gifford rrobet. light, decor, arousal, comfort, and communication. journal of...

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Journal of Environmental Psychology (1988) 8, 177-189 LIGHT, DECOR, AROUSAL, COMFORT AND COMMUNICATION ROBERT GIFFORD University of Victoria Victoria British Columbia Canada V8 W 2 Y2 bstract The effect of lighting level and room decor on interpersonal communication was investigated. Arousal and comfort models were invoked to generate hypotheses that (a) brighter lighting would stimulate more general communication, (b) lower lighting levels would encourage more intimate communication, (c) over time, lower light levels would dampen both general and intimate communication, and (d) home-like decor would encour/tge more general and more intimate communication. In a 2 x 2 between-subjects design, pairs of female friends wrote two letters to one another in bright vs. soft lighting and office-like vs. home-like decor. All the hypotheses were confirmed, except that brighter light encouraged more rather than less intimate communication. Introduction Early research on communication and self-disclosure concentrated on personality factors (Cozby, 1973). Later, research emphasized such social factors as degree of acquaintance and informational reciprocity (e.g., Won-Doornink, 1978). With this concentration on personal and interpersonal factors, little research concerned with the effects of the proximate physical environment on disclosure has been reported. However, influenced by the work of Sommer (e.g., 1974) and others who have discussed the possible social effects of 'hard' architecture, a few investigators have examined the effects of the physical setting on disclosure and interpersonal com- munication. Sommer's (1969) own classic efforts to facilitate communication among female geriatric patients indicated that changes in the physical setting could increase conversation levels. Chaikin et al. (1976) found that more self-disclosure occurred in a 'soft' room than in a 'hard' one. Chaikin et al. defined 'softness' as a combination of indirect incandescent lighting, cushioned chairs, rugs, wall decorations and a few art objects; 'hardness' consisted of fluorescent lighting, hard chairs, bare walls and floors and no art objects. In the studies of both Sommer and Chaikin et al. several elements of the imme- diate physical setting were simultaneously varied. Which of these elements was instrumental in facilitating or inhibiting interpersonal communication remains unclear. Chaikin et al. acknowledge that their design did not permit conclusions about the independent effects of the several design elements comprising 'softness' and 'hardness'. One major goal of the present study, therefore, was to begin a finer-grained analysis of the physical setting's effects on interpersonal communication. This study concentrates on two elements of the physical setting, lighting and decor. Previous research has not been particularly concerned with theoretical models that might explain how light and decor might affect communication. Environmental 02724944/88/030177 + 13 03.00/0 © 1988 Academic Press Limited

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Page 1: Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1988) p.p. 177–189

7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 1/13

Journal of Environmental Psychology (1988) 8, 177-189

L I G H T , D E C O R , A R O U S A L , C O M F O R T

A N D C O M M U N I C A T I O N

R O B E R T G I F F O R D

U n i v e r s i t y o f V i ct o r ia V i c t or i a B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a C a n a d a V 8 W 2 Y 2

b s t r a c t

The e f f ec t o f l i gh t i ng l eve l and room deco r on i n t e rpe r sona l communica t i on was

invest iga ted . Aro usa l and c om for t models were invoke d to genera te hypothe ses tha t

(a) br ighter l igh t ing would s t imula te m ore genera l comm unica t ion , (b) lower l igh t ing

leve ls would encourage more in t imate communica t ion , (c ) over t ime, lower l igh t

l eve l s wou ld dampen bo th gene ra l and i n t ima t e communica t i on , and (d ) home- l i ke

decor would encour / tge more genera l and more in t imate communica t ion . In a 2 x 2

be tween-subjec ts design , pa i r s o f female f r iends wrote two le t te rs to one ano ther in

bright vs. soft l ight ing and off ice-l ike vs. home-l ike decor. All the hypotheses were

conf i rmed, except tha t br ighter l igh t encouraged more ra ther than less in t imate

communica t i on .

In troduc t ion

E a r l y re s e a r c h o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d s e l f -d i s cl o s ur e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n p e r s o n a l i t y

f a c t o r s (C o z b y , 1 97 3 ). L a t e r , r e s e a r c h e m p h a s i z e d s u c h s o c i a l f a c t o r s a s d e g r e e o f

a c q u a i n t a n c e a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a l r e c i p r o c i ty (e .g ., W o n - D o o r n i n k , 1 97 8). W i t h t h is

c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n p e r s o n a l a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s, l it tl e r e s e a r c h c o n c e r n e d w i t h

t h e e ff e ct s o f th e p r o x i m a t e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t o n d i s c lo s u r e h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d .

H o w e v e r , in f lu e n c ed b y t h e w o r k o f S o m m e r ( e. g., 1 9 74 ) a n d o t h e r s w h o h a v e

d i s c u s se d t h e p o s s i b l e s o c i al e f fe c t s o f ' h a r d ' a r c h i t e c t u r e , a f e w i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e

e x a m i n e d t h e e f fe c t s o f t h e p h y s i c a l s e tt i n g o n d i sc l o s u r e a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m -

m u n i c a t i o n . S o m m e r ' s (1 9 69 ) o w n c l a ss ic e f f o r ts to f a c il it a te c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g

f e m a l e g e r i a tr i c p a t i e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t c h a n g e s i n th e p h y s i c a l s e t ti n g c o u l d i n c r e a s e

c o n v e r s a t i o n l e v e l s . C h a i k i n et al . ( 1 9 7 6 ) f o u n d t h a t m o r e s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e o c c u r r e d i n

a ' s o f t ' r o o m t h a n i n a ' h a r d ' o n e . C h a i k i n et al . d e f in e d ' s o f t n e s s ' a s a c o m b i n a t i o n

o f i n d i r e c t in c a n d e s c e n t l i g h ti n g , c u s h i o n e d c h a i r s , r u g s , w a l l d e c o r a t i o n s a n d a fe w

a r t o b j e c ts ; ' h a r d n e s s ' c o n s i s t e d o f f l u o r e s c e n t li g h ti n g , h a r d c h a i r s, b a r e w a l ls a n d

f l o o r s a n d n o a r t o b j e c t s .

I n th e s tu d ie s o f b o t h S o m m e r a n d C h a i k i n e t a l . s e v e ra l e l e m e n t s o f t h e i m m e -

d i a t e p h y s i c a l s e t t in g w e r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y v a r i e d . W h i c h o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s w a s

i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f a c i l i t a t i n g o r i n h i b i t i n g i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e m a i n s

u n c l e a r . C h a i k i n et al . a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e i r d e s i g n d i d n o t p e r m i t c o n c l u s i o n s

a b o u t t h e i n d e p e n d e n t e f fe c ts o f th e s e v er a l d es i gn e l e m e n t s c o m p r i s i n g ' s o f t n e s s '

a n d ' h a r d n e s s ' .

O n e m a j o r g o a l o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , t h e r e f o r e , w a s t o b e g i n a f in e r - g r a i n e d

a n a l y si s o f th e p h y s i c a l s e t t in g ' s e ff e c ts o n i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h i s s t u d y

c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t w o e l e m e n t s o f th e p h y s i c a l s e tt in g , l i g h t in g a n d d e c o r .

P r e v i o u s r e s e a rc h h a s n o t b e e n p a r t i c u l a rl y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e o r e ti c a l m o d e l s t h a t

m i g h t e x p l a i n h o w l ig h t a n d d e c o r m i g h t a f f ec t c o m m u n i c a t io n . E n v i r o n m e n t a l

02724944/88/030177 + 13 03.00/0 © 1988 Aca dem ic Press Limited

Page 2: Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1988) p.p. 177–189

7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 2/13

178 R Gif ford

p s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e l o n g s i n c e a b a n d o n e d n a i v e d e t e r m i n i s t v i e w s t h a t f a i l t o p o s i t

p l a u s i b l e m e d i a t i n g f a c t o r s b e t w e e n p h y s i c a l - s e t t i n g v a r i a b l e s a n d h u m a n b e h a v i o r .

T h u s , a s e c o n d m a j o r g o a l o f th i s s tu d y w a s t o i n i t ia t e re s e a r c h o n l ig h t a n d d e c o r

t h a t a d v a n c e s a t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , i n c l u d i n g s u g g e s t i o n s a s t o m e d i a t o r s

b e t w e e n e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s ( l i g h t a n d d e c o r ) a n d b e h a v i o r a l v a r i a b l e s

( c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) .

L i g h t an d I n t e r p e rs o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n

A l m o s t n o r e s e a r c h e x c e p t f o r th e s t u d ie s b y C h a i k i n e t a l . ( 1 9 7 6 ) a n d S o m m e r

( 19 6 9 , 1 9 7 4) h a s e x a m i n e d t h e e f fe c t s o f li g h ti n g o n i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

F o r t h e o r e t i c a l id e a s , w e w e r e f o r c e d t o s t a r t w i t h a n i m a l r e s e a r c h . T h e e v i d e n c e o n

l i g h t a n d a c t i v i t y a t f i r s t a p p e a r e d c o n t r a d i c t o r y . I n c r e a s e d l i g h t s e e m s t o a c t a s a n

a r o u s a l a g e n t i n m o n k e y s ( A l e x a n d e r a n d I s a a c , 1 9 6 5 ) , b u t n o t i n c a t s ( I s a a c a n d

R e e d , 1 9 61 ) o r r a t s ( I sa a c a n d K e n d a l l , 1 9 67 ). H o w e v e r , t h i s d i s c re p a n c y h a s a n

o b v i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n : m o n k e y s a r e t y p i c a ll y d i u r n a l , r a t s a n d c a t s t y p i c a ll y n o c t u r n a l .

A r e a s o n a b l e t h e s is is t h a t f o r h u m a n s , a s f o r m o n k e y s , l i g h t u s u a l ly s e r v es a s a

g e n e r a l a r o u s a l a g e n t . T h u s , h u m a n a c t iv i t y l ev e ls s h o u l d g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a se i n d a y -

t i m e o r i n b r i g h t l i g h t; a s l i g h t d i m s , a c t i v i t y s h o u l d s l o w . T h e i n v e n t i o n o f a r ti f ic i a l

l ig h t h a s e n a b l e d h u m a n s t o b e q u i te a c t iv e a f t e r n ig h t f al l, b u t w e r e m a i n d i u r n a l

i n t h a t w e s t i l l u s u a l l y c h o o s e r e d u c e d l i g h t i n g f o r r e l a x a t i o n a n d d a r k n e s s f o r

s le e p in g . R e c e n t w o r k b y M u n s o n a n d F e r g u s o n ( i n G i f f o r d , 1 9 87 ) s u g g e st s t h a t , a t

l e as t f o r c h i l d re n , s o m e f o r m s o f li g h t a p p e a r t o b e m o r e p h y s i o l o g i c a l ly a r o u s i n g

t h a n o t h e r s . P e r h a p s , t h e n , b r i g h t l i g h t a c t s a s a n a r o u s a l a g e n t , s t i m u l a t i n g a v a r i e t y

o f b e h a v i o rs , i n c lu d i n g a m o u n t o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

C a r r a n d D a b b s ( 1 97 4 ) f o u n d t h a t d i m l i g h ti n g le s se n s e y e c o n t a c t a n d i n c re a s e s

v e r b al l at e n c y in c o n v e r s a ti o n s . A m o u n t o r q u a l it y o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w a s n o t

s t u d ie d . H o w e v e r , l o w e r e d e y e c o n t a c t a n d i n c r e a s e d v e r b a l l a t e n c y s u gg e s t th a t

s u b j ec t s s p o k e m o r e i n t im a t e l y , w h i c h is c o n s i s te n t w i t h t h e r e s u lt s o f C h a i k i n

e t

a l . s f in d i n g s f o r t h e i r s o f t r o o m . T h e s o f t r o o m , w i t h it s i n d i r e c t l ig h ti n g ,

p r e s u m a b l y w a s i l l u m i n a t e d a t l o w e r l ev e ls t h a n t h e h a r d r o o m , a l th o u g h C h a i k i n

e t a l . d o n o t r e p o r t i l l u m i n a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s .

B e f o r e s pe c if ic h y p o t h e s e s a r e a d v a n c e d , t h e c o n c e p t o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i -

c a t i o n r e q u i r e s s o m e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . O n e p e r s o n m a y c o m m u n i c a t e m u c h i n f o r m a -

t io n t o a n o t h e r , b u t i t s c o n t e n t m a y b e im p e r s o n a l o r o n l y s u p e r f ic i a ll y p e r s o n a l .

T h i s l o w - in t im a c y f o r m o f i n te r a c t io n m a y b e t e rm e d g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

A n o t h e r p e r s o n m a y c o m m u n i c a t e q u a n t i t a t i v e l y l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t i t s c o n t e n t

m a y b e v e r y p e r s o n a l a n d i n t i m a t e . I n th e p r e s e n t s t u d y , th e t e r m i n t i m a t e c o m -

m u n i c a t i o n is r e s e r v e d f o r t hi s h i g h - i n t i m a c y f o r m o f i n t e r a c t i o n . A n a r o u s a l m o d e l

w o u l d p r e d i c t t h a t g e n e r a l a c t i v i t y ( i n t h i s c a s e , g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) i n c r e a s e s

w h e n a p e r s o n is m o r e a r o u s e d , b u t n o t n e c e s sa r il y t h a t t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e o u t p u t

( i n ti m a c y o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) w o u l d i n c re a s e . L o w e r l ig h t l ev e ls a r e a s s o c ia t e d ,

i n s o m e c o n t e x t s , w i t h a n i n c re a s e in i n ti m a c y . M o r e e x p e n s i v e re s t a u r a n t s a n d t h e

b e d r o o m a r e t w o e x a m p l e s .

B a s e d o n t h e re s u l ts o f t h e s tu d i e s d e s c ri b e d a b o v e a n d o n t h e a r o u s a l m o d e l ,

t h r e e h y p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g i l l u m i n a t i o n a r e a d v a n c e d . F i r s t, b r i g h t e r li g h ti n g p r o -

d u c e s m o r e g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . S e c o n d , l o w l i g h t p r o d u c e s m o r e i n t i m a t e

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7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…

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L i g h t D e c o r a n d C o m m u n i c a t i o n 1 7 9

c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h i r d , b o t h i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n

d e c r e a s e o v e r t i m e i n s o f t e r l i g h t .

D e c o r a n d I n te r p e rs o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n

D e c o r h a s a l s o b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f v e r y fe w b e h a v i o r a l s t u d i e s s in c e t h e c l as s ic w o r k

o f M a s l o w a n d M i n t z ( 19 5 6) , w h i c h e x a m i n e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l p e r c e p t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n

c o m m u n i c a t i o n . M e h r a b i a n a n d D i a m o n d ( 19 7 1) d id i n v e st ig a t e th e e f fi ca c y o f

c o n v e r s a t i o n p i e c e s . A l t h o u g h s u c h o b j e c t s a p p a r e n t l y d i d e n h a n c e a f f i l i a t i v e

b e h a v i o r , e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e r e g r e ss i o n e q u a t i o n s i n t h a t s t u d y s h o w s t h a t t h e

o b t a i n e d e ff e ct w a s b o t h c o m p l e x a n d w e a k . O n e t h e m e o f t hi s s tu d y a n d t h o se o f

C h a i k i n

et al

( 1 9 7 6 ) a n d S o m m e r ( 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 4 ) i s t h a t c o m f o r t a b l e , p l e a s a n t s e t t i n g s

e n c o u r a g e m o r e s o c i al i n t e r a c ti o n . B a s e d o n t h is c o m f o r t m o d e l , it s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e

t o t e n t a t iv e l y h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t a s o f t ( m o r e h o m e - l i k e ) s e t ti n g w il l e v o k e b o t h

m o r e i n ti m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d m o r e g e n e ra l c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a n w i ll a h a r d

( m or e o f f i c e - li ke ) s e t t ing .

M e t h o d

Sub jec t s

F e m a l e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s i n a n i n t r o d u c t o r y s o c i a l s c i e n c e c l a s s w e r e r e c r u i t e d b y

t e l e p h o n e o n a v o l u n t a r y b a si s ( n o p a y m e n t i n m o n e y o r c o u r s e c r e d i t) fo r a s t u d y

o f c o n v e rs a t io n s . I t w a s d e c i d e d t o s t u d y c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n m a t u r e r e la t io n s h i p s

r a t h e r t h a n b e t w e e n s tr a n g e r s m e e t i n g f o r t h e fi rs t t im e , a n d w o m e n w h o v o l u n t e e r e d

w e r e a sk e d t o b r i n g a f ri e n d to t h e s t u d y . T h u s , t h e p a r t i c ip a n t s w e r e t h o s e w h o ,

s i n c e t h e y a l r e a d y k n e w a n d l i k e d o n e a n o t h e r , m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d t o e x c h a n g e

i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h o n e a n o t h e r , i n t h e i r d a i l y li ve s. T h i s p r o c e d u r e r e s u l t e d i n t h e

p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f 7 2 w o m e n i n t h e 1 8 t o 2 5 a g e r a n g e .

W h e n p a i rs a r r i v e d , th e y w e r e a s s ig n e d t o o n e o f f o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s

a c c o r d i n g t o a r o t a t i n g , p r e d e t e r m i n e d o r d e r ( i .e . , c o n d i t i o n 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , l , 2 , e t c .) .

T h e f o u r c o n d i t io n s w e r e t h o s e re s u l ti n g f r o m t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t w o l ev e ls o f

l ig h t in g a n d t w o le v els o f d ec o r . T h e s e a s s i g n m e n t s w e r e e s s e n ti a ll y r a n d o m b e c a u s e

t h e s u b je c ts s u g g e s te d t h e i r o w n a p p o i n t m e n t t im e s d u r i n g t h e t e l e p h o n e c a ll ; n e i t h e r

t h ey n o r t h e ex p e r i m e n t e r c o u l d h a v e k n o w n w h i c h a p p o i n t m e n t t i m e w o u l d , o n c e

t h e s c h e d u l e w a s c o m p l e t e , r e s u lt in a s s i g n m e n t t o w h i c h c o n d i t i o n .

The se t t ings

A n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o c r e a t e l i g h t i n g a n d d e c o r c o n d i t i o n s t h a t m i g h t a c t u a l l y b e

f o u n d i n n a t u r a l s e tt in g s. T h e b r i g h t l i g h t c o n d i t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f t h e n o r m a l

f lu o r e s c e n t l ig h ts i n st a ll e d in t h e l a b o r a t o r y r o o m w h e n i t w a s b u i l t a f e w m o n t h s

b e f o r e th e s t u d y b e g a n . S i x c e i l i n g - m o u n t e d 3 5 - w a t t b u l b s i l l u m i n a t e d t h e 2 . 2 5 m ×

3 . 55 m r o o m . I n t h e s o f t c o n d i t i o n , o n e 1 0 0 - w a t t b u l b i n a t a b l e la m p w a s l it . I n t h e

l a t t e r c a s e , t h e l i g h t i n g , a l t h o u g h s o f t , w a s q u i t e s u f f i c i e n t f o r w r i t i n g w i t h o u t

e y e s t r a i n . I n p h y s i c a l t e r m s , t h e b r i g h t c o n d i t i o n a v e r a g e d 9 0 f o o t c a n d l e s a t t h e t w o

p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e s o f t c o n d i t i o n a v e r a g e d 6 f o o t c a n d l e s a t t h e t w o p o s i t i o n s , b a s e d

o n m e a su r e s f r o m a C a n a d i a n R e s e a r c h I n s ti tu t e p h o t o m e t e r ( m o d e l D P M T - I C C )

t h a t w e r e c o lo r - a n d c o s i n e - c o rr e c t e d f o r h u m a n p e r c e p t i o n .

I n t h e o f f ic e d e c o r c o n d i t i o n , t y p i c a l m o d e r n o f f ic e f u r n i t u r e , u n e m b e l l i s h e d b y

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180 R Gi f for d

a n y p e r s o n a l t o u c h e s , w a s u s ed . P a r t i c i p a n t s s a t o n a r m l e s s m o l d e d - p l a s t i c c h a ir s

a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r s a t a t a s ta n d a r d d e s k. T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r s d e s k w a s n e a r ly

c o v e r e d w i t h n e a t p i le s o f p a p e r w o r k . T e x t b o o k s w e r e d i s p l a y e d o n t o p o f a p l ai n

m e t a l fi le c a b i n e t . A t y p e w r i t e r a n d t h e t a b l e l a m p s a t o n a s m a l l t a b l e . T h e f l o o r

w a s c o v e r e d w i t h t h e o f fi c e c a r p e t i n g s u p p l i e d w h e n t h e r o o m w a s b u i l t. A u n i v e r s i t y

c a l e n d a r w a s t h e o n l y w al.1 a d o r n m e n t . I n s u m , t h e o f fi c e w a s f u r n i s h e d i n a s t a n d a r d

w a y , t i d y b u t s o m e w h a t b a r e a n d i m p e r s o n a l .

F o r t h e h o m e - l i k e d e c o r c o n d i t io n , w e a t t e m p t e d t o c r e a te a n o ff ic e t h a t m i g h t b e

f o u n d i n th e p o s s e s s i o n o f a p e r s o n w h o h a d m a d e a n e f f o r t to s o f t e n th e i n s ti t u ti o n a l

q u a l it y o f th e s p a ce . T h e s a m e r o o m w a s u s e d a n d t h e d e s k a n d file c a b i n e t w e r e

r e ta i n e d . T h e c h a n g e s i n c lu d e d a d d i n g a p o t t e d p l a n t , h a n g i n g t w o a r t p o s t e r s o n

t h e w a l l , p l a c i n g a s m a l l d e c o r a t i v e r u g o n t h e s t a n d a r d c a r p e t , r e m o v i n g t h e

t y p e w r i t e r , p l a c i n g a t a b l e c l o t h u n d e r t h e t a b l e l a m p o n t h e s m a l l t a b l e , a n d a d d i n g

a n a n t i q u e w o o d e n r a d i o t o th e e x p e r i m e n t e r s de s k , w h i c h w a s n o w c l e ar o f p a p e r s .

T h e p a r t i c ip a n t s s a t in p a d d e d a r m c h a i r s i n s t e a d o f m o l d e d p l a s ti c c h a ir s .

I n a l l c o n d i t i o n s t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s s a t a b o u t 3 0 d e g r e e s f r o m a f a c e t o f a c e p o s i t i o n

a t a d i s ta n c e o f 1 -5 m ( c h a i r c e n t e r t o c h a i r c e n te r ) . P l a c e d b e f o r e e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t

w a s a m u s i c s t a n d t h a t w a s a d j u s t e d t o a n a n g l e a n d h e i g h t s u i t a b l e f o r w r i ti n g .

P r o c e d u r e s

U p o n a r r iv a l , th e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o o k t h e i r p l a ce s a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r e x p l a in e d t h a t

w e w e r e i n t e r e s t e d in t h e in t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e i n a n o n g o i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p ;

t h a t w e w i sh e d t o l e a r n a b o u t h o w p e o p l e c h o o s e t o l et f r ie n d s a n d a c q u a i n t a n c e s

k n o w a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s .

A w r i t te n - c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e ( cf . W o r t h y

e t a l .

1 96 9; R u b i n , 1 97 5; A r c h e r

a n d B e r g , 1 97 8) w a s c h o s e n i n f a v o r o f o r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . W e w i s h e d t o a v o i d

f o r c i n g t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o t a i l o r t h e i r s t a t e m e n t s t o s u i t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a t h i rd -

p a r t y s t r a n g e r , t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r . T h e s u b j e c t s w e r e a ll f r i e n d s , b u t n o n e o f t h e m w a s

a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r . T h u s , a w r i t t e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a p p r o a c h c o m -

b i n e d w i t h a s s u r a n c e s o f c o n f id e n t ia l it y p r e s u m a b l y a l l o w e d f u ll er , f re e r a n d m o r e

i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n f r i e n d s t h a n w o u l d o r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e

e x p e r i m e n t e r p r e s e n t, o r w r i t te n c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i th t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e

e x p e r i m e n t e r w o u l d b e r e a d i n g t h e m a t e r i a l l a t e r .

P a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e t o l d t h e y w o u l d w r i t e t w o l e t t e r s t o t h e i r p a r t n e r s , b u t t h e

l e t t e r s w o u l d b e d e l i v e r e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e s e s s i o n r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g m a i l e d .

T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s u n d e r s t o o d a n d r e a d il y a c c e p t e d t h a t th e p u r p o s e o f a s k i n g th e m

t o w ri te t o o n e a n o t h e r i n s te a d o f h o l d i n g a c o n v e r s a t i o n w a s t o e n s u r e t h e p r i v a c y

o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e p a r t ic i p a n t s w e r e a s s u r e d t h a t t h e ex p e r i-

m e n t e r w o u l d n e v e r k n o w t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e ir d i sc l o su r e s t o o n e a n o t h e r .

N e x t , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e s h o w n a l is t o f 1 1 s u g g e s t e d t o p i c s f o r t h e i r l e t te r s ( se e

T a b l e 1 ). M o s t o f t h e t o p i c s w e r e s e l e c te d f r o m a l o n g e r l i st fi rs t u s ed i n d i s c l o s u r e

r e s e a rc h b y R u b i n a n d S h e n k e r ( 19 78 ). S o m e w e r e a d a p t e d s li g ht ly a n d a fe w n e w

o n e s w e r e a d d e d , t o e n s u r e a b r o a d r a n g e a n d d e p t h o f to p i c s.

P a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e a s k e d t o s e l e c t t h e i r f i r s t t o p i c b y b l i n d l y p i c k i n g f r o m a n

e n v e l o p e s li ps o f p a p e r t h a t h a d t o p i c n u m b e r s w r i tt e n o n t h e m . T o e n a b l e a

c o m p a r i s o n o f p a r t i c i p a n t r e p o n s e s o n a c o m m o n t o p ic , a ll th e s l ip s r e q u e s te d t h e

p a r t i c i p a n t t o w r i te o n t o p i c 11, T h e t h in g s t h a t I w o r r y a b o u t t h e m o s t . T h e y t h e n

w r o t e a l e tt e r o n t h i s t o p i c t o t h e i r p a r t n e r s . T o a l l o w a c h o i c e o f t o p i c s i n th e s e c o n d

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Light Dec or and Comm unicat ion 1 8 1

l e tt e r, a ll th e s l ip s sa id , C h o o s e a n y t o p i c e x c e p t th e o n e y o u h a v e a l r e a d y w r i t te n

a b o u t .

N o t im e l i m i t w a s s et f o r w r i t in g o n e i t h e r t o p i c. P a r t i c ip a n t s p l a c e d t h e i r c o m -

p l e t e d l e t t e r s i n e n v e l o p e s a n d w e r e g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x c h a n g e l e t t e r s w i t h

t h e i r p a r t n e r s a t t h e e n d o f t h e s es s io n . T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r n e v e r sa w t h e c o n t e n t s o f

the l e t t e r s .

M e a s u r e s

V a r i a b le s i n t h e s t u d y i n c l u d e d , i n o r d e r o f a d m i n i s t ra t i o n : ( a) q u e s t i o n n a i r e i t e m s

a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p a r tn e r s ; ( b) p a r t i c i p a n t r a t i n g s o f t h e in t i m a c y

o f th e 1 l t o p i c s; ( c) tw o m e a s u r e s o f g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t w o m e a s u r e s o f

i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n ; a n d ( d ) q u e s t i o n n a i r e i t e m s u s e d t o c h e c k t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n

o f th e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l es . E a c h o f t h e s e w i ll , i n t u r n , b e d e s c r i b e d m o r e f u ll y .

D u r i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n p h a s e o f t h e s t u d y p a r t ic i p a n t s r e s p o n d e d t o a b r i e f

q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n t a i n i n g t h r e e q u e s t i o n s : H o w l o n g h a s it b e e n s i nc e y o u fi rs t k n e w

o r h e a r d o f y o u r p a r t n e r ? I f t h e r e w a s a n y s i g n if ic a n t g a p b e t w e e n t h e ti m e y o u

f ir s t k n e w o f y o u r p a r t n e r a n d t h e t i m e y o u f i r st s ig n i f i c a n tl y i n t e r a c t e d ( i .e . , s p o k e

m o r e t h a n a b r i e f g r e e t in g t o e a c h o t h e r ) , h o w l o n g w a s th i s g a p ? H o w w o u l d y o u

c h a r a c t e r i z e y o u r p r e s e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p ? F o r t h e l a t t e r i t e m , s e v e n l a b e l l e d a lt e r -

n a t iv e s f r o m S o m e o n e I t r y t o a v o i d t o M y c lo s e s t f r i e n d w e r e o f f e r e d .

N e x t , p a r t i c i p a n t s r a t e d t h e i n t i m a c y o f a ll e l e v e n to p i c s o n 1 t o 8 b i p o l a r s c a l es

( n o t i n t i m a t e t o e x t r e m e l y i n t i m a t e ) a t t h e t i m e t h e y w e r e f a m i l ia r i z e d w i t h t h e m .

T h e s e r a t in g s w e r e o b t a i n e d t o a l l o w l a t e r a n a ly s e s o f t h e i n t i m a c y o f t o p i c s s e l ec t ed

by t he s ub j ec t s .

G e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w a s a s se ss e d b y t w o m e a s u r e s, t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f w o r d s

w r i t t e n i n e a c h l e t t e r t o t a l w o r d s ) a n d t h e le n g t h o f ti m e e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t s p e n t

w r i t i n g e a c h l e t t e r w r i t i n g t i m e ) . O n e m e a s u r e o f in t im a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , d e s ig n e d

t o r e s p e c t th e p r i v a c y o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n f r ie n d s y e t e n c o u r a g e f u ll a n d

f r a n k c o m m u n i c a t i o n , w a s t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f s e l J : r e f e r e n t w o r d s us ed ( e . g . , I , m e ,

m i n e , m y s e l f ) .

T o m a i n t a i n t h e c o n f i d e n t ia l i ty o f th e d i sc l o s u re s , t h e t w o w o r d c o u n t s ( t o t a l

w o r d s f o r g e n e ra l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d s e lf -r e fe r e n t w o r d s f o r in t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a -

t i o n ) w e r e m a d e b y t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t h e m s e l v e s a f t e r t h e y h a d w r i t t e n b o t h l e t t e r s .

T h e o t h e r g e n e ra l c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e a s u r e, w r it in g t im e , w a s c o v e r t ly m e a s u r e d b y

t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r .

T h e s e c o n d m e a s u r e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t im a c y c o m b i n e d t he i n t im a c y o f t he

t o p i c a n d t h e i n t i m a c y o f o n e s r e v e l a t i o n s o n t h a t t o p ic . T h i s m e a s u r e , i n t i m a c y ,

w a s c o m p u t e d a s th e p r o d u c t o f th e t o p i c s i n t im a c y a s r a te d b y t h e p a r t ic i p a n t a n d

h e r r e s p o n s e t o t h e f o l lo w i n g q u e s t i o n n a i r e it e m : H o w i n t i m a t e o r r e v e a l in g w e r e

y o u r s t a te m e n t s o n t h is t o p i c? O n b o t h i te m s , r e s p o n s e c a te g o r i e s v a r i e d f r o m 1,

N o t a t a l l t o 8 , E x t r e m e l y . T h u s , t h e i n t i m a c y s c o re w o u l d b e 3 0 f o r a t o p i c

j u d g e d b y a p a r t i c i p a n t t o h a v e a n i n t i m a c y l e v el o f 5 w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o w n

d i s c l o s u r e i n t i m a c y

o n

t h a t t o p i c j u d g e d b y h e r t o b e 6 . * T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a ls o

r e p o r t e d w h i c h t o p i c s t h e y h a d w r i t t e n o n . T h i s r e s p o n s e w a s , o f c o u r s e , r e l e v a n t

* T h e r e s u l ts o f a M A N O V A u s in g o n l y t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s r a t in g s o f t h e i n t im a c y o f t h e i r d i s cl o s ur e s,

w i t h o u t t h e t o p i c in t i m a c y c o m p o n e n t , w e r e v er y s im i l a r to t h o s e o b t a i n e d i n t h e M A N O V A r e p o r t e d in

t h e r e s u l t s s e c t i o n .

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182 R Gi f ford

o n l y f o r t h e s e c o n d l e t t e r , b u t i t w a s r e q u e s t e d f o r b o t h l e t t e r s b e c a u s e p a r t i c i p a n t s

b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e i r f i r s t t o p i c s e l e c t i o n w a s r a n d o m .

F i n a l l y , to c h e c k t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f th e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b le s , p a r t ic i p a n t s

r e p o r t e d t h e i r a s s e s sm e n t s o f th e r o o m a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e s si o n . T h e t w o a s s e s s m e n t s

o f i n t er e s t, o f l ig h t i n g a n d d e c o r , w e r e e m b e d d e d a m o n g t w o o t h e r s , o f r o o m s iz e

a n d a e s t h e t i c s . T h e r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s f o r t h e d e c o r i t e m s r a n g e d f r o m 1 , l a b e l l e d

' v e r y i n f o r m a l , h o m e y d e c o r ' t o 8 , 'v e r y fo r m a l , o f f ic e - li k e d e c o r ' . R e s p o n s e c a t e -

g o r i e s f o r t h e l i g h t i n g i t e m r a n g e d f r o m 1 , ' V e r y s o f t l i g h t i n g ' t o 8 , ' V e r y b r i g h t

l i gh t i ng ' .

R e s u l t s

MaviipuIation checks and other method checks

T h e f o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t io n s w e r e p e r c e iv e d a s in t e n d e d . T h e m e a n r e s p o n se

o n t h e d e c o r i t e m f o r t h e o f f i ce c o n d i t i o n s w a s 6 .1 1 ( i .e . , m o r e o f f ic e - li k e ); t h a t f o r

t h e h o m e - l i k e c o n d i t i o n w a s 4 . 00 . O n t h e li g h t in g i te m , t h e b r i g h t c o n d i t i o n m e a n

r e s p o n s e w a s 5 . 78 ( q u i t e b r i g h t ) ; t h a t f o r t h e s o f t c o n d i t i o n w a s 2 . 6 9 . t v a l u e s f o r

t h e d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m e a n s o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e s b o t h e x c e e d e d 5 . 25 ( P < 0 .0 0 1) .

T h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f s u b j e c t o r d e r ( i . e . , e a r l y v s . m i d d l e v s . l a t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

t h e s e q u e n c e o f 72 s u b j e c ts ) a n d s e a t i n g p o s i t i o n ( i. e ., c h a i r o n e v s. c h a i r t w o w i t h i n

e a c h c o n d i t i o n ) w e r e e x a m i n e d . N o n e o f t h e d e p e n d e n t m e a s u r e s w e r e s ig n i fi c an t ly

r e l a t e d t o e i t h e r o f th e s e v a r i a b l e s (a l l P > 0 . 1 0 ), s u g g e s t in g t h a t p r o c e d u r e s d i d n o t

v a r y o v e r th e c o u r s e o f d a t a c o l l e c ti o n a n d t h a t t h e t w o s e a ti n g p o s i ti o n s w e r e

f u n c t i o n a l l y e q u i v a l e n t .

F i n a l l y , th e c o m p a r a b i l i t y a c ro s s e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s o f p a r t i c i p a n t r e s p o n s e s

t o t h e c o m m o n t o p i c w a s c h e c k e d . A n a n a l y si s o f v a r i a n c e e x a m i n e d d i ff e r e n c e s

a m o n g t h e f o u r l ig h t a n d d e c o r c o n d i t i o n s in p a r t i c i p a n t s ' t o p i c i n t im a c y r a t i n g s f o r

t h e ' th i n g s I w o r r y a b o u t ' i t e m . N o s i g n if ic a n t d i f fe r e n c e s w e r e f o u n d ( b o t h m a i n

e f f e c ts a n d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n P > 0 -2 0 ).

Relationships and topics

I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e t h r e e r e la t i o n s h i p q u e s t io n s , p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e f o u n d t o b e p a r t o f

m a t u r e f r ie n d s h i p s . P a r t n e r s k n e w o n e a n o t h e r f o r a n a v e r a g e o f 4 37 y e a r s , w i t h a n

a v e r a g e g a p b e t w e e n k n o w i n g o f t h e o t h e r a n d e s t a b is h i n g a f u n c t i o n i n g r e l a t io n s h i p

with

t h e o t h e r o f 0 .7 7 y e a r s . O n t h e p r e s e n t q u a l i t y o f t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p , t h e m e a n

a n s w e r w a s 5 .5 , e x a c t ly b e t w e e n ' D e f i n i te l y a f r i e n d ' a n d ' O n e o f m y c l o s e s t fr ie n d s ' .

I n su m , t h e a v e r a g e p a r t i c i p a n t k n e w h e r p a r t n e r f o r m o r e t h a n t h r e e y e a r s a n d f e l t

t h a t s h e w a s o n e o f h e r c l o s e r fr i en d s .

T h e t o p i c s a n d t h e i r m e a n i n t i m a c y r a t i n g s m a y b e s e e n i n T a b l e 1 .

eneral and intimate communication

T h e m e a n s a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a ti o n s o f th e f o u r d e p e n d e n t m e a s u r e s f o r ea c h l e tt er

a n d c o n d i t i o n a r e d i s p l a y e d i n T a b l e 2 .

A s m a y b e s ee n , p a r t i c i p a n t s a s a w h o l e w r o t e j u s t o v e r 2 3 0 w o r d s o n e a c h t o p i c ,

a b o u t a t e n t h o f w h i c h ( 2 3 .8 ) w e r e s e l f - re f e r e n t w o r d s . T h e y s p e n t 1 2 .4 m i n u t e s

w r i t in g o n e a c h t o p i c a n d , . a ft e rw a r d , j u d g e d t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h e i r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ,

a v e r a g e d a c r o s s t h e t w o l e t te r s , to b e 5 . 9 o n t h e s c a l e o f 1 t o 8 ; t h e y f e l t t h e i r

d i s c lo s u r e s w e r e ' q u i t e i n t i m a t e ' . T h e i n t i m a c y o f t h e t o p i c s t h e m s e l v e s w a s j u d g e d

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L i g h t D e c o r a n d C o m m u n i c a ti o n

TABLE 1

Mean ratings of topic intimacy

183

1 My likes and dislikes in music 3.12

2 Why some people like me 5.39

3 The type of work I would like to do in the future 3.75

4 The kinds of sexual activity tha t I would prefer to engage in 6.77

5 My political views on the federal gove rnment 2.99

6 Why some people dislike me 5.32

7 My feelings about my sexual adequacy 6.53

8 My preference in food 3 07

9 The things tha t make me especially pro ud of myself 5.25

10 My religious views 4.36

11 The things I worry about the most 5.82

Note: Ratings are based on an 8-point bipolar scale on which 1 = not intimate and

8 = extremely intimate.

TABLE

2

Communication means by condition and letter

Bright light Soft light

Home-l ike Office-like Home-like Office-like

Letter

Total words 249.50 244.60 241.70 212.20

Self-referent words 23.50 28.22 27.27 24.72

Writ ing time (min) 13.14 11.59 13.95 11.75

Intimacy 44.17 32.89 32.50 34.11

Letter 2

Total words 252.20 252.20 209.50 209.30

Self-referent words 21.72 24.56 18.89 21.67

Writ ing time (min) 13.61 12.35 10.26 9.45

Intimacy 44.33 28.44 24.00 23.83

Note: Intimacy scores are the product of two intimacy ratings, one for the topic itself and one for the

participant's communication on the topic. Both are 1 8 scales with 8 = extremely intimate. Thus, higher

scores indicate greater intimacy.

by partici pants to be 5.6, averaged across letters. Thus, the average Int ima cy score

was 33 0.

Mult ivar iate analysis of var iance (MANOVA) was used to invest igate var iat ions

in com mun ica tio n as a func tion of l ight and decor . The analysis included the four

co mm un ic at io n measures as depe nden t measures, the two letters as a repeated

measure, with light and decor as ind epe nde nt variables. The mul tivar iate tests of

significance showe d tha t decor, letters, and the light x letters effects were signific ant

(P < 0.05), the Light effect was ma rgi nal ly significant (P = 0.06), and the ot her

interactions were not significant (all P > 0.20). The significant effects will be

described in turn.

Ex am in at io n of the Deco r effect [multi vari ate F(4, 65) = 3.03, P < 0.025] shows

that at the univa riat e level, a general com mu ni ca ti on variable (writing time) and an

intimate c omm uni cat ion variable ( int imacy) were marginally signif icant . Part icipants

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184 R Gi f for d

s p e n t 1 2.7 m i n u t e s w r i t in g i n th e h o m e - l i k e d e c o r a n d 1 1.3 m i n u t e s w r i t i n g i n th e

o f fi c e d e c o r ( P = 0 .0 6 ). I n t i m a c y s c o r e s w e r e g r e a t e r i n th e h o m e - l i k e d e c o r ( 3 6 .2 )

t h a n i n th e o f f ic e d e c o r ( 2 9. 9; P = 0 .0 8 ). T h u s , t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t m o r e i n t i m a t e

c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d m o r e g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n o c c u r s i n h o m e - l i k e s e t t i n g s i s

m o d e s t l y c o n f i r m e d f o r tw o d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b le s .

T h e s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t f o r l i g h t [ m u l t i v a r i a t e F ( 4 , 6 5 ) = 2 . 3 6 , P = 0 .0 6 ] is m a n i -

f e s t e d o n t h e s a m e t w o u n i v a r i a t e m e a s u r e s . I n b o t h c a s e s , m o r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n

o c c u r r e d i n b r i g h t e r l ig h t (1 2 . 7 v s . 1 1. 4 m i n u t e s , P = 0 . 0 9 , I n t i m a c y s c o r e s o f 37 . 5

v s . 2 8 .6 , P < 0 .0 2 ). T h e s e r e s u l ts c o n f i r m t h e h y p o t h e s i s c o n c e r n i n g g e n e r a l c o m -

m u n i c a t i o n , b u t a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y o p p o s i t e t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n s m a d e a b o u t i n t i m a t e

c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

I n s u m , t h e r e su l ts r e p o r t e d s o f a r i n d i ca t e t h a t m o r e i n t i m a t e a n d m o r e g e n e ra l

c o m r f i u n i c a t i o n o c c u r s i n h o m e - l i k e a n d b r i g h t c o n d i t i o n s . T a b l e 3 i l lu s t r a te s t h e s e

t r e n d s .

TABLE 3

Mean wr i t ing t ime and in t imacy by l igh t and decor

D e c o r

Lig ht Ho m e-l ike Office-l ike

So r

Writing t ime (rain)

I n t i m a c y

Brigh t

Writing t ime (rain)

I n t i m a c y

12"1 10-6

28"2 29-6

13'4 12"0

44"2 30'6

Note See Table 2 for an explanation of Intimacy scores.

T h e t h i r d s i g n if i c an t m u l t i v a r i a t e e ff e c t i n d i c a t e s t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e c l in e d

f r o m t h e f i r s t to t h e s e c o n d l e t t e r [ m u l t i v a r i a t e F ( 4 , 6 5 ) = 6 . 3 9 , P < 0 " 0 0 ] . T h e

e f fe c t w a s m a r g i n a l l y s ig n i fi c an t ( P < 0 .0 6 ) f o r th e g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e a s u r e

w r i t i n g t i m e : p a r t i c i p a n t s w r o t e f o r 1 2.6 m i n u t e s o n t h e f i rs t l e t te r a n d 1 1.4 m i n u t e s

o n t h e s e c o n d l e t t e r . I t w a s m o r e c l e a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n

m e a s u r e s . W r i t e r s u s e d 2 6" 0 s e l f - re f e r e n t w o r d s i n l e tt e r o n c o m p a r e d t o 2 1 . 7 se lf -

r e f e r e n t w o r d s i n l e tt e r t w o ( P < 0 .0 0 1 ). I n t i m a c y s c o r e s w e r e g r e a t e r in l e t te r o n e

(35 .9 ) t h an i n l e t t e r tw o (30 .2 ; P < 0 .02 ) .

T h e l e t t e r × l i g h t i n t e r a c t i o n w a s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t [ m u l t i v a r i a t e F ( 4 , 6 5 ) = 2 - 9 0 ,

P < 0 -0 3 ]. T h e n a t u r e o f th i s i n t e r a c t i o n ( se e F i g u r e 1) i s t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n r o s e

o r r e m a i n e d a b o u t t h e s a m e f r o m l e t t e r o n e t o l e t te r tw o i n b r ig h t l i g h t b u t , a s

p r e d i c t e d , i t d e c l in e d f r o m l e tt e r o n e t o l e tt e r t w o i n s o f t l ig h t . P a r t i c i p a n t s w r o t e f o r

1 2 .4 a n d 1 3 .0 m i n u t e s i n b r i g h t l i g h t , b u t 1 2-9 a n d 1 0-0 m i n u t e s i n s o f t l ig h t

( P < 0 -0 1) . O n a n i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e a s u r e , I n t i m a c y s c o r es w e r e 38 -3 a n d

3 6 . 4 i n b r i g h t l i g h t , b u t d e c l i n e d f r o m 3 3 . 3 t o 2 3 - 9 i n l e s s b r i g h t l i g h t ( P = 0 " 0 9 ) .

D i s c u s s i o n

T h e r e s u lt s c le a r ly s h o w t h a t l i g h ti n g a n d d e c o r a f f ec t g e n e r a l a n d i n t i m a t e c o m -

m u n i c a t i o n . T h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r o p o s a l s t h a t a r o u s a l m e d i a t e s

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WRITING

TIME

min . )

14

13

12

10

L i g h t D e c o r a n d C o m m u n i c a t io n

o B r igh t l i gh t

• Sof t l igh t

1 2

LETTER

1 8 5

INT IMACY

40

35

30

2 5

20

o B r igh t l i gh t

• So f t l i gh t

1 2

LETTER

FIGURE 1. The decline of w riting time and intimacy from letter one to letter two in soft lighting com pared

to bright lighting.

t h e e f fe c t s o f li g h t a n d t h a t c o m f o r t m e d i a t e s t h e e f f e c ts o f d e c o r . T h e f ir s t h y -

p o t h e si s t h a t m o r e g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w o u l d o c c u r i n b r i g h t e r s e tt in g s w a s

c o n f i rm e d . S e c o n d m o r e i n t im a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n w a s p r e d ic t e d f o r l o w e r l ig h t

l e v e l s . T h i s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i s c o n f i r m e d ; m o r e i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o c c u r r e d

i n t h e b r i g h t e r li g h t t h a n i n t h e s o f t e r l ig h t . T h i r d c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e c l i n e d i n s o f te r

l ig h t f r o m l et t e r o n e to le t te r t w o a s p r e d i c t e d . F o u r t h g e n e r a l a n d i n t i m a t e c o m -

m u n i c a t i o n w e r e h y p o t h e s i z e d t o b e g r e a t e r i n h o m e - l i k e c o n d i t io n s ; t h e se h y p o t h -

e s e s w e r e c o n f i r m e d .

I n m o s t o f t h es e ca s es s u p p o r t f o r t h e h y p o t h e s e s c a m e f r o m o n e o f t h e tw o

m e a s u r e s o f ge n e r a l a n d i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n . I n th e c as e o f g e n e r a l c o m m u n i -

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1 8 6 R G i f f o rd

c a t i o n , w r i t in g t i m e w a s a l w a y s t h e s i g n i f ic a n t v a r ia b l e ; t o t a l w o r d s n e v e r w a s . I n t h e

c a s e o f in t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , i n t i m a c y w a s a l w a y s t h e s i g n if i c a n t v a r i a b l e ; se lf -

r e f e r e n t w o r d s w a s s i g n i f ic a n t in o n l y o n e c a s e . I f n o t h i n g e ls e , t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h e

v a l u e o f d i ff e r e n ti a ti n g th e c o n c e p t o f i n t e rp e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d o f th e v a l u e

o f u s i n g m u l t ip l e m e a s u r e s . W h y l ig h t a n d d e c o r a r e r e la t e d t o w r i ti n g t im e b u t n o t

t o t a l w o r d s is n o t c l e a r. I n t i m a c y , b a s e d o n t h e p a r t i c i p a n t ' s c o g n i t iv e a ss e s s m e n t o f

t h e t o p i c a n d h e r o w n l e t t e r, is f r e q u e n t l y r e l a t e d t o l ig h t a n d d e c o r w h i l e s e l f- r e f e r e n t

w o r d s , a m e r e w o r d c o u n t , is n o t . P e r h a p s t h e w o r d c o u n t m e a s u r e s , n e i t h e r o f

w h i c h w e r e v e r y u s e f u l, a r e t o o s u b j e ct t o e x t r a n e o u s i n f lu e n c e s s u c h a s w r i ti n g

s ty le . A t l e as t in t h e c a s e o f i n t im a c y , a m o r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e s e em s t o

b e m o r e s e n si ti v e to d i f f e r e n c e s i n li g h t a n d d e c o r t h a n a r e t h e m o r e m e c h a n i c a l

m e a s u r e s .

T h e s i m i l a r it y o f e ff e c t s o n i n t i m a c y a n d w r i t i n g t i m e r a i se s t h e i ss u e o f t h e i r

r e l a t e d n e s s . T h e y a r e c o n c e p t u a l l y d i f f e r e n t , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e s i m i l a r l y a f f e c t e d

b y t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b le s , a r e t h e y h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d ? N o ; t h e y c o r r e l a t e 0 .3 1 ,

w h i c h is s t a t is t i c a ll y s i g n if i c an t , b u t t h e y s h a r e l es s t h a n 1 0 o f t h e i r v a r i a n c e .

L i g h t i n g

O n e i n t e re s t i n g o u t c o m e is t h e d i s c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s p r e d i c ti n g t h a t s o f t

l i g h t i n g w o u l d b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o r e i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n . B e c a u s e t h i s

h y p o t h e s i s w a s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e C h a i k i n e t a l . s t u d y , a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e s tu d i es

m a y h e l p e l u c i d a t e t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e d i s c r e p a n c y . O n e d i f f e re n c e is t h a t i n th i s

s t u d y p a r t i c i p a n t s j u d g e d t h e i n t im a c y o f th e i r o w n d i s c lo s u r e s , b u t i n C h a i k i n

e t

a l . s s t u d y a n o t h e r p e r s o n ( a n i n te r v i e w e r ) d i d s o . S e c o n d , t h is s t u d y e x a m i n e d w r i tt e n

c o m m u n i c a t i o n b u t C h a i k i n e t a l . e x a m i n e d o r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h i r d , t h i s s t u d y

f o c u s e d o n e s t a b l i s h e d f r i e n d s h i p s b u t C h a i k i n

e t a l .

f o c u s e d o n i n t e r a c t i o n s o f

s t r a n g e r s . F o u r t h , t h i s s t u d y ' s p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e p e e r s b u t i n C h a i k i n e t a l . s s t u d y a

s u b t le b u t i m p o r t a n t s t a t u s o r r o l e d i f f e re n c e w a s p r e s e n t i n t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r ,

w h o w a s in h e r t h ir ti e s, i n t e r v ie w e d i n t r o d u c t o r y p s y c h o l o g y st u d e n t s w h o w e r e

p r e s u m a b l y a b o u t a d e c a d e y o u n g e r ; a ls o , th e e x p e r i m e n t e r p la y e d a c o u n s e l o r ro l e

w h i le t h e s u b j e c t s p l a y e d a c o u n s e l e e r o le . A n y o f t h e s e d i f f er e n c e s m i g h t h a v e

a c c o u n t e d f o r t h e o p p o s i t e f i n d i n g s . O n e t a s k f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h e r s i s t o d i s c o v e r

t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h b r i g h t e r l ig h t el ic it s m o r e o r l es s i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

T h e r e s u lt s f o r l ig h t a r e in a c c o r d w i t h a n a r o u s a l m o d e l . I n t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h is

s tu d y , m o r e l i gh t p r o d u c e d n o t o n l y m o r e g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n b u t a l so m o r e

i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

T h e l i g h t × l e t t e r i n t e r a c t i o n

A s p r e d i c t e d , b o t h i n t i m a t e a n d g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e c l i n e d o v e r t i m e i n s o ft e r

l ig h t . T h e s t r o n g e r e f f e c t w a s f o r w r i ti n g t i m e . T h e r e s u l t s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a n

a r o u s a l m o d e l t h a t p l a c i n g i n d i v i d u a l s i n s o f t l i g h t i n g w i l l l o w e r t h e i r a r o u s a l l e v e l s

w h i c h , i n t u r n , w i l l l o w e r t h e i r a c t i v i t y l e v e l s .

M o s t u n i v e r s i ty l ig h t in g i s a t l e ve ls c l o s e r t o o u r b r i g h t c o n d i t i o n t h a n t o o u r s o f t

c o n d i t i o n . T h u s , t h e a r o u s a l a n d w r i t in g t i m e o f p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e s o f t l ig h t in g

c o n d i t i o n a p p e a r s t o h a v e d e c r e a s e d w i t h l e n g t h e n i n g e x p o s u r e t o s o f t l i g h t , r a t h e r

t h a n t h a t t h e a r o u s a l a n d w r i t in g t i m e o f b ri g h t - li g h t p a r t i c i p a n t s i n c r e a s e d w i t h

l e n g t h e n i n g e x p o s u r e t o b r i g h t l i g h t .

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Light Dec or and Comm unicat ion 187

ecor

M o r e h o m e - li k e d e c o r w a s a s s o c i at e d w i th m o r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f b o t h k i n d s.

H o m e y d e c o r p r o b a b l y is n o t o n l y m o r e p h y s i ca l ly c o m f o r t a b l e , b u t i t m a y a ls o b e

m o r e p s y c h o l o g i c a ll y c o m f o r t a b l e , e v o k i n g a s en se o f re f u g e a n d u n g u a r d e d n e s s

t h a t i s a s s o c i a te d w i t h h o m e . B o t h t h e s e fe e li n g s w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o e n c o u r a g e

i n d i v id u a l s t o c o m m u n i c a t e m o r e , b o t h g e n e r a l l y a n d i n t im a t e l y .

The let ter main ef fect

O n e u n e x p e c t e d f i n d i n g w a s t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e c l i n e d f r o m l e t t e r o n e t o l e t t e r

t w o , n o t o n l y in s o f t li g h t a s p r e d i c t e d , b u t r e g a r d l es s o f l ig h t a n d d e c o r . T h i s m a y

h a v e h a p p e n e d f o r t h r e e p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s . F i r s t , p a r t i c i p a n t s m a y s i m p l y h a v e t i r e d

o f w r it in g . H o w e v e r , t o t a l w o r d s d i d n o t c h a n g e s ig n i fi c an t ly f r o m t h e f i rs t le t te r t o

t h e s e c o n d , a n d t h e s i g n i fi c a n c e o f t h e d e c l i n e i n w r i t i n g t i m e , t h e o t h e r g e n e r a l

c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e a s u r e , w a s m a r g i n a l. S e c o n d , t h e in t i m a c y o f w h a t p a r t i c i p a n ts

w r o t e o n t h e s e c o n d t o p i c m a y h a v e b e e n l o w e r . A t - te s t d i d n o t s u p p o r t t h i s n o t i o n ,

e i t h e r ( P > 0 -1 0 ). T h i r d , t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h e t o p i c i ts e lf m i g h t h a v e b e e n l o w e r f o r

t h e s e c o n d l e t te r . T h i s w a s t ru e : t h e i n t i m a c y o f to p i c o n e w a s 5 . 8 2 c o m p a r e d t o

4 . 7 6 f o r t o p i c t w o [ t ( 71 ) = 3 . 75 , P < 0 . 00 1 ]. T h i s d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n l e t t e r o n e a n d

l e tt e r t w o c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o t h e i n t i m a c y s c o re s , w h i c h w e r e c o m p u t e d a s t h e p r o d u c t

o f t h e se t w o r a ti n g s . L e t t e r o n e s m e a n i n t i m a c y s c o r e w a s 3 5 . 9; l e t te r t w o s w a s

30-6 [ t (71) = 2-70, P < 0.01] .

T h u s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e d e c l i n e i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n o v e r t im e i s p r i m a r i l y a d e c l in e

i n t h e i n t im a c y o f w h a t w a s w r i t t e n . T h i s m a y h a v e r e s u l te d f r o m t h e c h o i c e o f

t o p ic s . T h e f i rs t ( p r e s c r ib e d ) t o p i c , T h e t h i n g s I w o r r y a b o u t t h e m o s t , w a s t h e

t h i r d - m o s t i n t i m a t e o f th e 11 to p i c s . A t t h e o u t s e t o f t h e s t u d y , t o p i c i n ti m a c i e s

w e r e n o t y e t k n o w n , s o t h e s e l e ct io n o f a n o p e n i n g t o p i c c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n

g u i d e d b y k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h is t o p ic . T h e o d d s w e r e , t h e n , t h a t a

s e c o n d t o p i c w o u l d b e c l o s e r t o t h e m e a n i n t i m a c y o f th e r e m a i n i n g 1 0 t o p i cs . I n

f a c t, th i s m e a n w a s 4 . 6 6 a n d t h e m e a n i n t i m a c y o f th e r e m a i n i n g t o p i c s w a s 4 .7 6 .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e i n t i m a c y d e c l i n e o v e r t i m e w a s p r o b a b l y d u e t o t h i s t o p i c s e l e c t i o n

f a c t o r .

esign applications

I n c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e f i n d in g s o f th i s s t u d y s u g g e s t t h a t i f o n e w i sh e s t o i n c r e a s e b o t h

g e n e r a l a n d i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e s e t t i n g s h o u l d b e n o r m a l - b r i g h t ( i . e . , a b o u t

9 0 f o o t c a n d l e s ) a n d h o m e - l i k e in d e c o r . N a t u r a l l y , t h e s e r e s u lt s s o f a r m a y o n l y b e

a p p l i e d t o f e m a l e f r ie n d s w r i t in g l e t te r s; b r o a d e r g e n e r a l iz a t i o n d e p e n d s o n r e s e a r c h

w i t h o t h e r f o r m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , m a le s , a n d s ta g es o f r e la t io n s h i p . H o w e v e r ,

t h e se r e su l ts a r e s u ff ic i en t t o c r e a t e c a u t i o n a b o u t a c c e p t i n g t h e c o m m o n n o t i o n

t h a t m o r e i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i ll o c c u r i n d im l y li t s e tt in g s . A t t h e s a m e t im e ,

t h e y r e in f o r c e t h e n o t i o n t h a t h o m e - l i k e s e tt in g s e n c o u r a g e c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

C o n c l u s i o n

T h i s s t u d y b e g a n a s a n a t t e m p t t o c l a r if y p a s t s t u d ie s w h i c h s h o w e d t h a t c h a n g e s i n

c o m m u n i c a t i o n w e r e r e l a te d t o t h e p h y s i c a l s et ti n g , b u t w e r e u n a b l e t o s p e c if y w h i c h

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188 R Gifford

f e a t u r e s o f t h e se t ti n g w e r e re s p o n s i b le . W e p o s i t e d t h a t a r o u s a l a n d c o m f o r t m e d i a t e

w r i t te n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t h e r es u lt s a re g e n e r a ll y c o n s i s te n t w i th t h e s e p r o p o s a l s .

T h e f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t s o m e o b v i o u s f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n s f o r r e s e a r c h e r s . S o m e o f

t h es e w e r e m a d e s a li e n t i n c o m p a r i n g t h is s t u d y s p r o c e d u r e w i t h t h a t o f th e C h a i k i n

et al .

s t ud y : o r a l v e r s u s w r i t te n c o m m u n i c a t i o n , w h o j u d g e s c o m m u n i c a t i o n

i n t i m a c y , i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n f r i e n d s v e rs u s s t r a n g e r s , a n d r o l e o r s ta t u s d i f fe r e n c e s.

R e s e a r c h a l s o m i g h t b e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a s s e s s i n g b o d i l y s t a t e s d u r i n g c o m m u n i c a -

t i o n u n d e r d i f f e r e n t l i g h t i n g c o n d i t i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r p h y s i o l o g i c a l a r o u s a l

c h a n g e s o c c u r a s th e r e s u l ts o f t h i s s t u d y s u g g e s t . W h e t h e r o r n o t t h e r e s u l t s a r e

bes t

e x p l a i n e d b y a r o u s a l a n d c o m f o r t m o d e l s , t h e s t u d y ( a) c o n f i r m s t h e h y p o t h e s e s

t h a t l i g h t a n d d e c o r a f f e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d ( b ) p l a c e s t h e re s e a r c h w i t h i n a

t h e o r et i ca l c o n t e x t. A n o t h e r q u e s t i o n f o r th e f u t u r e is w h e t h e r b r i g h t e r - t h a n - n o r m a l

l i g h t i n g a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e s c o m m u n i c a t i o n , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p r e s e n t f i n d i n g t h a t

n o r m a l l y b r i g h t li g h ti n g m a i n t a i n s c o m m u n i c a t i o n l e v el s w h i l e s u b n o r m a l l i g h ti n g

l eve l s d imin i sh i t .

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s

I a m g r a t e f u l t o S h i r le y R o l l a n d f o r s e rv i n g as th e e x p e r i m e n t e r , t o T i m o t h y

G a l l a g h e r a n d P a u l M u n s o n f o r a d v i c e a n d t o t he U n i v e r s i t y o f V i c t o r ia a n d t h e

S o c ia l Sc ie n ce s a n d H u m a n i t i e s R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l o f C a n a d a f o r s u p p o r t .

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Light Dec or and Comm unicat ion 189

W o n - D o o r n i n k , M . J . 1 97 9). O n g e t t in g to k n o w y o u : t he a s s o c i a t io n b e tw e e n t h e s t a g e o f a

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Manuscript received 3 August

1987

Revised manuscript received 24 M a y 1988