriotism (1974 I() I) Sucll patriotism miglltwell be displayed throughout the Midwest whenever green bean casserole is served

Green bean casserole then rather than reflecting a lack of taste a lack of culinaryskill and sophisticatiol or perilaps worse a passive acceptance or mass-producedcommercial foods and Ileanings represents a regional roodway aesthetic and cthos Tilepopular stcreotype of the Midwest as having no distinctive identity is well kuowll hymidwcstcrners and comes into play whenever the region is discussed Their aWlITllCsuggests that their pliyrulncss with green bean casserole is a rheturiclI slr(cgy

acknowledging and celebrating this representation of midwcstern identity (see also Kakik1984) Furthermore the dish is used by its midwestern consumers in their ownunderstanding of their region as a performative discourse (Bourdieu 1991 223) that notonly claims the Midwest as an identity but also helps to construct a sense of the characterof that identity Such perronnativity was evident in many of the interviews and informaldiscussions of green bean casserole Initially individuals responding to my questionsabout the casserole orten displayed surprise at the idea that this dish could be takenserionsly as a food and as a tradition They orten considered it a tasty food and a part oftheir family customs but since it did not qualify as fine cuisine or as publicly celebratedsymbol they did not associate a meaningful significance with il20 That surprise thenturned to acknowledgment almost a sense of discovery that there is indeed a distinctivemidwestern regional identity and that foods having commercial origins can holdmeaningful places in individuals memories and foodways The very qualities of greenbean casserole that might seem to work against it as a meaningful regionaltradition-mass-production and factory-processing of ingredients case of preparationmllndaneness heaviness in calories and carhohydrates~are the very ones that make it alogical representation or local identity

I For Inorc discussions of the history of the industrialilation of food in thc US see Levenstein 1988 alld20m Cirabaccia 1998 Pi Iisbury 1))8 and Counihan 2002 Scathing critiqucs of the impact of industrializationof food on American ting habits arc orlred by Nestle 2002 and Pollan 2006 For the acceptance by womenin parlicular of progress in cooking see Inllcss 2001 and Shapiro 2004

2 Iur a discussion of the adoption of conulllrcially produced mass-mediated products into contemporarylIadition see Santino 199h

1 Most analyses of contcmpurary Alnerican rood habits condude Ihat Americans lack an appreciation forrefined cooking hecanse onr nalional eulturc has emplwsied quantity over quality packaging over content andspecd and sill as measnres of valur Capitalism is usually hlamed and while I agree that the capitalist systemhas encouraged such valnes I think we also nced 10 look at Ihe ethos and historical conditions that allowedAmcricans to cmbrace such a world view In exccllent analysis of the philosophical foundations of Westernthonght can be found in Barndt 2004 Wllich explores how the reductionist philosophy of Descartes and the anti-nature theologizing of Bacon created a mindsel that allowed North Americans (she includes Canadians in herindictment) 10 sever their conncctions with nature and thc naturalthruugh food

I ani not looking here at why people Ihink something tastcs good or at how panieular tastes develop Thepsychology or taste is a fidd in itsclr and addresses the biological physiological and psychologieal factors intaste My lcns is 011 how a dish comes to make scnsc as part of a meal to a group or people For psychologicalapproaches see Macbcth 1)97 Tasie as a philosophical issue is discussed in Korsmeyer 1lt)99 and Curtin andIleldke 1992

5 t eoutd also use glocalicd here since the spread ordishcs such as green bean casserole is due partiallyto snccessfulmarketing as wcll as to a hegemonic power of such companies as Campbell Soup to define whatis considered the norm of American food The term glocaliation comes from sociologist Roland Robertson(1992) For a comprehensive discussion of theories ollhe relationship of food to place see Bell and Valentine1997

G Roland Barthes identified crisp as a basic American food aesthetic and as the binary opposite ofsweet ([1961]199723)

7 In a holiday assemblage various items are artfnlly ammged to signify the holiday The individual itemsIllay have publicly established symbolism-such as a pumpkin carved into a jack-o -lantern or a baby in amangcr----hut the items may also have either no or too Illany meanings on their own in this case a can of cream

of Illnshroolll soup does not represent Thanksgiving until it is juxtaposed with a can of fried onions and callSof green beans For holiday ltIssenlblage see Santino 199434-41

8 These are my own terms although the ideas are explored and discussed hy philosophers andanthropologists of food fOi example Deane Curtin and I jsa Ilcldke (1992) My ose of the WOld foodways isspecific to folklore in that il refers to a netwOIk of activities and meanings sUITouuding food

9 For more explanatioll of foodways see Yoder 1972 and Long 1999IO For more discussion of identity bcing expressed in food see articles in Ihe volullle edited by I uda

Keller Brown and Kay Msell particularly one by Susau Kalcik (1984) My own approach tothe expression01 iiltntily through lood drmvs heavily from performauce theory in folklore as articulated by Richard Ibulllall(1197711984) and DelllIvlIlcs (1974) see Long 1)99n3i

I I This collect ing was not done as a statist ica I survey although that kind of in format ion would be hel pfiliThe focus ill these c1a~ses VIS Oil the hasic concepts of hDW food traditions carry and construct idclllily I 1Iso

collected information from grlduate students hut tiley tended to have Illore v~Jried hackgrounds alld were l10l

representativc 01 the regiollJ 2 While this ellulllgr1)hy was not systematic I did make sure that I talked to botlliollgiinle residents f

the area and newcomers Soci11 distinclions in this area tend to bc along occupational and political lines ratllerthan racial ethnic or sociocconomic Olles so I atlendcd politicks at cOIllIllunity events ohserved rcacli(llls In

a culinary expo at a locallllall and gave workshops and talks in the area on a Vltlriety 01 food-rated lopicsJndging from responseS to Illy lentative conclusions I keltllat I accurately assessed tile uses and llIeanin~s 01green bean casserole aeross town gown lines as well as the spcctrum of political bcliefs

13lnthe late 1980s I cOlldneted fieldwork for an exllibit Oil folk art ill this region Instead oflhe expectedpaintillgs sculptures and texlile arts I found tllat the artistic impulse tended to be expressed througll praglnaticforms such as farm implcnlents and machinery neatly aligned tree rows and yards and well-organized lanlers(Long II)l)O)

14 A reeeni advertisenllnl suggesting green bean casserole for Easler plays upon tllis idea statingtllatldisll is not only for Thanksgiving anymore The advcrtiscnlent which was copyrigllted in 2006 has aplarcd111 womens magarincs such as Family Circle

11 Longtime Bowlin (inen residcnt Tom Md Iuglrlin recalled tllal tile local dillns and lIalllburgerjinlsserved canned sonps in the I )IOs and 19iOs Wilen soop was ordered the cook would sinlply open a can 01Campbells soup (interview 6262(07)

16 Oikotype is more commonly used to refer to narrative variants that arc found in a parlieular Icdeaud tllal display some aspect of local culture (Brunvand I1)l)8 I n)

17 Claude Levi-Strauss suggests thatllunlans have to act upon the raw iugrcdients in ordcr to tnrn Ilrcnlinto a cultural item known IS fOOl11l1968J1997)

18 Such riles of rever Irc significant ways in whicll dominated cnlturcs maintain a sense of identity aswell as vellt anger at oppression While the American Midwest is in no way all oppressed cullure its residenls

often express frustration at tile hek of awareness and appreciatiun of their rcgion by other areas of tbe eounlryparticularly the coasts

19 Cranbcrry sauce 1111a similar place particularly in its canned jellied form Students expressed disgnstwith botlltlrcse qualities and wondered wily such sauce was part olthe nationalparadiglll

20 This reflects eomllion llIispnceptions of the nature of these phenomena rather than a lack of Ineallillgof green bean casserole itself Disbes to be celebrated tend to be thought of as eitber g011lmel (reprenli~evidence of the mastery or spc-cific culinary arts and usually displaying a higher socioeconolnic status) or asha ving a long hisICl) even 111lt1l1ghthat history may he a mythical une (eg furkly for Tilallk~givillg appk pit

or certain elhnie dishes) Silllillttrly many informants seemed to tbink of th casseroles ritual place in tllifamily as due to inertia lnd lack of curiosity so that it could bc a tmdition but not OIHto be celebrated IPillsbury 1998 pp 11-13 fr a discussion of tradition as inertia) In either case informanls did not cOIlid-rthemselves arbiters of whal ddines Food and Tradition

Anderson Benedict R 11)83 Imagined Canllnllnilies Ref7ec1iol1s 011Ihe Origin and Spread of NationalismLondon Verso

Barndt Deborah 2004 7IIlgied Roules Women Work and (Iobalizalion onlhe I)fwlo Trail Lanham MdRowman and Liuleficld

Barthes Roland 1997 Toward a Psychosoeiology of Contemporary Food Consumption In Food and CullureA Reader ed Carole Counihan and Penny Van ESlerik pp 20--27 (reprinted from 19GI) New YorkRoutledge

Bauman Richard (1971) I)84 Verbal Arl as Ierfinllwe Prospect Heights III WavelandBell David and Gill Valentine I9n Consuming (eographies We Are Where We Eat New York RoutledgeBentley Amy 2002 Islands of Serenity Gender Race and Ordered Meals during World War n In Food il1lhe

USA il RCllder cd Carole M Counihan Pl 171-192Ilourdicu Pierre 1984 Igtislinilioll il Soial Crilique oIhe Judgemenl or 11111 Trans Richard Nice

(alnl11idge Mass Ilarvard lIniversity Inss1991 lInguage and Svmlwlii Ioller Cunbrid~e Polity

Ilrnnvand Jail Ilaroid 11)98 The Stndy of American 1lklore 1n Intl~oduction New York W W Norton ampCompany

(ampbell Soup Company 200l1 hllplwwwcamphcllkitdlcncolll rccipedetailaspxlrceipeID=24099accessed 91 I i200iJ

200ib hltpllwwlVeampbellsoupeompanyeolnhistoryasp accessed 91512006(hilT Directory 2007 htt plwwwchiITcomagreen-bean-casscrolehtm accessed 9152006(ininnali 1011200 I Food reviewCounihan Carole M cd 2002 Iood inlhe USA A Reader New York RutledgeCurtin Deanc W and Lisa M Ilddke cds 1992 Cooking Filling Illinking rr(lsfiml1atlle Philosophies of

Iood Ilioollllngton Indiana University PressDeglr Linda 1994 AlllerillIn Folkillre IIlId Ihe MIIss Media Illoonlington Indiana University PressFertig Judith M 20m The Midwest In middotIII1llopedlaof Food alld Cullure cd Solomon H Katz pp 414--417

New York Charles Scribners SonsUabaccia Donna R 1)1)8 We I( Whol We Eal FlllIlic Food olld Ihe Makillg IIIAmericllnl Cambridge

Mass Ilarvani University Presst ioody lack 1997 Industrial Food Towards tire Deve(llment of a World Cuisine In Food alld Cllilure A

Rellder ed Carole Counilnl and Penny Van Eslerik PI 317middot369 New York RoutledgelIynles Dell 1974 Ways of Speaking In Eplorali(I1s ill IiiI lolhllograph1 oSpeakillg cd Richard Ballman

and Joel Shercr pp 431-412 Calnbridge Cambridge Univcrsity Press- - ----- 1971 Breakthrough into Perfornlanee In Folklore PeljimnallCl alld COlllmullicalioll cd Dan

Ikn-Amos and Kenneth S Goldstein PI 11--74 The llague Moutonluness Slrerrie 1 200 I Dillller (oles ilIIniulli WOIIICllalld Culil1O) Cullure Iowa City University of Iowa

Press

Kalcik Susan 1984 Ethnic Foodways in America Symbol and the Performance of Identity In Elhllic alldNegiollill Foods illihe lJlliler SillIes Illc ojimllllllce o(Group Idelllll1 cd Linda Keller Brown and KayMussell pp 37-(1 Knoxville University of Tennessee Press

Korsmeyer Carolyn I tJ99 Mokillg Sellse 0 Tosle Food alld hilosoph Ithaea NY Cornell UniversityPress

Lee Juditlr Yaross 2004 Introduction lu the Midwesl ed Joseph W Slade and Jndith Yaross Lee PIXIImiddot--XXX Vcstport Conn Greenwood

Levensteiu llarvey 1988 RelOllIlioll III Ihe ]ie Tile IiIlIlSfimnatioll 0 the Alllerican Diel CambridgeOxford University Press

__ _----2003 Paradox 0 1111)A Social History 0 Flllillg in Modem America Los Angeles Universityof California Press

dish that was always the green bean casserole dish Another had to have the fried onionssprinkled on top in a particular pattern

This critiquing of variations suggests first of all the existence of an aesthetic systema system for the evaluation of tastiness and satisfaction In my research sample it wascommon for individuals to have a favorite version of the recipe or to prerer onemaker--llsually a grandmother-over another The evaluation also freqnently includedthe merits of different brands of commercial goods and there tended to he a high degre(~of brand loyalty Ironically the ingredients were not speci fic to the Midwcst hut attentionto the idcntity of comlllcrcial products seemed to he common It may represent a localclhos that embraces the industrial incorporating it into personal tradition Brand loyallywas evident in other dishes-chili had to be made with a certain brand of beans and sauceand hot chicken sandwiches another local tradition had to he made with Roots cannedshredded chickcn

One point that repondents consistently hought up as an advantage of green bean casserolewas its familiarity MidVl~sterners particularly find the ingredients preparation and forlllof the casserole familiar One woman in describing its success suggested Its at everypotluck and its always popular Its so quick (0 make---pnfcct for the olliccpotluck--middotand I guess pcople like the familiar

This aura of familillity seemed to lend itself to the dish being perccived as cOn1l110nand normaL lts presence was assumed at group events and while lIwt presence usnallywasnt celebrated the casseroles absence would bc noticed and commented uponFlIltllCnnore the casscrole Illay appeal by virtue of its ability to neatly synthesize apparenloppositions It represents the familiar mundane and everyday in that it is thought of IS

an everyday conveniencc food yet it also represents the festive in that it is closelyassociated with potlncks Ind holiday meals Those festive events can he both scmipnblicinvolving members of oCupational recreational or religious cOlllnlnnities and privltewithin the family AI such events the casserole acts as a bridge between (wo real IllSconnecting puhlic and pi j vate domains making coworkers like fami Iy and making Lnlli Iyrelationships somewhat nlore formal and ceremonial than they might otherwise be

Green bean casserole also utilizes ingredients that arc generally familiar bUI in a m()l(~worked flshion that can connote festivity17 In Ilorthwest Ohio green beans ale acommon vegetable oftcn c()(lked and canned and served alongside meat and potatoes theyarc also made into a salad with a sweet-and-sour dressing Casseroles arc a familiar formhere connoting comrol ting sociability and canned cream soups arc COllUnon forlunchtime meals Dressing up familiar foods like these for holiday and special occasiollmeals lends itself to rituali7ation A recurring symbolic event (SantinolY94 II) thespecial dinner relies on sllhle components to ground it in peoples experiences as a ritutlcelebration Highlighting components that are familiar allows for more individuals toparticipate in the ritual ami to create a greater sense of unity throngh it In my sludy Ifound thallhis sense t1wt green bean casserole had been ritualized was part of what peopk

seemed to like about it Like the turkey dressing and mashed potatoes for Thanksgivingdinner the casserole appeared every year comforting in its reliability and consistency andconnoting family tradition and stability The fact that it was also found at other festiveoccasions and was not exclusive to Thanksgiving underscored its air of familiarity

1 also found a ludic or playful quality to many discussions of green bean casseroleMost of the individuals with whom 1 spoke were aware of the stereotypes of midwesternculture and cuisine and the ways in which the casserole fed into those stereotypes Theydiscussed the dish with a trace of sarcasm in their voices laughingly recounting the recipeOpen cans mix and bake They also recognized the apparent irony of this highlyprocessed food being a family tradition One infornlant describing her familys traditionaldinner rolled her eyes and recalled

Well elme tell you how my mOlher llIade il She opened a can of Camphells mushroom soup and a canof Del Monlemiddots green heans I her hnshand interjected and those onion things Yeah canned friedonions hUI she used polalo sticks t Ihink thats the way Sometimes she used atmonds sliveredalmonds

Such playfulness suggests that for at least some individuals the casserole was a ritualturning-upside-down of more elite assumptions about festive food and good food Thedish defies the usual qualities of fine cuisine and gourmet cooking and eating Bycelebrating such food the cullure surrounding it is also celebrated and affirmed IS

The meanings surrounding green hean casserole in northwest Ohio are multiple andsurprisingly complex orten representing conrtieting oppositions These meanings arc aninterplay of public commercially motivated meanings presented through marketing andadvertising and private meanings developed through informal use and experiences withthe dish On one hantL the casserole seellls to represent the traditional but it alsoreprcsents the modcrn an embracing of technology and corporate America It representsthe familiar and mundane yet also represents the festive and celebratory Likewise tbl~casserole is simultaneously fancy in that green beans have been worked into a morecultural product and plain in that the ingredients are familiar and available and thetecbniques for preparation arc minimal requiring no culinary skills other than wieldinga can opener Artislry however can be displayed in the casseroles presentation--as inthe choiec of a casserole dish and the arrangement of the onions on top-and personaltaste and identity can be expressed through variations in ingredients and preparationFinally the casserole is simultaneously national and regional While it is perceived ascOlllmon across the US it seems to resonate with midwestern eaters logically fitting intotheir family and community traditions

The casserole then suggests a regional roodways aesthetic in several ways a relianceOil canned processed foods a lack of spices other than pepper (the salt is bnilt into theeallned soup and onions) an emphasis 011 hearty and filling foods a conservative

approach to new tastes and ingredients and a pride in well-crafted functional dishes thatare economical and efficient Green bean casserole embodies and celebrates that aesthetic

These meanings of the casserole also suggest a regional foodways ethos a system forvaluing food and the activities surrounding it Dishes such as the green bean casserolelend themselves to COllllllllllitas the feeling of belonging to a community in whichmembers arc bound in nonhierarchical relationships (Turner 1969) No one is superiorno one is more of a gourmet In a sense the dish cuts across class in that it is available toall and draws from national rather than elite culture although it would probably bcscorned at gourmet mcals For those concerned with status however it is casily availablcfor manipulation to perform cJass Homcmade white sauce fresh green beans almondsinstead of canned fried (lnions and the addition of little cxtras---capers pimento greenpepper-middot-can all denote wealth and more rdined tastes In fact the ingredients amIpreparation methods of this dish are accessible to all regardless of class race gendcr andethnicity The cans of green beans cream of mushroom soup and french-fried onions arcdistributed nationally they arc inexpensive and available al almost any grocery store ~can all enjoy green heau casserole and we can even develop a connoisseurship of tillsubtle variations avai lable

The meanings associated with the casserole suggestlhat in midwestern culture foodfunctions not so much as cultural capital hut as social capital (BounJicu 19H4) It is uedto build md allinn relillionships in the family or cOllllllunity rather than 10 delllontratestatus In this culture valued foods and vahlld eating experiences arc those that bringpeople together and that crase the social distinctions of class gourmet tastes I1dindi vidualistic prefeiTIlces (reen bean casserole does just that

Corresponding with this finding personal taste seellls to playa secondary role to Iheinclllsionary funct ion of the dish In sOllie of the fami Iies I interviewld the casserole wasan obligatory ritwd part of a ritual meal a dish that had to be included but that IlO oneactually liked or atc In somc cases it was thc contribution of an extended LUllilymember and it was considered more important 10 accept tile contribution--1I1d byimplication the family JIIclllber--middottilaIl it was to have all the foods be well liked

Tile 101klorization tradi I ionll ization and rit ual ization or green bean clsselole suggest tllltltit is possible for a comllleIcial processed food to be broadly representational ami also 10

carry the emotional alllchment that a group may have [0 its region an attaellment llialgeograpller Yi-Fu Tuan refers to ltISlocal patriotism (1974 I() I) Sucll patriotism miglltwell be displayed throughout the Midwest whenever green bean casserole is served

Green bean casserole then rather than reflecting a lack of taste a lack of culinaryskill and sophisticatiol or perilaps worse a passive acceptance or mass-producedcommercial foods and Ileanings represents a regional roodway aesthetic and cthos Tilepopular stcreotype of the Midwest as having no distinctive identity is well kuowll hymidwcstcrners and comes into play whenever the region is discussed Their aWlITllCsuggests that their pliyrulncss with green bean casserole is a rheturiclI slr(cgy

acknowledging and celebrating this representation of midwcstern identity (see also Kakik1984) Furthermore the dish is used by its midwestern consumers in their ownunderstanding of their region as a performative discourse (Bourdieu 1991 223) that notonly claims the Midwest as an identity but also helps to construct a sense of the characterof that identity Such perronnativity was evident in many of the interviews and informaldiscussions of green bean casserole Initially individuals responding to my questionsabout the casserole orten displayed surprise at the idea that this dish could be takenserionsly as a food and as a tradition They orten considered it a tasty food and a part oftheir family customs but since it did not qualify as fine cuisine or as publicly celebratedsymbol they did not associate a meaningful significance with il20 That surprise thenturned to acknowledgment almost a sense of discovery that there is indeed a distinctivemidwestern regional identity and that foods having commercial origins can holdmeaningful places in individuals memories and foodways The very qualities of greenbean casserole that might seem to work against it as a meaningful regionaltradition-mass-production and factory-processing of ingredients case of preparationmllndaneness heaviness in calories and carhohydrates~are the very ones that make it alogical representation or local identity

I For Inorc discussions of the history of the industrialilation of food in thc US see Levenstein 1988 alld20m Cirabaccia 1998 Pi Iisbury 1))8 and Counihan 2002 Scathing critiqucs of the impact of industrializationof food on American ting habits arc orlred by Nestle 2002 and Pollan 2006 For the acceptance by womenin parlicular of progress in cooking see Inllcss 2001 and Shapiro 2004

2 Iur a discussion of the adoption of conulllrcially produced mass-mediated products into contemporarylIadition see Santino 199h

1 Most analyses of contcmpurary Alnerican rood habits condude Ihat Americans lack an appreciation forrefined cooking hecanse onr nalional eulturc has emplwsied quantity over quality packaging over content andspecd and sill as measnres of valur Capitalism is usually hlamed and while I agree that the capitalist systemhas encouraged such valnes I think we also nced 10 look at Ihe ethos and historical conditions that allowedAmcricans to cmbrace such a world view In exccllent analysis of the philosophical foundations of Westernthonght can be found in Barndt 2004 Wllich explores how the reductionist philosophy of Descartes and the anti-nature theologizing of Bacon created a mindsel that allowed North Americans (she includes Canadians in herindictment) 10 sever their conncctions with nature and thc naturalthruugh food

I ani not looking here at why people Ihink something tastcs good or at how panieular tastes develop Thepsychology or taste is a fidd in itsclr and addresses the biological physiological and psychologieal factors intaste My lcns is 011 how a dish comes to make scnsc as part of a meal to a group or people For psychologicalapproaches see Macbcth 1)97 Tasie as a philosophical issue is discussed in Korsmeyer 1lt)99 and Curtin andIleldke 1992

5 t eoutd also use glocalicd here since the spread ordishcs such as green bean casserole is due partiallyto snccessfulmarketing as wcll as to a hegemonic power of such companies as Campbell Soup to define whatis considered the norm of American food The term glocaliation comes from sociologist Roland Robertson(1992) For a comprehensive discussion of theories ollhe relationship of food to place see Bell and Valentine1997

G Roland Barthes identified crisp as a basic American food aesthetic and as the binary opposite ofsweet ([1961]199723)

7 In a holiday assemblage various items are artfnlly ammged to signify the holiday The individual itemsIllay have publicly established symbolism-such as a pumpkin carved into a jack-o -lantern or a baby in amangcr----hut the items may also have either no or too Illany meanings on their own in this case a can of cream

of Illnshroolll soup does not represent Thanksgiving until it is juxtaposed with a can of fried onions and callSof green beans For holiday ltIssenlblage see Santino 199434-41

8 These are my own terms although the ideas are explored and discussed hy philosophers andanthropologists of food fOi example Deane Curtin and I jsa Ilcldke (1992) My ose of the WOld foodways isspecific to folklore in that il refers to a netwOIk of activities and meanings sUITouuding food

9 For more explanatioll of foodways see Yoder 1972 and Long 1999IO For more discussion of identity bcing expressed in food see articles in Ihe volullle edited by I uda

Keller Brown and Kay Msell particularly one by Susau Kalcik (1984) My own approach tothe expression01 iiltntily through lood drmvs heavily from performauce theory in folklore as articulated by Richard Ibulllall(1197711984) and DelllIvlIlcs (1974) see Long 1)99n3i

I I This collect ing was not done as a statist ica I survey although that kind of in format ion would be hel pfiliThe focus ill these c1a~ses VIS Oil the hasic concepts of hDW food traditions carry and construct idclllily I 1Iso

collected information from grlduate students hut tiley tended to have Illore v~Jried hackgrounds alld were l10l

representativc 01 the regiollJ 2 While this ellulllgr1)hy was not systematic I did make sure that I talked to botlliollgiinle residents f

the area and newcomers Soci11 distinclions in this area tend to bc along occupational and political lines ratllerthan racial ethnic or sociocconomic Olles so I atlendcd politicks at cOIllIllunity events ohserved rcacli(llls In

a culinary expo at a locallllall and gave workshops and talks in the area on a Vltlriety 01 food-rated lopicsJndging from responseS to Illy lentative conclusions I keltllat I accurately assessed tile uses and llIeanin~s 01green bean casserole aeross town gown lines as well as the spcctrum of political bcliefs

13lnthe late 1980s I cOlldneted fieldwork for an exllibit Oil folk art ill this region Instead oflhe expectedpaintillgs sculptures and texlile arts I found tllat the artistic impulse tended to be expressed througll praglnaticforms such as farm implcnlents and machinery neatly aligned tree rows and yards and well-organized lanlers(Long II)l)O)

14 A reeeni advertisenllnl suggesting green bean casserole for Easler plays upon tllis idea statingtllatldisll is not only for Thanksgiving anymore The advcrtiscnlent which was copyrigllted in 2006 has aplarcd111 womens magarincs such as Family Circle

11 Longtime Bowlin (inen residcnt Tom Md Iuglrlin recalled tllal tile local dillns and lIalllburgerjinlsserved canned sonps in the I )IOs and 19iOs Wilen soop was ordered the cook would sinlply open a can 01Campbells soup (interview 6262(07)

16 Oikotype is more commonly used to refer to narrative variants that arc found in a parlieular Icdeaud tllal display some aspect of local culture (Brunvand I1)l)8 I n)

17 Claude Levi-Strauss suggests thatllunlans have to act upon the raw iugrcdients in ordcr to tnrn Ilrcnlinto a cultural item known IS fOOl11l1968J1997)

18 Such riles of rever Irc significant ways in whicll dominated cnlturcs maintain a sense of identity aswell as vellt anger at oppression While the American Midwest is in no way all oppressed cullure its residenls

often express frustration at tile hek of awareness and appreciatiun of their rcgion by other areas of tbe eounlryparticularly the coasts

19 Cranbcrry sauce 1111a similar place particularly in its canned jellied form Students expressed disgnstwith botlltlrcse qualities and wondered wily such sauce was part olthe nationalparadiglll

20 This reflects eomllion llIispnceptions of the nature of these phenomena rather than a lack of Ineallillgof green bean casserole itself Disbes to be celebrated tend to be thought of as eitber g011lmel (reprenli~evidence of the mastery or spc-cific culinary arts and usually displaying a higher socioeconolnic status) or asha ving a long hisICl) even 111lt1l1ghthat history may he a mythical une (eg furkly for Tilallk~givillg appk pit

or certain elhnie dishes) Silllillttrly many informants seemed to tbink of th casseroles ritual place in tllifamily as due to inertia lnd lack of curiosity so that it could bc a tmdition but not OIHto be celebrated IPillsbury 1998 pp 11-13 fr a discussion of tradition as inertia) In either case informanls did not cOIlid-rthemselves arbiters of whal ddines Food and Tradition

Anderson Benedict R 11)83 Imagined Canllnllnilies Ref7ec1iol1s 011Ihe Origin and Spread of NationalismLondon Verso

Barndt Deborah 2004 7IIlgied Roules Women Work and (Iobalizalion onlhe I)fwlo Trail Lanham MdRowman and Liuleficld

Barthes Roland 1997 Toward a Psychosoeiology of Contemporary Food Consumption In Food and CullureA Reader ed Carole Counihan and Penny Van ESlerik pp 20--27 (reprinted from 19GI) New YorkRoutledge

Bauman Richard (1971) I)84 Verbal Arl as Ierfinllwe Prospect Heights III WavelandBell David and Gill Valentine I9n Consuming (eographies We Are Where We Eat New York RoutledgeBentley Amy 2002 Islands of Serenity Gender Race and Ordered Meals during World War n In Food il1lhe

USA il RCllder cd Carole M Counihan Pl 171-192Ilourdicu Pierre 1984 Igtislinilioll il Soial Crilique oIhe Judgemenl or 11111 Trans Richard Nice

(alnl11idge Mass Ilarvard lIniversity Inss1991 lInguage and Svmlwlii Ioller Cunbrid~e Polity

Ilrnnvand Jail Ilaroid 11)98 The Stndy of American 1lklore 1n Intl~oduction New York W W Norton ampCompany

(ampbell Soup Company 200l1 hllplwwwcamphcllkitdlcncolll rccipedetailaspxlrceipeID=24099accessed 91 I i200iJ

200ib hltpllwwlVeampbellsoupeompanyeolnhistoryasp accessed 91512006(hilT Directory 2007 htt plwwwchiITcomagreen-bean-casscrolehtm accessed 9152006(ininnali 1011200 I Food reviewCounihan Carole M cd 2002 Iood inlhe USA A Reader New York RutledgeCurtin Deanc W and Lisa M Ilddke cds 1992 Cooking Filling Illinking rr(lsfiml1atlle Philosophies of

Iood Ilioollllngton Indiana University PressDeglr Linda 1994 AlllerillIn Folkillre IIlId Ihe MIIss Media Illoonlington Indiana University PressFertig Judith M 20m The Midwest In middotIII1llopedlaof Food alld Cullure cd Solomon H Katz pp 414--417

New York Charles Scribners SonsUabaccia Donna R 1)1)8 We I( Whol We Eal FlllIlic Food olld Ihe Makillg IIIAmericllnl Cambridge

Mass Ilarvani University Presst ioody lack 1997 Industrial Food Towards tire Deve(llment of a World Cuisine In Food alld Cllilure A

Rellder ed Carole Counilnl and Penny Van Eslerik PI 317middot369 New York RoutledgelIynles Dell 1974 Ways of Speaking In Eplorali(I1s ill IiiI lolhllograph1 oSpeakillg cd Richard Ballman

and Joel Shercr pp 431-412 Calnbridge Cambridge Univcrsity Press- - ----- 1971 Breakthrough into Perfornlanee In Folklore PeljimnallCl alld COlllmullicalioll cd Dan

Ikn-Amos and Kenneth S Goldstein PI 11--74 The llague Moutonluness Slrerrie 1 200 I Dillller (oles ilIIniulli WOIIICllalld Culil1O) Cullure Iowa City University of Iowa

Press

Kalcik Susan 1984 Ethnic Foodways in America Symbol and the Performance of Identity In Elhllic alldNegiollill Foods illihe lJlliler SillIes Illc ojimllllllce o(Group Idelllll1 cd Linda Keller Brown and KayMussell pp 37-(1 Knoxville University of Tennessee Press

Korsmeyer Carolyn I tJ99 Mokillg Sellse 0 Tosle Food alld hilosoph Ithaea NY Cornell UniversityPress

Lee Juditlr Yaross 2004 Introduction lu the Midwesl ed Joseph W Slade and Jndith Yaross Lee PIXIImiddot--XXX Vcstport Conn Greenwood

Levensteiu llarvey 1988 RelOllIlioll III Ihe ]ie Tile IiIlIlSfimnatioll 0 the Alllerican Diel CambridgeOxford University Press

__ _----2003 Paradox 0 1111)A Social History 0 Flllillg in Modem America Los Angeles Universityof California Press

approach to new tastes and ingredients and a pride in well-crafted functional dishes thatare economical and efficient Green bean casserole embodies and celebrates that aesthetic

These meanings of the casserole also suggest a regional foodways ethos a system forvaluing food and the activities surrounding it Dishes such as the green bean casserolelend themselves to COllllllllllitas the feeling of belonging to a community in whichmembers arc bound in nonhierarchical relationships (Turner 1969) No one is superiorno one is more of a gourmet In a sense the dish cuts across class in that it is available toall and draws from national rather than elite culture although it would probably bcscorned at gourmet mcals For those concerned with status however it is casily availablcfor manipulation to perform cJass Homcmade white sauce fresh green beans almondsinstead of canned fried (lnions and the addition of little cxtras---capers pimento greenpepper-middot-can all denote wealth and more rdined tastes In fact the ingredients amIpreparation methods of this dish are accessible to all regardless of class race gendcr andethnicity The cans of green beans cream of mushroom soup and french-fried onions arcdistributed nationally they arc inexpensive and available al almost any grocery store ~can all enjoy green heau casserole and we can even develop a connoisseurship of tillsubtle variations avai lable

The meanings associated with the casserole suggestlhat in midwestern culture foodfunctions not so much as cultural capital hut as social capital (BounJicu 19H4) It is uedto build md allinn relillionships in the family or cOllllllunity rather than 10 delllontratestatus In this culture valued foods and vahlld eating experiences arc those that bringpeople together and that crase the social distinctions of class gourmet tastes I1dindi vidualistic prefeiTIlces (reen bean casserole does just that

Corresponding with this finding personal taste seellls to playa secondary role to Iheinclllsionary funct ion of the dish In sOllie of the fami Iies I interviewld the casserole wasan obligatory ritwd part of a ritual meal a dish that had to be included but that IlO oneactually liked or atc In somc cases it was thc contribution of an extended LUllilymember and it was considered more important 10 accept tile contribution--1I1d byimplication the family JIIclllber--middottilaIl it was to have all the foods be well liked

Tile 101klorization tradi I ionll ization and rit ual ization or green bean clsselole suggest tllltltit is possible for a comllleIcial processed food to be broadly representational ami also 10

carry the emotional alllchment that a group may have [0 its region an attaellment llialgeograpller Yi-Fu Tuan refers to ltISlocal patriotism (1974 I() I) Sucll patriotism miglltwell be displayed throughout the Midwest whenever green bean casserole is served

Green bean casserole then rather than reflecting a lack of taste a lack of culinaryskill and sophisticatiol or perilaps worse a passive acceptance or mass-producedcommercial foods and Ileanings represents a regional roodway aesthetic and cthos Tilepopular stcreotype of the Midwest as having no distinctive identity is well kuowll hymidwcstcrners and comes into play whenever the region is discussed Their aWlITllCsuggests that their pliyrulncss with green bean casserole is a rheturiclI slr(cgy

acknowledging and celebrating this representation of midwcstern identity (see also Kakik1984) Furthermore the dish is used by its midwestern consumers in their ownunderstanding of their region as a performative discourse (Bourdieu 1991 223) that notonly claims the Midwest as an identity but also helps to construct a sense of the characterof that identity Such perronnativity was evident in many of the interviews and informaldiscussions of green bean casserole Initially individuals responding to my questionsabout the casserole orten displayed surprise at the idea that this dish could be takenserionsly as a food and as a tradition They orten considered it a tasty food and a part oftheir family customs but since it did not qualify as fine cuisine or as publicly celebratedsymbol they did not associate a meaningful significance with il20 That surprise thenturned to acknowledgment almost a sense of discovery that there is indeed a distinctivemidwestern regional identity and that foods having commercial origins can holdmeaningful places in individuals memories and foodways The very qualities of greenbean casserole that might seem to work against it as a meaningful regionaltradition-mass-production and factory-processing of ingredients case of preparationmllndaneness heaviness in calories and carhohydrates~are the very ones that make it alogical representation or local identity

I For Inorc discussions of the history of the industrialilation of food in thc US see Levenstein 1988 alld20m Cirabaccia 1998 Pi Iisbury 1))8 and Counihan 2002 Scathing critiqucs of the impact of industrializationof food on American ting habits arc orlred by Nestle 2002 and Pollan 2006 For the acceptance by womenin parlicular of progress in cooking see Inllcss 2001 and Shapiro 2004

2 Iur a discussion of the adoption of conulllrcially produced mass-mediated products into contemporarylIadition see Santino 199h

1 Most analyses of contcmpurary Alnerican rood habits condude Ihat Americans lack an appreciation forrefined cooking hecanse onr nalional eulturc has emplwsied quantity over quality packaging over content andspecd and sill as measnres of valur Capitalism is usually hlamed and while I agree that the capitalist systemhas encouraged such valnes I think we also nced 10 look at Ihe ethos and historical conditions that allowedAmcricans to cmbrace such a world view In exccllent analysis of the philosophical foundations of Westernthonght can be found in Barndt 2004 Wllich explores how the reductionist philosophy of Descartes and the anti-nature theologizing of Bacon created a mindsel that allowed North Americans (she includes Canadians in herindictment) 10 sever their conncctions with nature and thc naturalthruugh food

I ani not looking here at why people Ihink something tastcs good or at how panieular tastes develop Thepsychology or taste is a fidd in itsclr and addresses the biological physiological and psychologieal factors intaste My lcns is 011 how a dish comes to make scnsc as part of a meal to a group or people For psychologicalapproaches see Macbcth 1)97 Tasie as a philosophical issue is discussed in Korsmeyer 1lt)99 and Curtin andIleldke 1992

5 t eoutd also use glocalicd here since the spread ordishcs such as green bean casserole is due partiallyto snccessfulmarketing as wcll as to a hegemonic power of such companies as Campbell Soup to define whatis considered the norm of American food The term glocaliation comes from sociologist Roland Robertson(1992) For a comprehensive discussion of theories ollhe relationship of food to place see Bell and Valentine1997

G Roland Barthes identified crisp as a basic American food aesthetic and as the binary opposite ofsweet ([1961]199723)

7 In a holiday assemblage various items are artfnlly ammged to signify the holiday The individual itemsIllay have publicly established symbolism-such as a pumpkin carved into a jack-o -lantern or a baby in amangcr----hut the items may also have either no or too Illany meanings on their own in this case a can of cream

of Illnshroolll soup does not represent Thanksgiving until it is juxtaposed with a can of fried onions and callSof green beans For holiday ltIssenlblage see Santino 199434-41

8 These are my own terms although the ideas are explored and discussed hy philosophers andanthropologists of food fOi example Deane Curtin and I jsa Ilcldke (1992) My ose of the WOld foodways isspecific to folklore in that il refers to a netwOIk of activities and meanings sUITouuding food

9 For more explanatioll of foodways see Yoder 1972 and Long 1999IO For more discussion of identity bcing expressed in food see articles in Ihe volullle edited by I uda

Keller Brown and Kay Msell particularly one by Susau Kalcik (1984) My own approach tothe expression01 iiltntily through lood drmvs heavily from performauce theory in folklore as articulated by Richard Ibulllall(1197711984) and DelllIvlIlcs (1974) see Long 1)99n3i

I I This collect ing was not done as a statist ica I survey although that kind of in format ion would be hel pfiliThe focus ill these c1a~ses VIS Oil the hasic concepts of hDW food traditions carry and construct idclllily I 1Iso

collected information from grlduate students hut tiley tended to have Illore v~Jried hackgrounds alld were l10l

representativc 01 the regiollJ 2 While this ellulllgr1)hy was not systematic I did make sure that I talked to botlliollgiinle residents f

the area and newcomers Soci11 distinclions in this area tend to bc along occupational and political lines ratllerthan racial ethnic or sociocconomic Olles so I atlendcd politicks at cOIllIllunity events ohserved rcacli(llls In

a culinary expo at a locallllall and gave workshops and talks in the area on a Vltlriety 01 food-rated lopicsJndging from responseS to Illy lentative conclusions I keltllat I accurately assessed tile uses and llIeanin~s 01green bean casserole aeross town gown lines as well as the spcctrum of political bcliefs

13lnthe late 1980s I cOlldneted fieldwork for an exllibit Oil folk art ill this region Instead oflhe expectedpaintillgs sculptures and texlile arts I found tllat the artistic impulse tended to be expressed througll praglnaticforms such as farm implcnlents and machinery neatly aligned tree rows and yards and well-organized lanlers(Long II)l)O)

14 A reeeni advertisenllnl suggesting green bean casserole for Easler plays upon tllis idea statingtllatldisll is not only for Thanksgiving anymore The advcrtiscnlent which was copyrigllted in 2006 has aplarcd111 womens magarincs such as Family Circle

11 Longtime Bowlin (inen residcnt Tom Md Iuglrlin recalled tllal tile local dillns and lIalllburgerjinlsserved canned sonps in the I )IOs and 19iOs Wilen soop was ordered the cook would sinlply open a can 01Campbells soup (interview 6262(07)

16 Oikotype is more commonly used to refer to narrative variants that arc found in a parlieular Icdeaud tllal display some aspect of local culture (Brunvand I1)l)8 I n)

17 Claude Levi-Strauss suggests thatllunlans have to act upon the raw iugrcdients in ordcr to tnrn Ilrcnlinto a cultural item known IS fOOl11l1968J1997)

18 Such riles of rever Irc significant ways in whicll dominated cnlturcs maintain a sense of identity aswell as vellt anger at oppression While the American Midwest is in no way all oppressed cullure its residenls

often express frustration at tile hek of awareness and appreciatiun of their rcgion by other areas of tbe eounlryparticularly the coasts

19 Cranbcrry sauce 1111a similar place particularly in its canned jellied form Students expressed disgnstwith botlltlrcse qualities and wondered wily such sauce was part olthe nationalparadiglll

20 This reflects eomllion llIispnceptions of the nature of these phenomena rather than a lack of Ineallillgof green bean casserole itself Disbes to be celebrated tend to be thought of as eitber g011lmel (reprenli~evidence of the mastery or spc-cific culinary arts and usually displaying a higher socioeconolnic status) or asha ving a long hisICl) even 111lt1l1ghthat history may he a mythical une (eg furkly for Tilallk~givillg appk pit

or certain elhnie dishes) Silllillttrly many informants seemed to tbink of th casseroles ritual place in tllifamily as due to inertia lnd lack of curiosity so that it could bc a tmdition but not OIHto be celebrated IPillsbury 1998 pp 11-13 fr a discussion of tradition as inertia) In either case informanls did not cOIlid-rthemselves arbiters of whal ddines Food and Tradition

Anderson Benedict R 11)83 Imagined Canllnllnilies Ref7ec1iol1s 011Ihe Origin and Spread of NationalismLondon Verso

Barndt Deborah 2004 7IIlgied Roules Women Work and (Iobalizalion onlhe I)fwlo Trail Lanham MdRowman and Liuleficld

Barthes Roland 1997 Toward a Psychosoeiology of Contemporary Food Consumption In Food and CullureA Reader ed Carole Counihan and Penny Van ESlerik pp 20--27 (reprinted from 19GI) New YorkRoutledge

Bauman Richard (1971) I)84 Verbal Arl as Ierfinllwe Prospect Heights III WavelandBell David and Gill Valentine I9n Consuming (eographies We Are Where We Eat New York RoutledgeBentley Amy 2002 Islands of Serenity Gender Race and Ordered Meals during World War n In Food il1lhe

USA il RCllder cd Carole M Counihan Pl 171-192Ilourdicu Pierre 1984 Igtislinilioll il Soial Crilique oIhe Judgemenl or 11111 Trans Richard Nice

(alnl11idge Mass Ilarvard lIniversity Inss1991 lInguage and Svmlwlii Ioller Cunbrid~e Polity

Ilrnnvand Jail Ilaroid 11)98 The Stndy of American 1lklore 1n Intl~oduction New York W W Norton ampCompany

(ampbell Soup Company 200l1 hllplwwwcamphcllkitdlcncolll rccipedetailaspxlrceipeID=24099accessed 91 I i200iJ

200ib hltpllwwlVeampbellsoupeompanyeolnhistoryasp accessed 91512006(hilT Directory 2007 htt plwwwchiITcomagreen-bean-casscrolehtm accessed 9152006(ininnali 1011200 I Food reviewCounihan Carole M cd 2002 Iood inlhe USA A Reader New York RutledgeCurtin Deanc W and Lisa M Ilddke cds 1992 Cooking Filling Illinking rr(lsfiml1atlle Philosophies of

Iood Ilioollllngton Indiana University PressDeglr Linda 1994 AlllerillIn Folkillre IIlId Ihe MIIss Media Illoonlington Indiana University PressFertig Judith M 20m The Midwest In middotIII1llopedlaof Food alld Cullure cd Solomon H Katz pp 414--417

New York Charles Scribners SonsUabaccia Donna R 1)1)8 We I( Whol We Eal FlllIlic Food olld Ihe Makillg IIIAmericllnl Cambridge

Mass Ilarvani University Presst ioody lack 1997 Industrial Food Towards tire Deve(llment of a World Cuisine In Food alld Cllilure A

Rellder ed Carole Counilnl and Penny Van Eslerik PI 317middot369 New York RoutledgelIynles Dell 1974 Ways of Speaking In Eplorali(I1s ill IiiI lolhllograph1 oSpeakillg cd Richard Ballman

and Joel Shercr pp 431-412 Calnbridge Cambridge Univcrsity Press- - ----- 1971 Breakthrough into Perfornlanee In Folklore PeljimnallCl alld COlllmullicalioll cd Dan

Ikn-Amos and Kenneth S Goldstein PI 11--74 The llague Moutonluness Slrerrie 1 200 I Dillller (oles ilIIniulli WOIIICllalld Culil1O) Cullure Iowa City University of Iowa

Press

Kalcik Susan 1984 Ethnic Foodways in America Symbol and the Performance of Identity In Elhllic alldNegiollill Foods illihe lJlliler SillIes Illc ojimllllllce o(Group Idelllll1 cd Linda Keller Brown and KayMussell pp 37-(1 Knoxville University of Tennessee Press

Korsmeyer Carolyn I tJ99 Mokillg Sellse 0 Tosle Food alld hilosoph Ithaea NY Cornell UniversityPress

Lee Juditlr Yaross 2004 Introduction lu the Midwesl ed Joseph W Slade and Jndith Yaross Lee PIXIImiddot--XXX Vcstport Conn Greenwood

Levensteiu llarvey 1988 RelOllIlioll III Ihe ]ie Tile IiIlIlSfimnatioll 0 the Alllerican Diel CambridgeOxford University Press

__ _----2003 Paradox 0 1111)A Social History 0 Flllillg in Modem America Los Angeles Universityof California Press

G Roland Barthes identified crisp as a basic American food aesthetic and as the binary opposite ofsweet ([1961]199723)

7 In a holiday assemblage various items are artfnlly ammged to signify the holiday The individual itemsIllay have publicly established symbolism-such as a pumpkin carved into a jack-o -lantern or a baby in amangcr----hut the items may also have either no or too Illany meanings on their own in this case a can of cream

of Illnshroolll soup does not represent Thanksgiving until it is juxtaposed with a can of fried onions and callSof green beans For holiday ltIssenlblage see Santino 199434-41

8 These are my own terms although the ideas are explored and discussed hy philosophers andanthropologists of food fOi example Deane Curtin and I jsa Ilcldke (1992) My ose of the WOld foodways isspecific to folklore in that il refers to a netwOIk of activities and meanings sUITouuding food

9 For more explanatioll of foodways see Yoder 1972 and Long 1999IO For more discussion of identity bcing expressed in food see articles in Ihe volullle edited by I uda

Keller Brown and Kay Msell particularly one by Susau Kalcik (1984) My own approach tothe expression01 iiltntily through lood drmvs heavily from performauce theory in folklore as articulated by Richard Ibulllall(1197711984) and DelllIvlIlcs (1974) see Long 1)99n3i

I I This collect ing was not done as a statist ica I survey although that kind of in format ion would be hel pfiliThe focus ill these c1a~ses VIS Oil the hasic concepts of hDW food traditions carry and construct idclllily I 1Iso

collected information from grlduate students hut tiley tended to have Illore v~Jried hackgrounds alld were l10l

representativc 01 the regiollJ 2 While this ellulllgr1)hy was not systematic I did make sure that I talked to botlliollgiinle residents f

the area and newcomers Soci11 distinclions in this area tend to bc along occupational and political lines ratllerthan racial ethnic or sociocconomic Olles so I atlendcd politicks at cOIllIllunity events ohserved rcacli(llls In

a culinary expo at a locallllall and gave workshops and talks in the area on a Vltlriety 01 food-rated lopicsJndging from responseS to Illy lentative conclusions I keltllat I accurately assessed tile uses and llIeanin~s 01green bean casserole aeross town gown lines as well as the spcctrum of political bcliefs

13lnthe late 1980s I cOlldneted fieldwork for an exllibit Oil folk art ill this region Instead oflhe expectedpaintillgs sculptures and texlile arts I found tllat the artistic impulse tended to be expressed througll praglnaticforms such as farm implcnlents and machinery neatly aligned tree rows and yards and well-organized lanlers(Long II)l)O)

14 A reeeni advertisenllnl suggesting green bean casserole for Easler plays upon tllis idea statingtllatldisll is not only for Thanksgiving anymore The advcrtiscnlent which was copyrigllted in 2006 has aplarcd111 womens magarincs such as Family Circle

11 Longtime Bowlin (inen residcnt Tom Md Iuglrlin recalled tllal tile local dillns and lIalllburgerjinlsserved canned sonps in the I )IOs and 19iOs Wilen soop was ordered the cook would sinlply open a can 01Campbells soup (interview 6262(07)

16 Oikotype is more commonly used to refer to narrative variants that arc found in a parlieular Icdeaud tllal display some aspect of local culture (Brunvand I1)l)8 I n)

17 Claude Levi-Strauss suggests thatllunlans have to act upon the raw iugrcdients in ordcr to tnrn Ilrcnlinto a cultural item known IS fOOl11l1968J1997)

18 Such riles of rever Irc significant ways in whicll dominated cnlturcs maintain a sense of identity aswell as vellt anger at oppression While the American Midwest is in no way all oppressed cullure its residenls

often express frustration at tile hek of awareness and appreciatiun of their rcgion by other areas of tbe eounlryparticularly the coasts

19 Cranbcrry sauce 1111a similar place particularly in its canned jellied form Students expressed disgnstwith botlltlrcse qualities and wondered wily such sauce was part olthe nationalparadiglll

20 This reflects eomllion llIispnceptions of the nature of these phenomena rather than a lack of Ineallillgof green bean casserole itself Disbes to be celebrated tend to be thought of as eitber g011lmel (reprenli~evidence of the mastery or spc-cific culinary arts and usually displaying a higher socioeconolnic status) or asha ving a long hisICl) even 111lt1l1ghthat history may he a mythical une (eg furkly for Tilallk~givillg appk pit

or certain elhnie dishes) Silllillttrly many informants seemed to tbink of th casseroles ritual place in tllifamily as due to inertia lnd lack of curiosity so that it could bc a tmdition but not OIHto be celebrated IPillsbury 1998 pp 11-13 fr a discussion of tradition as inertia) In either case informanls did not cOIlid-rthemselves arbiters of whal ddines Food and Tradition

Anderson Benedict R 11)83 Imagined Canllnllnilies Ref7ec1iol1s 011Ihe Origin and Spread of NationalismLondon Verso

Barndt Deborah 2004 7IIlgied Roules Women Work and (Iobalizalion onlhe I)fwlo Trail Lanham MdRowman and Liuleficld

Barthes Roland 1997 Toward a Psychosoeiology of Contemporary Food Consumption In Food and CullureA Reader ed Carole Counihan and Penny Van ESlerik pp 20--27 (reprinted from 19GI) New YorkRoutledge

Bauman Richard (1971) I)84 Verbal Arl as Ierfinllwe Prospect Heights III WavelandBell David and Gill Valentine I9n Consuming (eographies We Are Where We Eat New York RoutledgeBentley Amy 2002 Islands of Serenity Gender Race and Ordered Meals during World War n In Food il1lhe

USA il RCllder cd Carole M Counihan Pl 171-192Ilourdicu Pierre 1984 Igtislinilioll il Soial Crilique oIhe Judgemenl or 11111 Trans Richard Nice

(alnl11idge Mass Ilarvard lIniversity Inss1991 lInguage and Svmlwlii Ioller Cunbrid~e Polity

Ilrnnvand Jail Ilaroid 11)98 The Stndy of American 1lklore 1n Intl~oduction New York W W Norton ampCompany

(ampbell Soup Company 200l1 hllplwwwcamphcllkitdlcncolll rccipedetailaspxlrceipeID=24099accessed 91 I i200iJ

200ib hltpllwwlVeampbellsoupeompanyeolnhistoryasp accessed 91512006(hilT Directory 2007 htt plwwwchiITcomagreen-bean-casscrolehtm accessed 9152006(ininnali 1011200 I Food reviewCounihan Carole M cd 2002 Iood inlhe USA A Reader New York RutledgeCurtin Deanc W and Lisa M Ilddke cds 1992 Cooking Filling Illinking rr(lsfiml1atlle Philosophies of

Iood Ilioollllngton Indiana University PressDeglr Linda 1994 AlllerillIn Folkillre IIlId Ihe MIIss Media Illoonlington Indiana University PressFertig Judith M 20m The Midwest In middotIII1llopedlaof Food alld Cullure cd Solomon H Katz pp 414--417

New York Charles Scribners SonsUabaccia Donna R 1)1)8 We I( Whol We Eal FlllIlic Food olld Ihe Makillg IIIAmericllnl Cambridge

Mass Ilarvani University Presst ioody lack 1997 Industrial Food Towards tire Deve(llment of a World Cuisine In Food alld Cllilure A

Rellder ed Carole Counilnl and Penny Van Eslerik PI 317middot369 New York RoutledgelIynles Dell 1974 Ways of Speaking In Eplorali(I1s ill IiiI lolhllograph1 oSpeakillg cd Richard Ballman

and Joel Shercr pp 431-412 Calnbridge Cambridge Univcrsity Press- - ----- 1971 Breakthrough into Perfornlanee In Folklore PeljimnallCl alld COlllmullicalioll cd Dan

Ikn-Amos and Kenneth S Goldstein PI 11--74 The llague Moutonluness Slrerrie 1 200 I Dillller (oles ilIIniulli WOIIICllalld Culil1O) Cullure Iowa City University of Iowa

Press

Kalcik Susan 1984 Ethnic Foodways in America Symbol and the Performance of Identity In Elhllic alldNegiollill Foods illihe lJlliler SillIes Illc ojimllllllce o(Group Idelllll1 cd Linda Keller Brown and KayMussell pp 37-(1 Knoxville University of Tennessee Press

Korsmeyer Carolyn I tJ99 Mokillg Sellse 0 Tosle Food alld hilosoph Ithaea NY Cornell UniversityPress

Lee Juditlr Yaross 2004 Introduction lu the Midwesl ed Joseph W Slade and Jndith Yaross Lee PIXIImiddot--XXX Vcstport Conn Greenwood

Levensteiu llarvey 1988 RelOllIlioll III Ihe ]ie Tile IiIlIlSfimnatioll 0 the Alllerican Diel CambridgeOxford University Press

__ _----2003 Paradox 0 1111)A Social History 0 Flllillg in Modem America Los Angeles Universityof California Press

Levi -Strauss Claude 1991 The Culinary middotfrianglc In Food alld CIIIllIre A Reader ed Carole Counihan andPenny Van Esterik PI 2R-Ti (reprinted iiom 19(8) New York Routledge

long Lucy 1990 Folk Aus o(The Greal mack Swamp Exhibit Catalogue Bowling Green Ohio Bowling

Green State University_______ 1999 Poocwavs Using Food to Teach Folklore Theories and Melhods_ J)igesl 11

lerrisdllillan SllId o( Food alld Foodl1ays 1932--36 ____ 2004 Pood In 1111 Midwesl cd Joseph W Slade and Judith Yaross Iee pp 281middot322 Westport

Conn GreenwoodMacbeth Helen cd 1997 Food njerences and TOSTICOlllilllliTy and Cillnge Providence RL BerghallilNeslle Marion 2002 Food Politics How the Food IlIdllslry Inlillellces NlItriTioll alld HmiTh I J)S Anges

University of Cali [()1I1iaPressPillsbury Richard 1998 No Foreigll Food The Americall Dill ill Time alld [lace Boulder Colo WestviewPollan Michael 2006 n( Oillliores Oilemnw A NaTlIral HislorV of FOllr Meals New York PengllinProstennan 1eslie 1995 Ordinarl Uli FesTim J)ays AesThelics illihe Midllestern Co 1111 TVFair Washington

DC Smithsonian University PressRath Sarah 2004 Casseroles In The Ox(iml Ellcydol(dia of Food alld lJrink ill Ailerilll cd Andrew F

Smith Pl 194-middot195 Cllnbridgc Oxford University PressRobertson Roland 1992 (oIJaliatioll Social nllorv alld (lohol CIIIIIn London SageSantino Jack 1994 Ail Amlllld Ihe Year flolidavs alld Celehratiolls ill Amerimll hi Urbana t Inivcrsity of

Illinois Press_________ Il)lJ6 Nell OldFashiollcd Wals flolidavs owl [omlar CIIIllIre Knoxville University of

Tennessee PressShapiro Laura 2004 SOllelhillgfiwlllhe OWII Reilllelltillg lJinner ill 950s Ailaiea New York PgniShortridge Barbara G 20tH Not Just Jcllo ad lIot Dishes Representative Foods of Minesota lollulIII of

CIIIllIral Geography 21 (I )71-94Tuan Yi-Fu 1974 TOlhilia A Sllldv ofElllirOlllllcIlTaaccltioll lIile ad Valle Ellglewood Cli ITs

NJ Prentice-1lalTurner Victor 1969 ne lillal [mas STnuTlre alld lllti-SlmcTlre Ithaca (orllell Jlliversity PressYoder DOli 1972 Folk Coukery In Folidore IIld Iolklilt All IlIlmdlclioll cd Rich11l1M l)orol1 PImiddot

32) -l50 Chicago tlli vity of Chicago Press

Ronald L Baker is chairpcrson emcritus and professor emeritus of English at IndianaState University where he taught English and folklore courses for forty years(1966-2006) ami served as chairperson for twenty-six years (1980-2006) He is the authorof over one hundrcd articles in professional journals and eight books Folklore in theWrilings 01Rowland E Robinson (1973) Indiana Place Names (1975) Hoosier FolkLegends (1984) Jokclore Humorous Folktalesfiom Indiana (1986) French Folklife inOld Vincennes (1989) lite Siudy ofPlace Names (1991) FronTNeedmore to ProsperityHoosier Place Names ill Folklore alld History (1995) and HOineless Friendless andPenniless The WPA InteJliClls with Former Slales Liling in Indiana (2000)Forthcoming in 2007 is another book Jesse Stuart and the Hoosier Schoolmasters Heserved as editor of three journals Indiana Names (1970--1974) Midwestern Folklore(1975-1 (99) and The Folklore Hisorian (1990-2000)

Ray Cashman is assistant professor of English associated with the Center for FolkloreStudies at the Ohio State University His articles on Irish outlaw lore place lore(dinlendws) wakes lllulIlllling folklife studies and material culture have appeared inseveral journals including Midwesern Folklore Journal (II Folklore Research andJoulllal olmcrican Folklore Ilis book CharocteJs and Comlllunity StOlytelling on theIrish Border will be published by Indiana University Press

LmY Long is an inslruClor in both American Culture Studies and International Studiesat Bowling Green Statc Univcrsity she holds a PhD in folklore from the University ojPennsylvania Her research and publications concern food and foodways food festivalsand traditionallllusic and dance She edited 1he volume Culinary Tourism published bythe LJuiversity Press of Kentllcky in 2004 and she has served as editor of Digest AllIlItndiscijllinary ltudyof Food and Foodways the publication of the Foadways sectionof the American Folklore Society

MIDWESTERN

FOLKLORE

Published at Indiana State UniversityVolume 33 No1middot Spring 2007

MIDWESTERN

FOLKLORE

Published at Indiana State UniversityVolume 33 No1middot Spring 2007