glucose and mitochondrial function
TRANSCRIPT
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Glucose and Mitochondrial Function
Wednesday, March 11, 2015
Adam R. Wende, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor Inaugural Pittman Scholar
Division of Molecular and Cellular Pathology
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Outline
• Define the question and model to determine the connection between metabolism and diabetic heart disease.
• Identify the molecular mechanisms by which glucose directly alters molecular function using systems biology. • Transcriptomics • Proteomics • Metabolomics • Methylomics and epigenetics
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2.5 million years 50 years
Obesity, Metabolic Syndrome, Diabetes, and Heart Failure
From: Roger Unger - UTSW
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ARW www.cdc.gov/diabetes/statistics and www.cdc.gov/mmwr
2010 – Obesity
2010 – Diabetes 2010 – Heart Disease
2010 – Physical Inactivity
!19% 20%–23% 24%–27% 28%-30% "31% 20%-24% 25%–29% !30%
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Maintaining Cardiac Function Through Metabolic Substrate Balance
Glucose Fatty Acids
giphy.com
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ARW Ungar … Bing 1955 Am J Med 18(3):385
UAB founded in 1969
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Metabolic Substrate Utilization in the Heart
Peterson and Gropler 2010 Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 3:211
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Point/Counterpoint - The Right Balance?
Taegtmeyer and Stanley 2011 J Mol Cell Cardiol 50(1):2
Heinrich Taegtmeyer, MD, DPhil
William C. Stanley, PhD
1957 - 2013
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Diabetes and Metabolomics
Metabolomics is an integral part for understanding disease processes ! information garnered in the biomarker investigations, future research should shed more light on disease pathogenesis and explore new treatment options.
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Heart failure and substrate switching
The hypertrophy, oxidative stress, and metabolic changes that occur within the heart when glucose supplants FA as a major energy source suggest that substrate switching to glucose is not entirely benign.
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Mitochondria – a Dynamic Network
Fan ! Brooks 2010 Free Radic Biol Med 49(11):1646
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ARW Ask for image credits
Fatty Acids
CAC
CPT1
CPT2
Acyl- Carnitine
FAO
Acetyl- CoA
ADP
ATP e- e- e-
I II III IV
Metabolic Substrate Utilization
H+ H+ H+
Glycogen
Glycogen synthase
Hexosamine biosynthetic pathway
UDP-GlcNAc
ACS
Fatty Acids
Acyl-CoA
e-
PDPs
PDKs
Glucose O
P
Glucose O
P
Glycolysis
Pyruvate
GLUT1
PDH
GLUT4
MPC1/2
PFK
HK
Glucose O
O
TF TF
GLUT4
ATP
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Facilitative Glucose Transporters: GLUTs “Solute Carrier Family, SLC2A”
Scheepers ! Schurmann 2004 J Parenter Enteral Nutr 28:364
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Changes in Human Heart GLUT Levels
Armoni ! Karnieli 2005 J Biol Chem 280(41):34786
Biopsies obtained during coronary bypass surgery HL = hyperlipidemia DM2 = diabetes mellitus type 2
Razeghi ! Taegtmeyer 2002 Cardiology 280(41):34786
RNA Human heart failure
Protein Human heart diabetes
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Glucose Utilization and Rodent Models of Type 1 Diabetes
Panagia … Clarke 2005 Am J Physiol 288:H2677
Protein Diabetic Mouse Heart
GLUT4
Glucose Uptake Diabetic Mouse Heart
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Glycolysis GLOX
Belke ! Severson 2000 Am J Physiol 279:E1104
Constitutive GLUT4 Expression Prevents Development of Glucose Utilization Defects
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Question: Is the change in cardiac metabolic substrate flexibility
adaptive or maladaptive?
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DOX absent = OFF
MHC-rtTA rtTA !-MHC
TRE-GLUT4 mycGLUT4 TRE
DOX present = ON
MHC-rtTA rtTA !-MHC
TRE-GLUT4 mycGLUT4 TRE
Inducible Cardiomyocyte-Specific GLUT4 Expression (mG4H)
TRE-GLUT4 mycGLUT4
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2 4 8
myc
Glut4
DOX (d)
Con
2 4 8
mG4H
0 14 0 14
Con mG4H
14
Hrt
GC
Va
s TA
S
ol
2 4 8
myc
Glut4
DOX (d)
Con
2 4 8
mG4H
0 14 0 14
Con mG4H
14
Hrt
GC
Va
s TA
S
ol
Hrt = Heart GC = Gastrocnemius Vas = Vastus lateralis
TA = Tibialis anterior Sol = Soleus
2 4 8
myc
Glut4
DOX (d)
Con
2 4 8
mG4H
0 14 0 14
Con mG4H
14
Hrt
GC
Va
s TA
S
ol
mG4H Mice Exhibit Inducible Cardiac-Specific Expression of GLUT4
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Insulin-induced GLUT4 Vesicle Fusion and Exofacial Myc-Epitope Exposure
Ariel Contreras-Ferrat
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Cardiac Myocytes
2-DG Uptake
Renata O. Pereira
GLUT4 Induction Increases Basal and Insulin-Stimulated Glucose Uptake
Basal 0.1 nM Ins
n = 3 – 4 a P < 0.01 vs. Con-Basal b P < 0.001 vs. All
0
50
100
150
200
250
Con mG4H
pmol
! m
g-1 !
min
-1
b a
a a
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Transgene Induction
Streptozotocin (STZ)-Induced Hyperglycemia is Not Altered by Transgene Induction
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0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
Con mG4H
nmol
! m
in-1
! g
dhw
-1
GLUT4 Induction Increases Glycolysis and Rescues Diabetic Cardiac Glycolytic Defects
n = 6 – 10 § P < 0.01 vs. Con
Vehicle
STZ
Isolated Working Hearts
Glycolysis
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
Con mG4H
nmol
! m
in-1
! g
dhw
-1
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
Con mG4H
nmol
! m
in-1
! g
dhw
-1
§ §
Joseph Tuinei Wende ! Abel in prep
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0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Con mG4H
nmol
! m
in-1
! g
dhw
-1
GLUT4 Induction Increases GLOX but Accelerates Diabetic Cardiac GLOX Defects
n = 6 – 10 ‡ P < 0.001 vs. All * P < 0.01 vs. Veh
Vehicle
STZ
Isolated Working Hearts
Glucose Oxidation
(GLOX)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Con mG4H
nmol
! m
in-1
! g
dhw
-1
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Con mG4H
nmol
! m
in-1
! g
dhw
-1
*
‡
Joseph Tuinei Wende ! Abel in prep
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GLUT4 Induction Prevents Increased Cardiac POX in Diabetes
Vehicle
STZ
Isolated Working Hearts
Palmitate Oxidation
(POX)
Joseph Tuinei n = 5 – 13 ‡ P < 0.001 vs. All
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Con mG4H
µm
ol !
min
-1 !
gdh
w-1
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Con mG4H
µm
ol !
min
-1 !
gdh
w-1
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Con mG4H
µm
ol !
min
-1 !
gdh
w-1
‡
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
www.genome.jp/kegg/pathway.html
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GLUT4 Induction Accelerates Development of Mitochondrial Dysfunction
n = 3 – 4 * P < 0.05
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Con mG4H
Com
plex
I ac
tivity
(%
of C
on-V
eh)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Con mG4H C
ompl
ex II
I act
ivity
(%
of C
on-V
eh)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Con mG4H
Com
plex
II a
ctiv
ity
(% o
f Con
-Veh
)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Con mG4H
Com
plex
IV a
ctiv
ity
(% o
f Con
-Veh
)
* ** *
* *
Oleh Khalimonchuk Wende ! Abel in prep
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In the context of diabetes, enhancing glucose delivery by
expression of GLUT4 accelerates the progression of
mitochondrial dysfunction.
Conclusion – Part 1
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Diabetic Cardiomyopathy “Death by a Thousand Cuts!”
ER stress
Adapted from Wende, Symons, and Abel 2012 Curr Hypertens Rep 14(6):517
Inflammation
Mitochondrial dysfunction
REDOX Imbalance
Lipotoxicity
Glucotoxicity
Insulin resistance
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ARW Adapted from Lewis and Abdel-Haleem 2013 Front Physiol 4:237
Systems Biology !"#$%&"'()*+,- .,$*+,-/
0('1,$*+,-23,$*+,-
2"*),*+,- 4,)#5*6*+,-
Phenome Obesity, diabetes, heart failure, BHI, etc.
Transcriptome Northerns, qPCR, microarray RNA-seq, miR, lncRNA, etc.
Proteome
Mass spec, western blot, Co-IP, IHC, PTMs, etc.
Metabolome Glucometer, ELISA, GC-MS, HPLC, NMR, fluxomics, etc.
Genome / Epigenome Southerns, sequencing, GenBank, ENCODE, ChIP-seq, bsDNA-seq, etc.
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Transcriptomic Analysis Using the Agilent SurePrint G3 60K Microarray
181.9 MB
mG4H-Veh
Microarray and Bioinformatic cores – Brian Dalley and Brett Milash Wende ! Abel in prep
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Pathway Analysis of Microarray
Wende ! Abel in prep
-log(p-value)
Metabolic disease
Amino acid metabolism
Lipid metabolism
Nucleic acid metabolism
Carbohydrate metabolism
Skeletal and muscular disorders
Energy production
Cardiovascular system development & function
Post-translational modification
Endocrine system development & function
Inflammatory response
Endocrine system disorders
Cell death
Cardiovascular disease
Gene expression
Nutritional disease
Protein degradation
Threshold 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
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Glucose Regulated Gene Expression
Wende, unpublished
0 = up-regulated 0 = contra-regulated 0 = down-regulated
Mouse STZ
Mouse mG4H
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Species Conservation of Gene Expression Changes in Diabetes
Drakos ! Wende, unpublished
Human T1D
Mouse T1D
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Species Conservation of Gene Expression Changes in Diabetes
Drakos ! Wende, unpublished
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 2.5
-log (P-value)
3.0 3.5 4.0
Threshold
Mitochondrial dysfunction
Calcium signaling
3-phosphoinositide degradation
Oxidative phosphorylation
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
GeneSifter using KEGG
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Ndufa9 Gene Promoter Structure
KEY TSS = Transcription start site
= CpG island
= Sp1 RE
http://ecrbrowser.dcode.org
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-2 kb +1 kb
Luc
-0.5 kb
-0.3 kb
TSS -0.5 kb TSS
Ndufa9
Ndufa9 Gene Promoter Mapping
C2C12 Myotubes n = 9 * P < 0.05
5.5 mM 25 mM
Glucose
0
20
40
60
80
100
-2 kb -0.5 kb -0.3 kb
Nor
mal
ized
RLU
* * *
Wende ! Abel in prep
Transient Transfection
Promoter Activity
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0
20
40
60
80
100
-2 kb WT -2 kb M3
Nor
mal
ized
RLU
Ndufa9 Gene Promoter Mapping
C2C12 Myotubes n = 9 * P < 0.05
5.5 mM 25 mM
Glucose
*
-2 kb +1 kb
Luc
TSS
Ndufa9 Sp1-M3
Wende ! Abel in prep
Transient Transfection
Promoter Activity
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0
20
40
60
80
100
-2 kb + (-) -2 kb + Sp1
Nor
mal
ized
RLU
Ndufa9 Gene Promoter Mapping
C2C12 Myotubes n = 9 * P < 0.05
5.5 mM 25 mM
Glucose
*
*
*
*
-2 kb +1 kb
Luc
TSS
Ndufa9
TSS Sp1
Wende ! Abel in prep
Transient Transfection
Promoter Activity
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O-GlcNAcylation O-GlcNAcylation
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Metabolic Integration: Protein O-GlcNAcylation
Hart ! Lagerlof 2011 Annu Rev Biochem 80:825
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O-GlcNAc Cycling
Hanover ! Love 2012 Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 13(5):312
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GlcNAc Regulation of Sp1
Vosseller ! Hart 2002 Curr Opin Chem Biol 6(6):851
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GlcNAcylation Regulates Ndufa9 Gene Expression
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
None GFP OGA
Nor
mal
ized
RLU
C2C12 Myotubes n = 3 * P < 0.05
5.5 mM 25 mM
Glucose
Li Wang Wende ! Abel in prep
Transient Transfection
Promoter Activity
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
None GFP
Nor
mal
ized
RLU
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
None GFP OGA
Nor
mal
ized
RLU
*
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Enhanced glucose delivery regulates oxidative capacity
via transcriptional mechanisms including GlcNAcylation of
transcription factors.
Conclusion – Part 2
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Mitochondrial Protein O-GlcNAcylation and Neonatal Cardiomyocyte Metabolic Function
Hu ! Dillmann 2009 J Biol Chem 284(1):547
Mitochondrial Protein O-GlcNAcylation
O-GlcNAcylation of NDUFA9
5.5 mM Glc 30 mM Glc + Adv (-)
30 mM Glc + Adv-OGA
Complex I Activity
5.5 mM Glc 30 mM Glc 30 mM Glc + Adv (-)
30 mM Glc + Adv-GCA
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NDUFA9 – Complex I
Chase A. Andrizzi
Western Blot mG4H Con
STZ Veh STZ Veh
NDUFA9
VDAC
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Con mG4H
CI -
ND
UFA
9/VD
AC
(N
orm
aliz
ed a
.u.) *
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Con mG4H
Com
plex
I ac
tivity
(%
of C
on-V
eh)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Con mG4H
Com
plex
II a
ctiv
ity
(% o
f Con
-Veh
)
* ** *
* *
OXPHOS Activity
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Western Blot
IB: O
-Glc
NA
c
Veh STZ
Con
mG
4H
Con
mG
4H
Mitochondrial Protein O-GlcNAcylation
GLUT4 Induction Alters Mitochondrial Protein O-GlcNAcylation
IP Ndufa9
Con mG4
IB: O-GlcNAc Ndufa9
Veh
STZ
Veh
STZ
NDUFA9 Immunoprecipitation
NDUFA9
Wende ! Abel in prep
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2D-PAGE
15%
SD
S-P
AG
E Con-STZ mG4H-Veh
pH 10 pH 3 IEF pH 10 pH 3 IEF
GLUT4 Induction Alters the Cardiac Mitochondrial Glycoproteome
Isolated Mitochondria
2D-PAGE Pro-Q
Emerald
Hansjörg Schwertz Wende, unpublished
2D-PAGE
15%
SD
S-P
AG
E Con-STZ mG4H-Veh
pH 10 pH 3 IEF pH 10 pH 3 IEF
Con-Veh Con-STZ
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GLUT4 Induction Alters the Cardiac Mitochondrial Glycoproteome
dbOGAP http://cbsb.lombardi.georgetown.edu and YinOYang www.cbs.dtu.dk
Wende, unpublished
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GLUT4 Induction Alters the Cardiac Mitochondrial Glycoproteome Cardiac Mitochondrial Glycoproteome
Con mG4H Veh STZ Veh STZ
UQCRFS1
DLAT
ATP5A1
SUCLA2
ATP5O
MDH2
Control-VDAC
Chase Andrizzi
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GLUT4 Induction Alters the Cardiac Mitochondrial Glycoproteome
Lamario Williams, Manoja Brahma, and Chase Andrizzi
25 kDa
50 kDa
37 kDa Actin
42 kDa
UQCRFS1 25 kDa
IB: UQCRFS1
IB: Actin
Inpu
t
Unb
ound
Elut
e 1
(200
uL)
Elut
e 2
(200
uL)
Elut
e 1&
2 (1
:1)
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Metabolomics
-20
-10
0
10
20
-20 -10 0 10 20
t[2]
t[1]
Class 1Class 2Class 3Class 4
Con-VehCon-Veh
Con-Veh
Con-Veh Con-Veh
Con-Veh
Con-STZ
Con-STZCon-STZ
Con-STZ
Con-STZCon-STZ
mG4H-VehmG4H-Veh
mG4H-VehmG4H-VehmG4H-Veh
mG4H-STZmG4H-STZmG4H-STZ
mG4H-STZmG4H-STZmG4H-STZ
SIMCA-P 11 - 1/31/2013 11:54:55 AM
Wende, unpublished
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Metabolomics
Wende, unpublished
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GLUT4 Induction Alters the Cardiac Mitochondrial Glycoproteome
Manoja Brahma
'()*+(&,-+).(/0/&
BHB
Acetoacetate
BDH1/Bdh1
AcAc-CoA
SCOT/Oxct1
m-Thiolase/Acaa2
Acetyl-CoA
$12&3-34(&
'()*+(&560789*+&RNA - Microarray -1 1 -1 1
AcAc-CoA
Acetyl-CoA
HMG-CoA
Acetoacetate
BHB
HMGCS2/Hmgcs2
Fatty acids
![Page 57: Glucose and Mitochondrial Function](https://reader031.vdocuments.mx/reader031/viewer/2022030322/588ef8651a28ab764f8b5101/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
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GLUT4 Induction Alters the Cardiac Mitochondrial Glycoproteome Cardiac Mitochondrial Glycoproteome
Con mG4H Veh STZ Veh STZ
UQCRFS1
DLAT
ATP5A1
SUCLA2
ATP5O
MDH2
Control-VDAC
SCOT1
Control-GAPDH
Lamario Williams, Manoja Brahma, and Chase Andrizzi
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GLUT4 Induction Alters Mitochondrial Protein O-GlcNAcylation
:;<&5=!43>23&
,15$&0??@+*AB(30A0)89*+&CB*?&"D&*C&E%.&C8/)(7&?03(&
FG&:+
A@)&
#+H
*@+7
&
:I&
1*+)
B*4&
:;<&,15$&
:I<&,15$&
:;<&!43>23=,15$&
Manoja Brahma
![Page 59: Glucose and Mitochondrial Function](https://reader031.vdocuments.mx/reader031/viewer/2022030322/588ef8651a28ab764f8b5101/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
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Enhanced cardiac glucose delivery alters metabolic flux through other pathways and regulates the mitochondrial
proteome via O-GlcNAcylation.
Conclusion – Part 3
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ARW Broad Institute Communications
From Human to Mouse and Back Again
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Epigenetics - Programming DCCT: Diabetes Control and Complications Trial
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Epigenetics - Memory EDIC: Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions Trial
Pirola … El-Osta 2010 Nat Rev Endocrinol 6(12):665
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Epigenetics: Transgenerational and Drift
Gut and Verdin 2013 Nature 502:489
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ARW Fischer 2014 EMBO J 33(9):945:489
Epigenetic Code
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Metabolite Signaling to Chromatin
Gut and Verdin 2013 Nature 502:489
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How does GlcNAc fit in?
Gut and Verdin 2013 Nature 502(7472):489
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ARW Gräff and Tsai 2013 Nat Rev Neurosci 14(2):97
Chromatin Regulation
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How does GlcNAc fit in?
Arnaudo ! Garcia 2013 Epigenetics Chromatin 6(1):24
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ARW ucsf.edu
DNA Methylation 101
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Exercise Alters DNA Methylation of Key Metabolic Genes
Low = 40% VO2peak High = 80% VO2peak
Subjects fasted overnight and then consumed a high carbohydrate diet 4 hr prior to exercise.
Barres and Zierath 2012 Cell Metab 15:405
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Diabetes Regulated Cardiac DNA Methylation
Pdk4
= C, = 5mC CpG :
Ndufa9
Con STZ
-552 bp -301 bp
Con STZ *
| |
-523 bp -259 bp | |
Wende, unpublished
Pdk4
= C, = 5mC CpG :
Ndufa9
Con STZ
-552 bp -301 bp
Con STZ *
| |
-523 bp -259 bp | |
Pdk4
= C, = 5mC CpG :
Ndufa9
Con STZ
-552 bp -301 bp
Con STZ *
| |
-523 bp -259 bp | |
Heart, LV n = 10 * P < 0.05
Targeted bsDNA-seq
5-mCpG
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Methylation and Expression
GeneSifter and Zymo/UCSC Genome Browser
RNA – microarray
Methylation – genome sequencing Legend:
0% 100%
Legend:
PDK4
VDAC
Protein – western blot Protein – western blot
Con mG4H Veh STZ Veh STZ
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Other Human/Mouse Comparisons
Irvin ! Arnett 2014 Circulation 130:565
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Other Human/Mouse Comparisons Mouse
Gene Expression 7*$-8,3-
7*$-9!:-
+.;<-8,3-
+.;<-9!:- !J>J&
Mouse DNA Methylation
Wende, unpublished
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DOX present = ON OFF
Where Does Glycemic Memory Fit In?
DOX absent = OFF
MHC-rtTA rtTA !-MHC
TRE-GLUT4 mycGLUT4 TRE
MHC-rtTA rtTA !-MHC
TRE-GLUT4 mycGLUT4 TRE
TRE-GLUT4 mycGLUT4
![Page 76: Glucose and Mitochondrial Function](https://reader031.vdocuments.mx/reader031/viewer/2022030322/588ef8651a28ab764f8b5101/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
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Glucose Cycling Alters Epigenetic Programming
Legend:
0% 100%
Legend:
100%
Heart, LV Zymo Research Wende, unpublished
Genomewide bsDNA-seq
5-mCpG
mG4H-ON
mG4H-OFF
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Background
http://chemistry.uchicago.edu/faculty/faculty/person/member/chuan-he.html
5-hmC Wyatt and Cohen 1952 Nature 170(4338):1072 Kriaucioni and Heintz 2009 Science 324(5929):929 Tahiliani ! Rao 2009 Science 324(5929):930
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!"!!#
!"!$#
!"%!#
!"%$#
!"&!#
!"&$#
!"#$%&'( !"#$)*+( ,-./$%&'(
,-./$011(
23$',
!(
Glucose Cycling Alters Epigenetic Programming
5-hmCpG ELISA
Heart, LV Zymo Research Wende, unpublished
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How does GlcNAc fit in?
Mariappa … Aalten 2013 EMBO J 32:612
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Tissue Specific Promoter Utilization
Heflin Center for Genomic Sciences, UAB Nye ! Wende, unpublished
RNA-seq Transcripts
Bdh1
Con mG4H Veh STZ Veh STZ
RNA Legend: -1 1
Legend:
Con-Veh
Con-STZ
mG4H-Veh
mG4H-STZ
403
241
127
144
510 531
440
466
60 97 45
165
146
139
106
109
187
157
5
5
187
198 185
151
329
Heart, LV n = 3
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Combined Transcriptome/Methylome
Zymo Research and UCSC Genome Browser Wende, unpublished
Genomewide bsDNA-seq
5-mCpG
Heart, LV
Bdh1
Con mG4H Veh STZ Veh STZ
RNA Legend: -1 1
Legend:
Legend: 0% 100%
Legend:
5-mCpG
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Combined Transcriptome/Methylome
Zymo Research and UCSC Genome Browser Nye ! Wende, unpublished
Genomewide RRHP
5-hmCpG
Heart, LV
Bdh1
Con mG4H Veh STZ Veh STZ
RNA Legend: -1 1
Legend:
Legend: 0% 100%
Legend:
5-mCpG 5-mCpG
5-hmC
5-hmC
5-hmC
5-hmC
5-hmC
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Cellular glucose fluctuations regulates the epigenome via
histone modifications and controlling the machinery for
DNA methylation.
Conclusion – Part 4
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Sugar Gumming Up the Works
giphy.com
![Page 85: Glucose and Mitochondrial Function](https://reader031.vdocuments.mx/reader031/viewer/2022030322/588ef8651a28ab764f8b5101/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
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Using combined methylomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics we have
begun to define the mechanism of glucotoxicity.
Overall Summary
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Acknowledgements
!"#$%&'(&)*+,*)$-%%).+,"(&)/#01)$#1%')
234)
234)
5-6-7-#")#8)9#%&.0%,1),"'):&%%0%,1);,*+#%#(/)
Thomas J Bailey – Undergrad; Cox6a2 Manoja K. Brahma – Postdoc; Bdh1/Oxct1 Mark C. McCrory – Lab Manager; Hmgcs2 Brenna G. Nye – Undergrad; Pcx Mark Pepin – MSTP; Abat Lamario J Williams – Undergrad; UQCRFS1/ROS
Wende Lab
K99R00 HL111322 R00 HL111322-S1
U24 DK076169 AHA 0725064Y JDRF 51002608
Other Colleagues & Mentors past and present
Oleh Khalimonchuk – UNL
Hansjörg Schwertz
E. Dale Abel John C. Schell Joseph Tuinei many others!
UAB Collaborators Steve Barnes
John C. Chatham David K. Crossman Steve M. Pogwizd Martin E. Young
Stavros G. Drakos Nikos A. Diakos