GEOS 115

Introduction to Oceanography

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What is Oceanography?What is Oceanography?

• The goal of understanding the oceans through the The goal of understanding the oceans through the physical, geological, chemical and biological sciencesphysical, geological, chemical and biological sciences

• The common fields of science involved in the study of The common fields of science involved in the study of the oceans includethe oceans include

GeologyGeology GeographyGeography GeophysicsGeophysics PhysicsPhysics ChemistryChemistry GeochemistryGeochemistry MathematicsMathematics MeteorologyMeteorology BotanyBotany ZoologyZoology

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Geological OceanographyGeological Oceanography

History of the ocean basinsHistory of the ocean basins Plate tectonicsPlate tectonics Sediments and rocks of the seafloorSediments and rocks of the seafloor Coastal/shoreline processesCoastal/shoreline processes

• Beaches/ Barrier IslandsBeaches/ Barrier Islands• DeltasDeltas• EstuariesEstuaries• ReefsReefs

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Physical OceanographyPhysical Oceanography

Currents and circulationCurrents and circulation Wave and tidal dynamicsWave and tidal dynamics Meteorology (Ocean-Atmosphere Meteorology (Ocean-Atmosphere

coupling)coupling)• Heat transferHeat transfer• Water cycleWater cycle

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Chemical OceanographyChemical Oceanography

Composition of seawaterComposition of seawater Origin of seawaterOrigin of seawater Interaction between water and other Interaction between water and other

systemssystems• GeologicalGeological• BiologicalBiological

Effects of river discharge and sea Effects of river discharge and sea waterwater

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Biological OceanographyBiological Oceanography

Study of marine organismsStudy of marine organisms• PlanticPlantic

Phyto and zooplanktonPhyto and zooplankton

• NekticNektic Marine vertebrates (fish, reptiles)Marine vertebrates (fish, reptiles)

• BenthicBenthic Sessile and mobileSessile and mobile Mostly invertebrates and algae and plantsMostly invertebrates and algae and plants

Relationship between organisms and Relationship between organisms and the oceanic environmentthe oceanic environment

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The Nature of ScienceThe Nature of Science Systematic process of asking questions Systematic process of asking questions

and testing answersand testing answers Gathering dataGathering data Interpreting dataInterpreting data Forming tentative answers (hypotheses)Forming tentative answers (hypotheses) Experimenting (manipulating) in nature or Experimenting (manipulating) in nature or

laboratorylaboratory Based on the assumption that rules that Based on the assumption that rules that

govern nature are immutable govern nature are immutable

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History of OceanographyHistory of Oceanography PaleolithicPaleolithic

• Development of barbed spears, harpoons, fish Development of barbed spears, harpoons, fish hookshooks

• Settlements along coasts (kitchen middens)Settlements along coasts (kitchen middens) EgyptiansEgyptians

• Nets, boatsNets, boats• First recorded ocean voyage (First recorded ocean voyage (SnefruSnefru 3200 B.C.E) 3200 B.C.E)• First exploration 2750 B.C.E. (First exploration 2750 B.C.E. (HannuHannu))

Phoenicians (1200 B.C.E. – 146 B.C.E)Phoenicians (1200 B.C.E. – 146 B.C.E)• Trade and commerceTrade and commerce• NavyNavy• Exploration (circumnavigated Africa 590 B.C.E.)Exploration (circumnavigated Africa 590 B.C.E.)

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Pacific Islanders

•Migration along SW Pacific 2500 B.C.E.•Extensive migrations in 1500 B.C.E.•By 450-600 C.E. Polynesians had colonized the Pacific from New Zealand to Hawaii to Easter Island•Navigation

•Observation of stars•Observation of waves, clouds, birds and distinctive land smells

NavigationalChart

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The GreeksThe Greeks

HerodotusHerodotus (450 B.C.E.) view of the world (450 B.C.E.) view of the world• Mediterranean Sea, Europe, Asia and Libya, Mediterranean Sea, Europe, Asia and Libya,

surrounded by a continuous ocean surrounded by a continuous ocean ThallassaThallassa PytheasPytheas; sailed to Iceland (325 B.C.E.) and ; sailed to Iceland (325 B.C.E.) and

worked out a method of determining latitudeworked out a method of determining latitude Eratosthenes Eratosthenes (264-194 B.C.E.), librarian at (264-194 B.C.E.), librarian at

Alexandria, Egypt, determined the earth’s Alexandria, Egypt, determined the earth’s circumference, also ‘invented’ latitude and circumference, also ‘invented’ latitude and longitudelongitude• 40,000Km (24,840 mi) vs 40,031 Km (24,860 mi)40,000Km (24,840 mi) vs 40,031 Km (24,860 mi)

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The World of Herodotus

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Pytheas- Determining Latitude

•Measure the angle between the horizon and the North Star, Polaris (a star directly above the North Pole) or the Southern Cross for the southern hemisphere•Latitude north of the equator is the angle between the two sightings

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Erastosthenes’ Determination of the Circumference of the Earth

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Hipparchus: Chart with Latitude & Longitude

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The RomansThe Romans

StraboStrabo (63 B.C.E-24 C.E.) observed (63 B.C.E-24 C.E.) observed volcanic activity and concluded that land volcanic activity and concluded that land periodically rose and sank causing the periodically rose and sank causing the sea to retreat and advance from the sea to retreat and advance from the continents. He also determined that continents. He also determined that rivers eroded the continents and brought rivers eroded the continents and brought and deposited sediment to the seaand deposited sediment to the sea

Pliny the ElderPliny the Elder (23-79 C.E.) related the (23-79 C.E.) related the phases of the moon to tides as well as phases of the moon to tides as well as reported on the currents through the reported on the currents through the Strait of GibraltarStrait of Gibraltar

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The RomansThe Romans PtolemyPtolemy (127-151 C.E.) produced the first (127-151 C.E.) produced the first

“world” atlas. He introduced regularly spaced “world” atlas. He introduced regularly spaced lines of latitude and longitude in in degrees, lines of latitude and longitude in in degrees, minutes and seconds of arc, but he accepted minutes and seconds of arc, but he accepted a circumference of only 29,000 Km for the a circumference of only 29,000 Km for the earth. It established the Roman world view earth. It established the Roman world view from the British Isles and northern Europe to from the British Isles and northern Europe to Asia and Africa. It was a mayor catalyst for Asia and Africa. It was a mayor catalyst for exploration in subsequent centuries (i.e. exploration in subsequent centuries (i.e. Columbus)Columbus)

Christianity identified Alexandria's library with Christianity identified Alexandria's library with paganism and burned it in 415 C.E.; western paganism and burned it in 415 C.E.; western intellectual development in ocean sciences intellectual development in ocean sciences declined during Dark Ages declined during Dark Ages

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Ptolemy’s Geographica

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The Middle Ages- The ArabsThe Middle Ages- The Arabs The Arabs (Moors of North Africa 700-1492)The Arabs (Moors of North Africa 700-1492)

• Dominated trade and commerce in the Mediterranean and Dominated trade and commerce in the Mediterranean and east after the fall of the Roman empire and the rise of east after the fall of the Roman empire and the rise of Christianity in Europe the Prophet Muhammad encouraged Christianity in Europe the Prophet Muhammad encouraged travel even "as far as China" for learning. The wealth of cities travel even "as far as China" for learning. The wealth of cities depended upon trade. And the faith of Islam asked of the depended upon trade. And the faith of Islam asked of the faithful the most powerful of all reasons for travel, the faithful the most powerful of all reasons for travel, the Pilgrimage. Pilgrimage.

• Employed the Chinese compass Employed the Chinese compass • Invented the astrolabe which was used to read the position of Invented the astrolabe which was used to read the position of

the stars and planetsthe stars and planets• The dhow (sailing vessel) utilized the winds of the monsoons The dhow (sailing vessel) utilized the winds of the monsoons

to go north in the summer and south in the winter. Dhows to go north in the summer and south in the winter. Dhows went up and down the coast of East Africa, and from the Red went up and down the coast of East Africa, and from the Red Sea to the "Spice Islands" of Indonesia, and to Southeast AsiaSea to the "Spice Islands" of Indonesia, and to Southeast Asia

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The Dhow

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The Middle Ages- The ArabsThe Middle Ages- The Arabs

El-Mas’ude El-Mas’ude (d. 956), first description of the (d. 956), first description of the reversal of the currents due to the seasonal reversal of the currents due to the seasonal monsoon windsmonsoon winds

Al-Al-IdrisiIdrisi made a globe or sphere of silver made a globe or sphere of silver weighing 400 kilograms for the Christian King weighing 400 kilograms for the Christian King Roger II of Sicily. Some scholars regard him as Roger II of Sicily. Some scholars regard him as the greatest geographer and mapmaker of the the greatest geographer and mapmaker of the Middle Ages. He put together a geographical Middle Ages. He put together a geographical encyclopedia with many mapsencyclopedia with many maps

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Arab Trade Routes

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The Middle Ages-The ChineseThe Middle Ages-The Chinese Ming Dynasty 1405 – 1433 significant Chinese Ming Dynasty 1405 – 1433 significant Chinese

contributions contributions Invented the compassInvented the compass Zheng commanded a fleet, 317 ships 37,000 Zheng commanded a fleet, 317 ships 37,000

men to Indian ocean, Indonesia, around Africa to men to Indian ocean, Indonesia, around Africa to the Atlanticthe Atlantic

Chinese made several other inventions including, Chinese made several other inventions including, central rudder, water tight compartments and central rudder, water tight compartments and sophisticated sails on multiple masts. sophisticated sails on multiple masts.

Unfortunately contributions ended in 1433 Unfortunately contributions ended in 1433 because they believed other cultures could not because they believed other cultures could not contribute anything else to them contribute anything else to them

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The Middle Ages- The The Middle Ages- The EuropeansEuropeans

Increase knowledge in navigation with Increase knowledge in navigation with harbor-finding charts (harbor-finding charts (portolanosportolanos))

The Venerable Bede (673-735) illustrated The Venerable Bede (673-735) illustrated his account of the tides with data from his account of the tides with data from British coastBritish coast

Abbot Wallingford of St. AlbansAbbot Wallingford of St. Albans (1200) (1200) followed Bede’s work by collecting tidal followed Bede’s work by collecting tidal data for London (“data for London (“Flod at London BriggeFlod at London Brigge”)”)

By 1300 Europeans had established By 1300 Europeans had established successful trade routessuccessful trade routes

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The Middle Ages- The VikingsThe Middle Ages- The Vikings Engaged in extensive exploration, trade and Engaged in extensive exploration, trade and

colonization (793-1066) during a warm period colonization (793-1066) during a warm period (greenhouse)(greenhouse)

Sailed to Iceland in 871, up Russian rivers, Sailed to Iceland in 871, up Russian rivers, through central and eastern Europe and through central and eastern Europe and western Asia and to the Mediterraneanwestern Asia and to the Mediterranean

Erik the RedErik the Red (982) sailed to Greenland (982) sailed to Greenland Leif ErikssonLeif Eriksson reached North America reached North America

(Newfoundland) in 1002, founded a colony (Newfoundland) in 1002, founded a colony (Vinland) that lasted until 1020(Vinland) that lasted until 1020

By the 13By the 13thth century climate began to cool again century climate began to cool again and marked an end of Viking explorationand marked an end of Viking exploration

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The Age of Discovery- PortugalThe Age of Discovery- Portugal Prince Henry the NavigatorPrince Henry the Navigator of Portugal (1394-1460), of Portugal (1394-1460),

established a naval observatory at Sagres for the established a naval observatory at Sagres for the teaching of navigation, astronomy and cartography teaching of navigation, astronomy and cartography (1450)(1450)• Sent countless expeditions down the west coast of Africa to Sent countless expeditions down the west coast of Africa to

secure trade routes and establish coloniessecure trade routes and establish colonies Bartholomeu DiasBartholomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in rounded the Cape of Good Hope in

14871487 Vasco da GamaVasco da Gama, followed Dias and charted the east , followed Dias and charted the east

coast of Africa to India in 1498coast of Africa to India in 1498 By 1511 the Portuguese conquered the spice routes By 1511 the Portuguese conquered the spice routes

had access to the Spice Island and extended trade to had access to the Spice Island and extended trade to China and Japan in 1513China and Japan in 1513

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The Age of Discovery- SpainThe Age of Discovery- Spain Christopher ColumbusChristopher Columbus (1451-1506) made (1451-1506) made

4 voyages west to find a route to the 4 voyages west to find a route to the indies.indies.• On October 12, 1492 he came upon the new On October 12, 1492 he came upon the new

world at San Salvador Island, Bahamasworld at San Salvador Island, Bahamas Amerigo VespucciAmerigo Vespucci (1454-1512) made (1454-1512) made

several voyages to the new world for Spain several voyages to the new world for Spain and Portugal and explored 10,000Km of S. and Portugal and explored 10,000Km of S. American coastline. In 1507 the American coastline. In 1507 the cartographer cartographer Martin WaldseemullerMartin Waldseemuller applied the name applied the name ‘America’‘America’ to the to the continentcontinent

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The Age of DiscoveryThe Age of Discovery

The ‘northwest passage’The ‘northwest passage’• Martin FrobisherMartin Frobisher (1576, 1577, 1578), (1576, 1577, 1578),

Henry HudsonHenry Hudson (1607,1608, 1609, 1610) (1607,1608, 1609, 1610) and and William BaffinWilliam Baffin (1615, 1616) (1615, 1616)

Sir Francis DrakeSir Francis Drake (1540-1596) and (1540-1596) and the the Golden HindeGolden Hinde completed completed circumnavigation 1580 after circumnavigation 1580 after plundering Spanish shipping, plundering Spanish shipping, exploring the west coast of N. exploring the west coast of N. AmericaAmerica

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Sir Francis Drake’s ship

The Golden Hinde

A replica in Southwark section of London

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Johannes Van Keulen’sJohannes Van Keulen’sGreat New and Improved Sea-AtlasGreat New and Improved Sea-Atlas or or

Water-WorldWater-World 1682-1684 1682-1684

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Navigational AidsNavigational Aids

CompassCompass• ChineseChinese

SextantSextant• HalleyHalley

ChronometerChronometer• John HarrisonJohn Harrison

ChartsCharts• Hydrographic offices France (1720) and Hydrographic offices France (1720) and

England (1795)England (1795)

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Instrumentation

Sextant c. 1792Early AstrolabeRead altitude of Sun or stars against a curved scale

Harrison’s H4 ChronometerArabic Astrolabe

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Greenwich Observatory

Shepard Gate Clock, 1852First to provide Greenwich MeanTime (GMT) to the public

East and West- The Prime Meridian at GreenwichOfficially Established in 1884 at a conference inWashington, DC

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MARINE SCIENCE:BEGINNINGSMARINE SCIENCE:BEGINNINGS To maintain marine superiority, British undertook To maintain marine superiority, British undertook

voyages of discovery voyages of discovery Captain James CookCaptain James Cook made 3 made 3 voyages to map Pacific between 1768 - 1779. voyages to map Pacific between 1768 - 1779. • 1768 voyage of the 1768 voyage of the Endeavor Endeavor Primary mission was to flex Primary mission was to flex

military muscle in south seas. Transported scientists to military muscle in south seas. Transported scientists to Tahiti. Searched for southern continent. Charted New Tahiti. Searched for southern continent. Charted New Zealand, Great Barrier Reef and many small islands.Zealand, Great Barrier Reef and many small islands.

• Later on the Later on the ResolutionResolution, charts Tonga and Easter Island. , charts Tonga and Easter Island. Sails as far south as 71 degrees but never sees Antarctica.Sails as far south as 71 degrees but never sees Antarctica.

• In 1776 Cook attempts to find Northwest Passage around In 1776 Cook attempts to find Northwest Passage around Alaska and Canada. Charts Hawaii and West Coast of N.A. Alaska and Canada. Charts Hawaii and West Coast of N.A. Returns to Hawaii and is killed in 1779.Returns to Hawaii and is killed in 1779.

• conquered scurvy - vitamin C deficiencyconquered scurvy - vitamin C deficiency• Made soundings, observations on winds, currents, Made soundings, observations on winds, currents,

temperatures.temperatures.

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The Cutty Sark

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MARINE SCIENCE:BEGINNINGSMARINE SCIENCE:BEGINNINGS

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) and Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) and Timothy Folger- The Gulf Stream Timothy Folger- The Gulf Stream chart 1769chart 1769

Thomas Jefferson and the creation of Thomas Jefferson and the creation of the US Coast and Geodetic Survey the US Coast and Geodetic Survey (1807)(1807)

The US Naval Hydrographic Office The US Naval Hydrographic Office (1830)(1830)

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Franklin-Folger Map of the Gulf Franklin-Folger Map of the Gulf Stream 1769Stream 1769

SST Satellite Map for 1996SST Satellite Map for 1996

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Lt. Matthew Lt. Matthew MauryMaury

Chart of the Gulf Stream

Lt. Matthew MauryLt. Matthew Maury (1806-1873) founded Naval (1806-1873) founded Naval Depot of Charts and Instruments (1842), began Depot of Charts and Instruments (1842), began systematic collection of wind and current data. systematic collection of wind and current data. Published The Published The Physical Geography of the SeaPhysical Geography of the Sea (1855) the first true oceanographic text(1855) the first true oceanographic text

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Oceanography: The Science BeginsOceanography: The Science Begins Alexander von HumboldtAlexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) author of (1769-1859) author of

CosmosCosmos, made observation (1799-1804) on the , made observation (1799-1804) on the north flowing current off the western coast of S. north flowing current off the western coast of S. AmericaAmerica

Charles DarwinCharles Darwin (1809-1882) entered scientific (1809-1882) entered scientific scene as a naturalist on the voyage of the HMS scene as a naturalist on the voyage of the HMS BeagleBeagle, a British survey ship, from 1831 - 1836. , a British survey ship, from 1831 - 1836. Best know for theory of evolution published in Best know for theory of evolution published in Origin of SpeciesOrigin of Species. He also published structure . He also published structure and distribution of coral reefs which described and distribution of coral reefs which described how subsidence of oceanic islands produces how subsidence of oceanic islands produces progressive changes in reef from fringing reef progressive changes in reef from fringing reef to atoll formation. to atoll formation.

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The Challenger ExpeditionThe Challenger Expedition 1st. large scale voyage to study the Marine 1st. large scale voyage to study the Marine

environment in 1872 under chief scientist environment in 1872 under chief scientist C. Wyville C. Wyville ThompsonThompson. To investigate: . To investigate: • 1) Physical conditions of deep sea in ocean basins. 1) Physical conditions of deep sea in ocean basins. • 2) Chemical composition of SW at all depths. 2) Chemical composition of SW at all depths. • 3) Physical and chemical characteristics of sea floor 3) Physical and chemical characteristics of sea floor

and its origin. and its origin. • 4) Distribution of life at all depths and seafloor. 4) Distribution of life at all depths and seafloor.

3.5 yr voyage logging 69000 mile took deep sea 3.5 yr voyage logging 69000 mile took deep sea soundings, bottom dredges, open water trawls and soundings, bottom dredges, open water trawls and water temperature observations. water temperature observations. • netted and classified 4717 new species of netted and classified 4717 new species of

organisms, deepest sounding in Marianas trench organisms, deepest sounding in Marianas trench 26,850 ft. collected Manganese Nodules26,850 ft. collected Manganese Nodules

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The Cruise of the The Cruise of the Challenger Challenger 1872-18761872-1876

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The Challenger ExpeditionThe Challenger Expedition

Dredging and sounding

Sieving bottom samples

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The Challenger ExpeditionThe Challenger Expedition

Zoological Laboratory Chemical Lab

In the equatorial mid-Atlantic Biological Dredge

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Deep sea Deep sea deposits,deposits,shells of shells of microscopic microscopic organisms that organisms that make-up the make-up the muds and clays muds and clays of the seafloor of the seafloor from the from the Challenger Challenger ExpeditionExpedition

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Scientific Equipment Scientific Equipment - Early - Early Oceanographic ToolsOceanographic Tools

Trawl

Benthic Dredge

Sounding Device

Collection Cup

Dredging

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The Rise of the Oceanographic The Rise of the Oceanographic InstitutionsInstitutions

Stazione Zoologica at Naples, Italy 1870’sStazione Zoologica at Naples, Italy 1870’s Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) 1880 Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) 1880

Woods Hole, MAWoods Hole, MA Scripps Institution of Oceanography 1903 Scripps Institution of Oceanography 1903

(1925) La Jolla, CA(1925) La Jolla, CA Prince Albert IPrince Albert I of Monaco established an of Monaco established an

oceanographic institute in Paris and the oceanographic institute in Paris and the Musee Oceanographique at Monaco, 1910Musee Oceanographique at Monaco, 1910

Woods Hole Oceanographic 1930 Woods Hole Oceanographic 1930 Institution (WHOI) Woods Hole, MAInstitution (WHOI) Woods Hole, MA

Numerous others in other countriesNumerous others in other countries

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SCRIPPS

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WHOI

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Oceanography in the 20Oceanography in the 20thth Century Century

In 1934, deep-sea researcher In 1934, deep-sea researcher William BeebeWilliam Beebe and and BartonBarton made their world record descent to a half a mile (3,028 made their world record descent to a half a mile (3,028 feet) beneath the surface of the ocean off Nonsuch feet) beneath the surface of the ocean off Nonsuch Island, Bermuda in the Island, Bermuda in the BathysphereBathysphere, a hollow steel ball , a hollow steel ball only 4' 9'' in diameter. He and two other men dove in only 4' 9'' in diameter. He and two other men dove in this submersible, lowered and raised by a thin steel this submersible, lowered and raised by a thin steel cable affixed to a winch on a barge. Beebe observed cable affixed to a winch on a barge. Beebe observed deep-sea fish and other marine organisms in their deep-deep-sea fish and other marine organisms in their deep-sea habitat, an environment that no one else had ever sea habitat, an environment that no one else had ever explored firsthand explored firsthand

In 1943, when In 1943, when Jacques-Yves CosteauJacques-Yves Costeau and and Emile GagnanEmile Gagnan perfected the fully automatic compressed air Aqualung, perfected the fully automatic compressed air Aqualung, the precursor to modern-day the precursor to modern-day SCUBASCUBA systems. This systems. This technological advance opened the exploration of technological advance opened the exploration of shallow-water ocean habitats to thousands of shallow-water ocean habitats to thousands of researchers from around the world.researchers from around the world.

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Oceanography in the 20Oceanography in the 20thth Century Century Plate Tectonic theory is born in 1960's Plate Tectonic theory is born in 1960's The development of submersibles allowed the finding The development of submersibles allowed the finding

of hydrothermal vents by of hydrothermal vents by AlvinAlvin (1977) and further (1977) and further documentation of sea floor events; similarly ROVs and documentation of sea floor events; similarly ROVs and AUVs have allowed greater sea exploration (e.g., AUVs have allowed greater sea exploration (e.g., TitanicTitanic discovery) discovery)

In 1978 the first satellite dedicated to ocean studies In 1978 the first satellite dedicated to ocean studies was launched and subsequent satellites now provide was launched and subsequent satellites now provide data on circulation, currents, temperatures, ice cover, data on circulation, currents, temperatures, ice cover, color, and topography of the ocean surface color, and topography of the ocean surface

From the 1968-1983 the From the 1968-1983 the Glomar ChallengerGlomar Challenger discovers discovers much information about the ocean's bottom through much information about the ocean's bottom through drilling activities through the drilling activities through the Deep Sea Drilling Deep Sea Drilling ProgramProgram

Since 1985 the work of the Since 1985 the work of the Ocean Drilling ProgramOcean Drilling Program continued with the continued with the JOIDES ResolutionJOIDES Resolution

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Glomar Challenger

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Submersibles

JOIDES ResolutionJOIDES Resolution

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Satellite OceanographySatellite Oceanography

Seasat Geosat Topex

ERS-2 Seastar

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False Color Satellite ImageryFalse Color Satellite Imagery

High to Low (Red to purple) concentrations of phytoplankton

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Figure 1.17bFigure 1.17b