global vs. expatriate manager

Selecting and Developing the GlobalVersus the Expatriate Manager:A Review of the State-of-the-ArtVladimir Pucik, Professor, IMD, Lausanne, Switzerland;Tania Saba, Assistant Professor, School of Industrial Relations,University of Montreal

Ihis article presents a working definition ofT• two key concepts in international human

I resource management: a global manager

and an expatriate manager. The expatriate manager

or the international manager is defined, in a

narrow sense, as an executive in a leadership

position that involves international assignments.

The global manager is defined, in a broad sense, as

an executive who has a hands-on understanding of

international business, has an ability to work across

cross-cultural, organizational, and functional

boundaries, and is able to balance the simultane-

ous demands of short-term profitability and

growth. The article's objectives are to

clarify the main differences

between the two concepts, to

review the principal contributions

to the literature on this subject, and to identify the

organizational processes and human resource manage-

ment tools that can influence both the success of the

expatriate assignments and the development of global

competencies.

40 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

"The thing that wakes me up in the middle ofthe night is not what might happen to the econo-my or what our competitors might do ne.xt. What

does wake me up is worrying about whetheror not we have the leadership capability and the

talent to implement the new and morecomplex global strategies."

-Dave Whitman. CEO. Whirlpool Corporation

Defining the Expatriate vs.the Global ManagerIt is widely agreed thai the critical factor forcompanies to succeed in global competition iseffective development of global managers andexecutives (Pucik. 1985; Bartlett & Ghoshal.1989: Evans, 1992; Tichy & ^ ^ ^ ^Sherman, 1993; Gates, 1994).However, in management develop-ment literature, there seems to be agreat deal of confusion about themeaning of various terms definingexpatriate/intemational/global man-agers. In an effort to clarify the dif-ferences between the expatriate andthe global manager, this articleexplores the definitions of the twoconcepts, and explains the differ-ences in behaviors, competencies,and characteristics of the two typesof managers. The article also identi-fies and compares the humanresource practices necessary for aneffective development of the expatri-ate and global managers.

Building and sustaining organiza-tional capabilities for global opera-tions is a critical challenge for mostglobalizing finns (Nohria &Ghoshai, 1997). Meeting this chal-lenge requires changes in cognitiveprocesses through which managers framebusiness problems (Murtha, Lenway & Bagozzi.1998). Global thinking places high value onsharing infonnation, knowledge, and experienceacross national, functional, and business bound-aries and on balancing competing country,business, and functional priorities that emergein the globalization process. This set of attitudesis often described as global mindset.

The emphasis on the mindset helps todifferentiate between expatriate (intemational)and global managers. The definition of anexpatriate/international manager is linked to

Building and

sustaining

organizational

capabilities for

global operations

is a critical

challenge for most

globalizing firms.

Meeting this

challenge requires

changes in cogni-

tive processes

through which

managers frame

business problems.

the location of the assignment whereas theglobal manager is defined by his or her frameof mind. The term "expatriate (or intemational)manager" defines an executive who is able toassume a leadership position fulfilling interna-tional assignments across countries and cultures.In this review, the terms expatriate manager and"international manager" are used as equivalents,as these terms are interchangeable in most of theliterature. The term "global manager" (or"transnational manager" as it is sometimescalled in the literature) usually refers to an exec-utive assigned to a position with a cross-borderresponsibility, who has a flexible and openmind, with a well-rounded understanding of^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ international business and an ability

to work across cross-cultural andLioss-functional boundaries, whoperceives global competition as anopportunity, and who is able to bal-ance the simultaneous demands ofglobal integration and nationalresponsiveness (Pucik. 1991;Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; 1992).Some global managers may beexpatriates: many, if not most, havebeen expatriates at some point intheir career, but probably only fewexpatriates are global managers.

A literature review' show.s thatalthough a great number of studiesdeal wilh the international or theexpatriate manager, there seem tobe fewer studies (most of them con-ceptual, not empirical) about globalmanagers. Within the abundantresearch on expatriate managers,most of the work has been focusedon the issue of selecting managersfor international assignments result-

ing in lists of criteria, competencies, and charac-teristics that the international manager shouldpossess, as well as on the identification of per-sonality and psychometric tests that could beused to measure such personal qualifications. Atthe same time, researchers have analyzed thecauses of failure in overseas assignments andhave introduced HR practices that would helporganizations select, develop, and retain compe-tent expatriate managers (Tung, 1981;Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; Dulfer, 1990:Ronen, 1990: Oddou, 1991: Arthur &Bennett, 1995).

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 41

The 21st-century Expatriate Manager Profile (adapted from Howard, 1992)Skills

MultidimensionalPerspective

Managerial ImplicationsCore Skills

Extensive multi-product, multi-indtistrj', multi-functional, multi-company, multi-country,and multi-environment experience

Proficiency inLine Management

Track record in successfully operating a strategic business unit(s) and/or a series of majoroverseas projects

Prudent Decision-Making SkilLs

Competence and proven track record in making the right strategic decisions

Resourcefulness

Ability as a Team Builder

Computer Literacy

Prudent Negotiating Skills

Ability as a Change Agent

Visionary Skills

Effective Delegatory Skills

Skillful in getting himself or herself known and accepted in the host country'spolitical hierarchy

Adept in bringing a culturally diverse working group together to accomplish the majormission and objective of the organization

Augmented SkillsComfortable exchanging strategic infonnation electronically

Proven track record in conducting successful strategic business negotiations inmulticultural environment

Proven track record in successfully initiating and implementing strategic organizationalchanges

Quick to recognize and respond to strategic business opportunities and potential politicaland economic upheavals in the host country

Proven track record in participative management style and ability to delegate

In contrast, research on global managers isrelatively scarce. Besides defining what the glob-al manager's competencies and behavior shouldbe and how they differ from that of the expatriatemanager, studies revealing the global manager'sprofile, the determinants of the successful globalmanager, and the effective HR practices to devel-op the global manager ate still mainly at a con-ceptual stage (Kupfer, 1988; Pucik, 1992; Adler& Bartholomew, 1992; Evans, 1992; Kets deVries & Mead, 1992; Tichy. 1992; Bartiett &Ghoshal, 1992; Yeung & Ready, 1995, Werther,Wachtel & Veal, 1995).

BKHAVIORS AND COMPETENCIES

Expatriates' Behaviors and Competencies. Inone of the earliest articles on this subjecl. Hays(1974) categorizes expatriate managers into fourtypes. The structure reproducer is responsible forreproducing in the foreign subsidiary a structuresimilar to that of another part of the company.The technical troubleshooter is sent to analyzeand solve a technical problem. The operationalexpatriate is the individual who carries out awell-defined position in an ongoing business.

and the chief executive officer oversees anddirects the entire foreign operation. Similarly.Derr and Oddou (1991) identify two types ofexpatriates; those who are assigned abroad to"fix" a problem, including those assigned to linemanagement and specialized functional posi-tions, and those who go abroad as "high-poten-tials" to broaden their development before inov-ing up to senior management. In this context,Pucik (1992) differentiates between "demand-driven" and ••learning-driven" internationalassignments.

A number of researchers focused on compe-tencies of effective international tnanagers.According to Dulfer (1990), international man-agers must have clear managerial qualifications,in addition to purely technical and professionalskills and competencies. They should be able loperform tasks as members of a team, reflect oncomplex problems in an appropriate way. impro-vise and find new solutions in the face of unex-pected changes, impart confidence in their ownability to solve problems in difficult situations.and most of all. motivate all members of theorganization to cooperate. McCali (1992) has


proposed (as an outcome of a research projectaimed ul developing an assessment instrument toidentify leadership potential in future internation-al executives) that individuals who are hound tobe successful in international assignments arethose who show ability to Icarn from experience.International managers should show curiosityabout how things work, have a sense of adven-ture, demonstrate readiness/hardiness aboutleaming. be biased toward action, accept respon-sibility for learning and change, respect differ-ences among people, seek and use feedback, andhave shown consistent growth over time.

Focusing on one key competency expectedof expatriate managers, the "international knowl-edge," Rothwell (1992) explored its three princi-pal components: general knowledge about theworld and global economy: national informationahout conditions in a specific country; and busi-ness understanding of strategy, process, and lead-ership style. Looking toward the future, Howard(1992) has summarized the skills required of the21st-century expatriate manager (see Exhibit I).

Global Managers' Behaviors andCompetencies. According to Bartlett andGhoshal (1989; 1992), global managers are indi-viduals that have been selected for, developed by,and CO opted into the broader transnational orga-nization. Their principal characteristic is the abil-ity to resolve complex and potentially contradic-

tory issues embedded in the global environment.Bartlett and Ghoshal refer to these sets of behav-iors and competencies as the building of a globalmatrix in the mind of the global manager, butthey add that there is no such thing as a universalglobal manager. Rather, there are three groups ofglobal specialists — business managers, countrymanagers, and functional managers — that shouldtogether lead the organization to achieve global-scale efficiency and integration, national-levelresponsiveness and flexibility, and cross-marketcapacity to leverage learning on a worldwidebasis (see Exhibit 2).

A number of recent contributions to the dis-cussion of globalization of management focusedon identification of key competencies of globalmanagers with references to the traditional lead-ership literature. Tichy (1992) refers to globalmanagers/leaders as •'globalists," characterizedas individuals who have a global mindset — i.e.,those who can conceptualize complex geopoliti-cal and cultural forces as they impact business,and possesses a well-honed set of global leader-ship skills and behaviors, such as an ability tobuild effective cross-cultural teams; the energy,skills, and talents to be global networkers; andskills as global '"change agents." Kets de Vriesand Mead (1992) identify global leaders as indi-viduals with the capacity of envisioning (indicat-ing future direction in an increasingly complex

The Three Groups of Global Specialists (adapted from Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1992)

Groups of Global Specialists

Business Manager

Roles:

Country Manager

Roles:

Functional Manager

Roles:

Skills and Competencies

• Recognize opportunities and risks across national and functional boundaries• Coordinate activilies and link capabilities across those barriers• Capture full benefit of integrated worldwide operations

Strategist. Architect, and Coordinator

• Meet local customers' needs• Satisfy the host govemment's requirements• Defend the company's markel position against local and external

competitors

Sensor. Builder, and Contributor

• Build an organization that can use leaming to create and spread innova-tions

• Scan for specialized infonnatiori leading-edge knowledge and best prac-tices worldwide

• Champion innovations that may offer transnational opportunities andapplications

Scunner, Cross-Pottinator, and Champion


Differences Between the Expatriate and the Global Manager(Adler & Bartholomew, 1992)

Global Perspective

Local Responsiveness

Synergistic Learning

IVansition andAdaptation

Cross-culturalInteraction

Collaboration

Foreign Experience

Expatriate Manager

• Focuses on a single foreign country andon managing relationships between head-quatlers and that country

• Becomes an expert on one culture

• Works with and coaches people in eachforeign culture separately or sequentially

• Integrates foreigners into the headquar-ters" national organizational culture

• Adapts to living in a foreign culttire

• Uses cross-cultural interaction skills pri-marily on foreign assignments

• Interacts with colleagues from withinclearly defined hierarchies of stmcturaland cultural dominance and subordination

• Expatriation or inpatriation primarily toget the job done

Transnational Manager

• Understands worldwide business environ-ment from a global perspective

• Must leam about many foreign cultures'perspectives, tastes, trends, technologies,and approaches to conducting business

• Works with and leam from people frommany cultures simultaneously

• Creates a culturally synergistic organiza-tional environment

• Adapts to living in many foreign cultures

• Uses cross-cultural skills on a daily baskthroughout his or her career

• Interiu:ts with foreign colleagues as equals

• Transpatriation for career and organiza-tion development

environment), the ability to instill values andinspire others and build and maintain organiza-tional networks, the capacity for "pattern recog-nition" {sorting out relevant from irrelevantinfonnation). and the ability to cope with stress.

Research conducted by the AshridgeManagement Research Group led to differentia-tion within two sides of the global managers"competencies (Barham & Anial. 1994). The firstset of competencies is linked to the active rolesthat the global manager should play in order tomanage across a number of countries and cul-tures simultaneously. The "doing"' competencies,as Barham calls them, consist of championinginternational strategy, operating as cross-bordercoach and coordinator, acting as interculturalmediator and change agent, and managing per-sonal effectiveness for international business.(The other set of global competencies, or whatBarham refers to as the "being"' competencies,are presented later in the section on the attributesof successful global managers.) Finally, in a recentstudy of managers in major global companies,Yeung and Ready (1995) identify six leadershipcapabilities that corporations value in globalmanagers. These capabilities are as follows: tobe a catalyst/manager of strategic change; to be acatalyst/manager of cultural change; to articulate

a tangible vision, values, and strategies; to exhib-it a strong customer orientation; to empower oth-ers to do their best; and to get results, or managestrategy to action.

Several studies concentrated on global man-agers" way of thinking, or "global tnindset."" In an1993 article, Rhinesmith defined the global man-ager as an executive with a global mindset, able toscan the world from a broad perspective, alwayslooking for unexpected trends and opportunities toachieve his or her personal, professional, or orga-nizational objectives. Rhinesmith (1993; 1995)defines the mindset as "a predisposition to see theworld in a particular way that sets boundaries andprovides explanations for why things are the waythey are. while at the same time establishing guid-ance for ways in which we should behave.'" In thisrespect, individuals with a global mindset shouldbe able to drive for the bigger, broader picture,balance paradoxes, trust process over structure,value differences, manage change, and seek life-long leaming.

Is global mindset a tneasurable construct?Recently, Murtha, Lenway. and Bagozzi (1998)discussed the application of a survey instrumentdesigned to evaluate individual and organization-al progress toward creating a global mindsetopera!ionalized as an ability to balance the con-


tradictory pressures of global integration, respon-siveness, and coordination. They have created ascale to assess the degree lo which managersdevelop global mind.sets, the impact of policyvariables on organizational and individual differ-ences concerning globalization, and most impor-tant, individual and organizational progress inbecoming global and factors that account forvariations in the speed ot globalization acrossand within organizations. An interesting questionthat can be addressed using the global mindsetscale is whether one can acquire a global mindset(to become a global manager) without ever leav-ing his or her home country as an expatriate.

Comparing the Two Sets of Behaviors andCompetencies. Reviewing the behaviors andcompetencies required of expatriate and transna-tional managers. Adler and Bartholomew (1992)summarize the main differences between the twoconcepts (see Exhibit 3). The differences in skillcharacteristics are seen as driven primarily by thedegree of cultural and organizational complexityfacing managers during iheir careers.

FACTORS ASSOCIATEU WITH KXPATRIATEAND (;LOBAL MANAGERS- EAILURE

Much of the normative literature on the expatri-ate process is based on the argument that theexpatriate failure rate is high (Baker &Ivancevich, 1971; Misa & Fabricatore, 1979;Tung. 1981: Black, Gregersen & Mendenhall,1992). The study of predictors of expatriate fail-ure now has a long history in management litera-ture. In contrast, we are not aware of any studythat focuses on predictors of failure of globalmanagers.

Findings by Dowling (1990). Scullion (1994).and Weeks (1992) suggest that shortages of expe-rienced and capable expatriate managers havebecome more acute over the past five years.They are caused on the demand side by the ever-increasing pace of internationalization, whiie onthe supply size, the organizational capability todevelop effective expatriate exeeutives is hin-dered by the inadequate management of theexpatriation process, from selection and and han-dling of the initial culture shock to repatriation(Howard. 1980. 1992: Mendenhall, Dunbar &Katcher 1990: Dulfer. 1990; Hogan & Goodson,1990; Feldman & Tompson, 1992; Weeks, 1992;Gregersen. 1995).

Recently, however, Harzing (1995) reviewedthe literature on expatriate failure measured as a

premature reentry and concluded that this argu-ment is not fully sub.stantiated by empirical evi-dence. She adds that measuring the failure rate asthe percentage of expatriate managers retuminghome before the expiration of their assignmentcontract is inadequate for two reasons: (1) it isfar more damaging for a company if an expatri-ate who fails to perform adequately stays untilthe completion of the overseas assignment; and(2) a completion of the overseas assignment doesnot mean that the expatriate failure has beenavoided. Nevertheless, Harzing concludes thatHR executives should continue to examine expa-triate failure, but more attention should be paidto the reasons behind the failure (defined as pre-mature return, the lack of cross-cultural adju.st-ment, and poor pertbrmance during intemationalassignment), which may include a variety ofindividual as well as organizational factors.

INDIVIDUAL EACTORS

First, the expatriate inability to manage and copeeffectively can be caused by personal issues.Personality attributes such as the inability to dealwith stressful situations, lack of the right atti-tudes and skills to communicate with peoplefrom different cultures, and the inadaptability ofthe family to the new environment are frequentlycited as reasons that cause an expatriate managerto retum prematurely from the intemationalassignment (Mendenhall. Dunbar & Oddou,1987; Hogan & Goodson. 1990; Black,Gregersen & Mendenhall, 1992; Scullion, 1992;1994). Some of these personality characteristicswill be examined in more detail later whilereviewing the literature on the attributes of suc-cessful expatriate managers.

Aside from the personality attributes that maycause the failure of the expatriate assignments,the literature has focused on three additionalindividual-level issues:

A) Willingness to Relocate. Brett and Stroh(1995) studied empirically the willingness ofAmerican managers to relocate intemationally.The focus of the study was to provide an inten-tional measure of that willingness. The resultsshowed that American managers' decision torelocate were definitely influenced by theirspouse's feelings about intemational relocationand by their own attitude toward moving in gen-eral. It was also influenced by the number ofchildren at home and employer's policies(Harvey, 1996). In recent research on intemation-


al mobility. Forster (1992) focused on four keydimensions (related to job mobility) to explainIhe attitudes toward accepting assignmentsabroad: 1) the performance of employees abroadand the causes of expatriate failures (Tung, 1982:Pucik, 1988: Black & Mendenhall, 1992); 2) thepersonality profiles and psychological attributesof successful international managers (Phalak,1974; Tung. 1981: Black & Mendenhall, 1990);3) the effect of language and cultural training onexpatriates (Gertsen, 1990: Black, 1990); and 4)and the effects of national cultural differences onthe outcomes of international assignments (Gould& Penley, 1985; Gertsen, 1990; Smith, 1992).

B) Family Issues. The inability of the spouseto adjust to the new country was cited in manyempirical studies as a reason for expatriatefailure (Tung, 1981: Black & Stephens, 1989:Dowling. 1990: Swaak, I99,S). Dual-careercouples are also more likely to turn downinternational assignments because of the expectednegative effects of a career interruption (Stephens& Black. 1991). !t is clear [hat future researchshould include investigations of the effects ofdual-earner families. Companies should imple-ment practices such as job search assistance andpooling available positions in a geographicallybased consortium of companies (Catalyst, 1981).

C) Expatriate Commitment. Black andGregersen (1992) and Gregersen (1992) haveexplained expatriate failure by taking a closerlook at the fonns of allegiance developed by theexpatriate toward both the local operation andthe parent company. They have identified fourtypes of expatriate commitment: the "freeragents" with low level of commitment to boththe parent and the local operation; those who"leave their heart at home"; those who "gonative": and those who become "dual citizens"— expatriates with high allegiance to both theparent and local affiliate. In their study, develop-ing a high dual allegiance seems to be the bestway to prevent failure after an internationalassignment and has proven to have positive per-sonal and organizational consequences.

ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS

The ineptitude of the organizations in providingeffective expatriate selection, training, and prepa-ration programs and support policies during andafter the completion of the international assign-ment is regarded as a ver>' important reason indetermining the failure of overseas appointments.

In the same vein, many authors have described thedifficulty of managing dual-career marriages, thelack of career planning, the poor orientation pro-grams, the ineffective cross-cultural training, andthe unattractive compensation packages as com-mon organizational factors that would imminentlylead to overseas failure (Mendenhall, Dunbar &Oddou, 1987: Blocklyn, 1989; Hogan & Goodson,1990; Dunbur & Katcher, 1990; Derr & Oddou,1991; Rothwell, 1992: Forster. 1992; Howard,1992; Wederspahn & Stahl, 1992; Harrison,1994). Criticizing what they believe is "the mostcommon American approach" to expatriate selec-tion. Black, Gregersen, and Mendenhall (1992)add that the global assignment is destined to fail ifit is based only on a superticial selection of candi-dates on the presumable technical and managerialcompetence to put "the foreign fire out." Othersargue that the typical selection process often failsto take into consideration the candidates" cross-cultural ability or the family disposition to liveabroad (Stone. 1991).

DETERMINANTS OF EXPATRIATE ANDGLOBAL MANAGERS' SUCCESS

The research on determinants of expatriatesuccess is also much more developed thanresearch on global managers, with an emphasison expatriate selection and the expatriationprocess. The dominant theme of the literaturereflects the opinion that expatriate selection anddevelopment is still mainly focused on technicalcompetence as the key determinant of an expatri-ate manager's success, but that stronger effortsshould be deployed by organizations to assessother, "softer" factors, such as relational, cross-cultural, and interpersonal abilities as well asadaptability potential of the spouse and otherfamily members (Tung. 1981; Bennett, 1989;Cope, 1992; Scullion, 1994).

In one of the earliest studies of the expatria-tion process, Tung (1981) identified four groupsof variables that contribute to expatriate success:technical competence on the job; personalitytraits or relational abilities: environmental vari-ables; and the family situation. Tung (1981) addsthat the importance of these selection criteriavaries according to the category of tasks theinternational manager is expected to perform:chief executive officer; functional head; trou-bleshooter; and international operative.

Mendenhail and Oddou (1985) identified fourkey dimensions in the expatriate adjustment


because they believe that expatriate acculturationis a multidimensional process. The self-orienteddimension is composed of three sub-factors: rein-foreemenl subslilution; stre.ss reduction; andtechnical competence. This dimension measuresthe expatriate's ability of adjustment. The others-oriented dimension measures the expatriate'sability to interact effectively with host-countrynationals and consists of two sub-factors: rela-tionship development and willingness to commu-nicate. The perceptual dimension refers to theability lo understand why foreigners behave theway they do. Expatriate managers should be non-judgmental and non-evaluative in interpreting thebehavior ot host-country nationals. The cultural-toughness dimension refers to the understandingof differences between countries.

Ronen (1990) incorporates the dimensions ofexpatriate success identified by Tung (1981) andMendenhall and Oddou (1985) and identifies fivecategories of attributes of success: job factors:relational dimensions; motivational state; familysituation; and language skills. Oddou (1991) statesthat there arc never any guarantees in identifyingwhat constitutes the '"righr" person for the interna-tional assignment. However, a few indicatorsmight be helpful to identify the potential expatri-ate. The candidate's capacity to adapt to change(new structures, new rules and new faces), his orher open-mindness, sociability, self-confidence,whether or not he or she has a supportive family,and the candidate's capacity to deal with stress areessential elements that enhance a firm's chancesof employing a successful expatriate.

With respect to global managers, the scope ofthe literature is much more sparse. Kets de Vriesand Mead (1992) identified five principal cate-gories of factors contributing lo the developmentof global leaders: management development;adaptability factors; leadership factors; personaldevelopment; and training and education. Thesefive categories are broadly comparable to thoseidentified by Tung (1981), Mendenhall and Oddou(1985), and Ronen (1990). and together can begrouped as professional and technical competence,relational abilities, leadership factors, family situa-tion, and cultural awareness (see Exhibit 4).

From a psychological perspective, accordingto Wills and Barham (1992). core competenciesof international managers may be described ascognitive complexity, emotional energy, and psy-chological maturity. The cognitive complexityrefers to the ability to see multiple dimensions in

a situation, and to identify the relationshipsbetween those different dimensions. The emo-tional energy is the ability to deal with stressfulsituations. The psychological maturity refers tothree additional attributes of global managers:their strong curiosity that drives them to learn;their willingness to apply a great deal of psycho-logical energy to unravel the complexity of asituation; and their strong personal morality(Barham & Antal, 1994).

Developing International and GlobalManagersNot surprisingly, the majority of conceptualand empirical studies in this area have thus farfocused mainly on HR practices related toexpatriates. Research on global managers issubstantially less developed, and still basically ina conceptual stage. The primary emphasis of theempirical studies is on the expatriation process,selection, and training: not much work has beendone on performance management and compen-sation of globalization. Most of the studies aredescriptive, although a sophistication of theanalysis continues to increase. The key challengeis the operationalization of the outcome variablesthat are seldom linked to objective measures ofindividual or organizational perfonnance.

HR MANAGEMENT PRACTICESSUPPORTINC; EFFECTIVE DEPLOYMENTOF EXPATRIATESWe have reviewed the recent literature on HRmanagement practices related to expatriate man-agers in order to identify examples of effectiveHR techniques that may support effectivedeployment of expatriate managers (see Exhibit5). The HR practices are categorized into fivemajor activities: staffing; training and careerdevelopment; performance appraisals and com-pensation; expatriation process; and repatriation.Refiecting the nature of the field, information onHR practices is mostly drawn Irom NorthAmerican firms and European data; data on non-Western firms appear only infrequently. The listof citations is meant to be illustrative, notexhaustive, but whenever appropriate, examplesof companies that have implemented the practice(as cited in the literature) are included. We havealso noted the type of research methodology usedin the article reviewed.

A number of key themes emerge from ourreview. In the area of staffing and selection, the


thrust of HR activities in leading global firms —consistent with recommendations based on pastresearch — is on enlarging the pool of potentialcandidates for intemational a.ssignments, as wellas on making sure that the international trackattracts those with the best potential to succeedin the firm. Assessment for intemational assign-

ment is becoming increasingly rigorous and ofteninvolves the candidate's spouse. The structure ofassignments is becoming more flexible.

From the management development perspec-tive, international assignments are increasinglyviewed as an intrinsic part of career progression,providing opportunities for both a transfer of

Characteristics of the Successful Expatriate and Global Manager

Professionaland TechnicalCompetence (1)

RelationalAbilities (2)

LeadershipFactors (3)

FamilySituation (4)

CulturalAwareness (5)

T\ing (1981)

Technical Competenceon the Job• Experience in

company• Technical knowledge

of business• Previous overseas

experience• Managerial talent• Overall experience

and education

Personality Traits andRelational Abilities• Communicative

ability• Maturity and

emotional stability• Respect for culture

of host country• Adaptability and

flexibility in newenvironment

Family Situation• Stability of marital

relationship• Spouse's and family'

adapiability

Environmental Factors• Flexibility in other

cultures

Expatriate ManagerMCIKII'IIIKIII andOdduu (l^HS)

Self-Oriented Dimension• Technical competence

• Reinforcementsubstitution

• Stress reduction

Perceptual Dimension• Nonjodgmentali^im• Nonevaiuative in

interpreting thebehavior of host-country nationals

Others-OrientedDimension (expatriateability lo interact effec-tively with host-countrynationals)• Relationship

development• Willingnes.s to

communicate

Cultural -ToughnessDimension refers to theunderstanding of differ-ences between countries

Ronen (1990)

Job Factors• Technical skills• Acquaintance with

host-country andheadquartersoperations

• Managerial skills• Administrative

competence

Relational Dimensions• Tolerance for

ambiguity• Behavioral flexibility• Nonjudgmemalism• Cultural empathy and

low elhnocentrism• Interpersonal skills

Motivational State• Belief in the mission• Congruence with

career path• Interest in overseas

experience• Interest in the specific

host-country culture• Willingness to

acquire new patternsof behaviour andattitudes

Family Situation• Willingness of spouse

to live abroad• Adaptive and

supportive spouse• Stable marriage

Language Skills• Host-country

language• Non-verbal

communication

Global ManagerlKets dt' \rits atidMead [1991)

ManagementDevelopment• Early responsibility

• Variety of tasks• Early intemational

experietice• Corporate values

Adaptability Factois• Narcissistic

development• Cultural diversity in

family• Early intemational

experience• Bilingualism• Multiple roots

Leadership Factors• Self-confidence• Responsibility• Curiosity• Imagination• Hardiness• Decision-making

skills• Envisioning• Communication skills• "Core values"• Career goals and

expectations

Personal Development• Supportive spouse• Adaptable spouse• "'Movable children"• Variety of interest

Training and Education• Analytical skills• Professionai skills• Study in another

culture• Study in international

languages


knowledge as well as leaming of new competen-cies by the international manager. Leading globalfirms invest heavily In the training of their inter-national managers. However, not only is trainingprovided in the pre-departure stage, but it is tar-geted to help the expatriates continue learningabout the host culture and improve their intema-tiona! skills during the assignment.

Managing the cost of compensating expatriatemanagers often shows in surveys as an item ofmajor concern for intemational HR executives(McKay. 1994; Reynolds. 1995). However, thisconcem is not yet reflected in the academic liter-ature. Most of the discussion and recommenda-tions are focused on the effectiveness of variousfinancial incentives. In a number of articles,there seems to be an implicit yearning fur a bet-ter model ot expatriate compensation (e.g.. deliv-ering the same or more positive outcomes —pertbnnance and retention — for less money), butthe allemative designs are still not yet well-artic-ulated or tested. Similarly, the area of expatriateperformance management (e.g.. criteria, process,outcomes) is also substantially unexplored.

An important component of effective expatri-ate management policies is geared toward theexpatriation process, before and throughout theduration of an assignment. There is a strong con-sensus in the literature about the need to invest inthorough training and orientation programs notonly for the expatriate, but also for his or herfamily. After posting, the quality of the supportnetwork inside the host country, as well as link-age with the home office, may influence howexpatriates perform. In addition, family well-being is seen as an increasingly important pre-requisite of expatriate effectiveness.

Finally, the repatriation stage of the intema-lional assignment is receiving growing attentionin order to reduce the perceived high tumover ofretuming executives. Visible successful retumscan also have a positive impact on willingness ofothers to accept an intemalional assignment.While an intemational assignment cannot be ashelter against organizational upheavals, muchmore can be done to improve the odds of suc-cess, at relatively low cost. The best practicesfocus on advance planning in order to providemeaningful opportunities upon return that createvalue for the employee as well as for the compa-ny, and on emotional and logistical support dur-ing the transition.

HR PRACTICES THAT SUPPORTDEVELOPMENT OF CLOBAL MANAGERS

Based on the observations in the literature, wehave categorized various normative statementsand prescriptions regarding the impact of HRpractices on development of global leaders intofive areas: selection; career development andtraining; perfonnance management and compensa-tion; organizalional design; and global communi-cation. In particular, our objective was to capturethose HR practices that can support effectivedevelopment of global managers and are alreadyin the process of being implemented at leadingNorth American and European firms (Adler &Batholomew. 1992; Kets de Vries & Mead. 1992;Pucik, 1992; Tichy, 1992; Yeung & Ready. 1995).

A number of "'global'" HR practices stand out.Staffing sheds its ethnocentric image; globalmanagers can come from anywhere in the world.International assignments start early and flexibili-ty is the key; they can take various forms linkedto the developmental needs. Global mindset andglobal leadership become an integral part of per-formance management criteria. Tasks of globalmanagers are structured to cross intra-organiza-tional boundaries, often through membership intransnational teams. Emphasis is on the quality ofthe management process, open communication,and creation of global competitive culture.

In comparison with the earlier discussion ofHR practices supporting development of intema-tional managers, the focus on global managersmay require a qualitative leap in aligning HRwith the requirements of globalization, as all keyHR activities are intimately linked to the effec-tiveness of the management development process.However, as in the case of intemational man-agers, intemational assignments are the essentialdevelopment tool, although they may happenmuch earlier in an executive career as "globalleaming" becomes the primary objective.Therefore, an effective execution of intemationa!transfers will continue to demand attention.

Conclusions and ImplicationsTo be successful in global competition, compa-nies need both expatriate/international and globalmanagers. We have defined the former, in anarrow sense, as an executive in a leadershipposition that involves intemational assignments.The global manager is defined, in a broad sense,as an executive who has a hands-on understand-


Human Resource Practices that Can Effectively Select and Develop Successful Expatriate Managers

Activil

Staffing

(References) Cited Examptes

(1.2.3.4,5,7, 13. 18.20.22,24,25)

( •|i!i-.i.|,'l ."•U'rn.il rt.\-i-Liili-n.-nr i,i Till TTiiiEiiigfrnonl piv-uii ' i i . ,il>niji|

Use third-i:uuiiuy nuliunals tor inlemalional asslgnmenls

Invesl in promoting iriemalional opponunities To sTudents

Retruil sludents who have lived or were educaled abroad

Recruil women for international a-ssignmenis

Provide shon-icrm assignmenls to increase Ihe pool ot employees with international experience

Base the seleclion of iniemational managers oit long-tenn hurniin resource foteca.st.->

Give new international assignees realistic career and job previews

Interview Ihe spouse of the manager as part of the selection process

Make iniemational asiignnient planning a part of a career development process

Communicate the value of international assignments to the company's glohal mission

Make international ii'- ipnnn'nts .i uirnliEnin lor uilvantL-mfnt to scniiir niaiiap'riicnl

3M

Colgate-Palmolive

Colgate-Palmolive, Citibank

Avon, Coca Cola Foods

Ciba-Geigy

Dow Chemicals

3M. Mitsui & Co. USA

Whirlpool, Dow ChemiLiil.Arthur Andersen

nL'liouse Electric. 3M.

Training and Career Development (3,5,6,8.9,11. 12.13,16.17, 18.21.24)

Provide expatriate tnanagers wiih technical training to enhance their International background

Provide language training, cultural and business orientation

For high-potentials, provide a challenging international assignment wilhin three to five years after entry

Provide oppoitutiities to learn about international finance, marketing and other intem^onal functional areas

Encourage international managers to manage a multicultural workfon:e

Bechtel. Nordson

Ciba-Geigy

3M, UBS (E)

Colgate-Palmolive

Use intemalional :isMgnmenl as lop managi'intnt dcNclopmt'ni nn>l

Performance Appraisals and Compensation

Modify the performance evalualion system to incorporate ihe distincdve condition* of loial cokintrius

Ensure timely perfonnance review

Provide financial counseling for international managers

Provide a relocation allowance and a reentry bonus

Provide an equitable intemiitinnid aniipi-n-.irum pji-Viiyt

(10. I I . 12, 15.20,24)

KPMG-Peat Manvick

Expatriation Activities (3,4,5.7,8.12, 13. 18, 19.20,21,22)

Provide Ihe intetnational manager with ar orientation program before the assignment

Send the expatriate for a visit to the host country (provide a period of orientation abroad)

Involve the family in the orientation program

Bstahlish mentor relationships between expatriates and executives from home location for general career advice to reduce the "out of sigblout of mind" dilemma

Develop a network of contacts to keep the expatriate up-to-date on day-to-day activities of home-country operations for socialsupport and information exchange

Organize social activities at the foreign site iri order to faeiiitate exchange of information anii problem solving in an informal setting

Assist [he expalriaie's spouse in fmding a job

ASMS! expatriate in finding schools for children

Dow Chemicals. Ciba-Geigy. Intel. Chevron OverseasPetroleum

Colgate-Palmoiive

Intel, Ciba-Geigy, Gillette

Colgate-Palmolive, 3M, Ciba-Geigy, DowChemicals, Honeywell, Northern Telecom

Colgate-Palmolive. Intel. Bechtel.Honeywell, Northern Telecom

Gillene. Intel

Repatriation Activities (3.5.7,8, 12.13, 18. 19.21,22.24;

Pian a specitic assignment for the retummg cxpairiate ABB. Dow Chemicals

Provide opportunities for the returning manager to use knowledge and skills leamed internationally 3M, Monsanto. UBS. Honeywell

Monitor career paths of international managers so that they are not relegated to the '"slow track" because of their international assignments 3M

Get the high-pertbrming international managers retogni/ed/promoted upor return home ABB

Assign the repatriated employee and family to a welcome group cotnposad of other farnilies wbo have lived abroad Intel. Eiow Chemicals

Key to Rcfertntes; 1. Bi.:inuLl, iyS4 • tEiltriic-il 2. BtJtk et ill . tTJ ; • I V .'. Hl(«kt;n. IWJ • CS** M I S M S i . i ; 4.ri.pifliin,t, IW5 - inkTvi™,, S. D C I T S Odiitiu. tWI • S — I t J J Elpali/l. 'S MVC>.j: 6. rjunlrar i Kalcher, tflW- twcrv7, t-ddmaTi n a t , tW2 - fi l4.SK US gnidualc sILfJeri,',); 8.Galei, IW4 - S U5H US HRMuniKetJi; •». H a m ' ™ . 1W4 - (": 10. Howard. 19»tl - S (i(IEipaLs/27 US MNCsl; I I . Klaus, I W S - C : 12, Oddnu, tWI - S (Ifi.i EviKit.-/L!S M N C I ,13, (Mdou & Mendenhull, I W l - S 1135 EipUiflJS MNC=1; 14. Pudti, IVU - C\ 15. RcjnoUs, 1W> - C; t6. Rnihwell, l w ; • C. 17, Scullion. IW2 - S (4J Bnrish MNCsl: 18. Seiben si al,. 19QS - « (2 US M N C M ; I*. Shilling. tW.l - InlervJO, S,il,.m.iii. tWSa-liilervie-iJ^. 21. Sotnni™, I W4h . Inlcmcws, 22. Solomon. tWMc tnlemews; 2J, Sleptwnw 4 Htatk. 199t - S (67 US Espats in Japan); 24. W « k s . 1992-.S ( B 0 U 5 MNC<)^ 15. Wrrthcr el al., t W S - C S (3 US MNCs)-f : coniFptuat; " C ' S : Cas t Studs; • " . S ; Survcv

50 'HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

ing of intemational business, has an ability towork across cross-cultural, organizational, andfunctional boundaries, and is able to balance thesimultaneous demands of short-term profitabilityand growth. In short, global managers aredefined by their state of mind, in contrast toexpatriate/international managers who are identi-fied by location as execulivcs in leadershippositions that involve cross-border assignments(Pucik, 1997).

In spite of this major conceptual difference,the review of research seems to indicate thatat least some of the attributes of successfulexpatriate and global managers may be identical.They are related to five fundamental factors:professional and technical competence; relationalabilities: leadership factors; family situation;

and cultural awareness. However, because of thedifferences between expatriate managers andglobal managers in their current and future rolesin the organization, there are naturally also signif-icant differences in expectations regarding thefull set of desired competencies, role behaviors,and way of thinking. The requirements put onglobal managers are substantially more complexand dynamic, reflecting the ever-changing natureof the global competitive environment.

The emerging emphasis on cultivating themanager's mind, versus the traditional emphasison competencies in the job, may require rethink-ing the traditional HR approaches to global lead-ership development. First, truly global leadershipdevelopment should focus on providing a broadspectrum of high-potential employees worldwide

Human Resource Practices that Support the Development of Global Managers

Recruiting worldwide forpositions anywhere in the world

Staffing decisions support fast tran.sferof knowledge across boundaries

Staffing

Selection criteria do not favorany panicular culture

Implementing global job posting system

The point of entry does notlimit future opportunities

[nvolving top management inthe global staffing process

Training delivered by (runsnationalfaculty to multicultural teams

Intemational assignments integratedInto the career-planning process

Career Development & Training

Karly iniemaiiiinal experience encouraged

Intemational assignmentsencourage global leaming

Training stimulating a sense ofcultural empathy and adaptabiliiv

Intemational assignments can takeon many forms, linked to a

manager's development need.i

Emphasis on socializationaspects of managemeni development

Performance Management & Compensation

Performance incentives and rewardsreflect global coniribuiions

Career opportunities equitableacross the world

Performance appraisals focuson global mindset and behaviors

Flexible international compensationsystem to encourage "low cost" mobility

Emphasizing rewarding careersrather than short-temi ouicomes only

Designing jobs across boundariesto increase global leaming

Organizational Design

Focus on process, not onstructure and procedures

HR systems aligned with needsof transnational teams

Global Communication

Removing HR barriers toorganizational flexibility

Building intortnal communicationsacross boundaries

Promoiing a global competitive culture

r i l«i iulh.m. Adlciil Bunholomf*. 1992 Banlw ft (Jhoihjl, IW2: Evan;., IPS^; IWZ; KMS de Vries, IWiPuciL, I98J: l**n IWI; RhiiKsmilh. 1995:Sno*, tJsuson, SnclliHiunhnck, I W);Ticliy. IW2: Wi nhcc, Wachlcl & Veak. IWi

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 5 I

with opportunities to acquire and enhance theirglobal leadership skills and capabilities (Pucik,1997). Second, the purpose of internationalassignments shifts considerably; learning fromthe experience becomes one of the key objec-tives. Finally, such a process starts with a verycareful selection of future global managers andcontinues throughout a manager's career, touch-ing all traditional HR activities.

Obviously, the HR function therefore plays anindispensable role in the development of futureglobal leaders. In fact, taking the lead in devel-oping global leaders provides HR executiveswitb an excellent opportunity to become an inte-gral player in implementing global business strat-egy and influencing organizations'competitiveness (Galbraith, 1992;Keller & Campbell, 1992; Keslen1995; Yeung & Ready, 1995;Lawson & Limbrick, 1996). Theintegrating capability of the HRfunction in leveraging key globaltalent and its capacity to playthe role of global catalyst canundoubtedly determine its abilityto become a value-adding functionin the organization.

Focusing on the operationalresponsibilities of the HR function,efforts should be aimed to ensuresuccessful international assignmentsand other developmental experi-ences that help managers and execu-tives worldwide to enhance theirglobal perspective. This impliesevaluating and aligning the keystaffing, development, and perfor-mance management processes so they are consis-tent with what we know already accounts for thecritical factors in developing global managers.Another value-adding opportunity for the HRfunction is tosupport global integration, coordination, andlearning by creating favorable conditions for thediffusion of global knowledge and perspectivethroughout the firm, thus creating a favorableenvironment where global mindsets can flourish.

From a strategic perspective. Eichinger andUlrich (1995) recently reviewed the future trendsfacing HR professionals. They suggested that ina number of areas, the traditional HR competen-cies need to be enhanced, or new competenciesdeveloped. Many of the new requirements listedreflect the challenges of globalization, the critical

one being the need to fill the global leadershipbencb (i.e., the development of global managers).The first step in developing global leaders is tocreate a truly global HR function, as the abilityto develop managers with global mindset insidethe HR organization is one of the critical prereq-uisites influencing the ability of the organizationto globalize. The HR function could and shouldserve as a role model of globalization; therefore,the HR leadership needs to have a well-roundedknowledge of global HR and business issues,including a deep understanding of the new globalcompetitive environment and [he impact it has onthe management of people worldwide.

The emerging

emphasis on

cultivating the

manager's mind,

versus the tradi-

tional emphasis

on competencies

in the job, may

require rethinking

the traditional HR

approaches to

global leadership

development.

Footnote' This review is based on majorEuropean and North American jour-nals. Contributions from Asia arecovered only to the degree theyappear in Western publications.

Biographical SketchesVladimir Pucik is professor at theInternational Institute forManagement Development (IMD) inLausanne, Switzerland, Previously,he was Associate Professor andAcademic Director of InternationalPrograms at the Center for AdvancedHutnan Resource Studies at the ILRSchool. Cornell University. Hisresearch interests include manage-ment practices in glohal firms,transtiational human resource poli-cies, international alliance .strategies.and comparative management, with a

particular emphasis on the Far East and Europe.He has published extensively in academic andprofessiotial journals. Dr. Pucik's most recentmajor work is Globalizing Management:Creating and Leading the CompetitiveOrganization. He has consulted and conductedworkshops for major corporations worldwide.Dr. Pucik also teaches regularly in a number ofinternational e.xecutive programs.

Tania Saba is an assistant professor in theSchool of Industrial Relations at the Universityof Montreal. She was a visiting fellow at CornellUniversity for the academic year 1995-1996,conducting research in the area of internationalhuman resource management. Her researchinterests include older workers' management.

5 1 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

cateer management, and human resource man-agement in international firms. She has pub-lished in academic and profes.sional journals onvarious issues in career management.

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