CLIMATE

Climate is how hot or cold it is in a certain place over a long period of time. It differs from weather in that weather is a measure of how hot or cold it is over a short period of time.

Climate is affected by several factors:

Latitude - How far a place is from the equator. The nearer a location is to the equator, the hotter it will tend to be and vice versa.

Altitude - How high a place is above sea level. Places high above sea level are cooler than those near sea level.

Oceans - Ocean waters don't change temperature as quickly as land areas do. Thus land near oceans is warmer in winter and cooler in summers.

Climates can vary not only in temperature but in how much precipitation the place receives. Precipitation is the amount of water in the form of rain, snow, sleet,etc. that falls from the sky. An area with little precipitation has a dry or arid climate.

There are three basic climate zones.

Tropical climate zone. This is an area that falls between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. This area has hot climates all year long.

Temperate Climate Zone - These areas are between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle and between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle. The climate in these areas is warm in the summer and cold in the winter.

Polar Climate Zone - These areas are at either pole below the Antarctic Circle and above the Arctic Circle. The winters are very cold and the summers cool to cold.

The Sun

Some people from long ago thought of the Sun as a god. They did not want the god to be angry with them. To keep the Sun happy, they offered it gifts such as gold and food.

1. The Sun is our closest star. It is a member of the Milky Way galaxy. 2. The Sun is a yellow dwarf star, which means it is a medium size star.

It is believed to be over 4 billion years old. 3. The Sun spins slowly on its axis as it revolves around the galaxy. 4. The center, or core, of the Sun is very hot.5. A process called "nuclear fusion" takes place there. Nuclear fusion

produces a lot of energy.6. Some of this energy travels out into space as heat and light. Some of

it arrives at Earth! Streams of gas particles known as the solar wind also flow out from the Sun.

7. On the Sun's surface, we can see storms. We call these storms "sunspots" because they look like dark spots on the Sun's surface.

8. The Sun also produces big explosions of energy called solar flares. These flares shoot fast moving particles off the Sun's surface.

9. These particles can hit the Earth's atmosphere and cause a glow called an aurora.

The Moon: Earth's Satellite

1. The Moon is the only place in our solar system, other than Earth, where humans have visited.

2. On July 20, 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin landed the Lunar Module of Apollo 11 on the Moon's surface. Neil Armstrong was the first human to set foot on the Moon.

3. The Moon is like a desert with plains, mountains, and valleys.

4. It also has many craters, which are holes created when space objects hit the Moon's surface at a high speed. There is no air to breathe on the Moon..

5. The Moon travels around the Earth in an oval shaped orbit. The collision may have caused a big chunk of rocky material to be thrown out into space to form the Moon.

6. The Moon is a little lopsided. Its crust is thicker on one side than the other. The Moon is much smaller than the Earth. However, the pull of its gravity can still affect the Earth's ocean tides.

AFRICA Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after

Asia. At about 30,221,532 km² (11,668,545 sq   mi ) including adjacent islands, it covers

6% of the Earth's total surface area, and 20.4% of the total land area.[1] With more than 900 million people (as of 2005)[2] in 61 territories, it accounts for

about 14% of the world's human population.

The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Suez Canal and the Red Sea to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

There are 46 countries including Madagascar, and 53 including all the island groups.

Culture of Africa

Writing systems of Africa

The Writing Systems of Africa

refer to the current and historical practice of written language on the African continent.

The importance of oral culture and tradition in Africa and the recent dominance of European languages through colonialism, among other factors, have often led to the misconception that African languages as a whole either have no written forms, or have been put to writing only very recently.

In fact, Africans have made use of symbols and writing in various ways in different parts of the continent for a long time. Indeed, since the vast majority of writing systems around the world may be traced to origins in Egyptian hieroglyphs, it could reasonably be argued that writing itself is originally an African invention.

Latin script is commonly encountered across the African continent, especially Sub-Saharan Africa. Arabic script is dominant in North Africa and Ge'ez/Ethiopic in the Horn of Africa. Regionally and in some localities other scripts may be of significant importance.

2 Indigenous writing systems 2.1 Ancient Egyptian and Meroitic

Ancient Egyptian and Meroitic

the most famous writing system of the African continent is ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.

These developed later into forms known as Hieratic and Demotic. Still later in ancient history, this system was adapted to the Meroitic script in the upper Nile valley.

2.2 Tifinagh

Tifinagh

Tifinagh alphabet is often assumed to be derived originally from the Phoenician alphabet.

It is still actively used to varying degrees in traditional and modernized forms for writing of Berber languages (Tamazight, Tamashek, etc.) of the Maghreb, Sahara, and Sahel regions

2.3 Ge'ez

Ge'ez script is an abugida that was developed in the Horn of Africa for writing the Ge'ez language.

The script is used today in Ethiopia and Eritrea for Amharic, Tigrinya, Tigre, and several other languages.

It sometimes called Ethiopic, and is known in Ethiopia as the fidel or abugida (the actual origin of the 21st century linguistic term “abugida”, which western linguists apply to scripts of India).

2.4 Osmanya

Osmanya is a writing script for the Somali language invented in the early 20th century by the Sultan of Hobyo's brother, Osman Yuusuf Keenadiid of the Majeerteen clan.

Though no longer the official writing script in Somalia, Osmanya has experienced a resurgence of interest in recent years, as young Somalis have lobbied to reinstate it as the country's national writing script.

2.5 Other

There are various other writing systems native to West Africa and Central Africa

3 Other Indigenous Writing Systems 4 Introduced and adapted writing systems

4.1 Phoenician/Punic

Phoenicians from what is now Lebanon traded with North Africans and founded cities there, the most famous Carthage.

The Phoenician alphabet is thought to be the origin of many others, including: Arabic, Greek and Latin.

The Carthaginian dialect is called Punic.[5] Today's Tifinagh is descended from Punic.

4.2 Greek

Greek alphabet was adapted in Egypt to the Coptic alphabet and language (which is today only a liturgical language).

The latter alphabet was in turn adapted to what is now called the Old Nubian alphabet, with the addition of a few letters derived from ancient Meroitic

4.3 Arabic

Arabic script was introduced into Africa by the spread of Islam and by trade. Apart from its obvious use for the Arabic language, it has been adapted for a

number of other languages over the centuries. The Arabic script is still used in some of these cases, but not in others.

4.4 Latin

Latin script to African languages were probably those of Christian missionaries on the eve of European colonization (Pasch 2008).

These however were isolated, done by people without linguistic training, and sometimes resulted in competing systems for the same or similar languages

Religion in Africa

Religion in Africa is multifaceted. Most Africans adhere to either Christianity or Islam. Islam and Christianity contest which is larger, but many people that are adherents of both religions also practice African traditional religions, with traditions of folk religion or syncretism practised alongside an adherent's Christianity or Islam. [

1 Abrahamic religions

The majority of Africans are adherents of the Abrahamic religions: Islam and Christianity.

Both religions are widespread throughout Africa. These religions are often adapted to African cultural contexts and indigenous belief systems. It was estimated in 2000 that Christians form 45% of Africa's population, and Muslims forming 40.6%.

1.1 Christianity 1.2 Islam 1.3 Judaism

2 Hinduism 3 Traditional religion

Traditional African religion encompasses a wide variety traditional beliefs. Traditional religious customs are sometimes shared by many African societies,

but they are usually unique to specific ethnic groups.

Many African Christians and Muslims maintain some aspects of their traditional religions.

Below are some of the African Traditional religions practiced in West Africa, for example: Rep. Benin, Nigeria, Ghana, amongst others.

1- There is Legba, the god of crossroads, who acts as a messenger to other gods

2- Sango, the god of thunder, who acts and protects its loyal. It is better recognized with red and white attire for worship.

3- Orounmila/Eboh, this god is predominately worshiped in Benin Kingdom, and other cities in Nigeria. Mode of worship includes sacrificing of hen, kola nuts, turtles, white chalk and coconut while making chants in appealing the gods of Orounmila

Antarctica

is Earth's southernmost continent, underlying the South Pole. It is situated in the Antarctica region of the southern hemisphere, almost entirely

south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14.0 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent in area

after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice, which averages at least 1.6

kilometres (1.0 mi) in thickness. On average, Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent, and has the

highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8

inches) along the coast and far less inland. There are no permanent human residents, but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000

people reside at the various research stations scattered across the continent throughout the year. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including penguins, seals, mosses, lichen, and many types of algae.

Climate

Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F)

at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983. For comparison, this is 11 °C colder than subliming dry ice. Antarctica is a frozen

desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 centimeters (4 in) per year, on average.

Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C and −90 °C (−112 °F and −130 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C and 15 °C (41 °F and 59 °F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it.

Australia

Australia refers to both the continent of Australia and the Commonwealth of Australia, the country that comprises the continent, Tasmania, and other nearby islands.

Australia, the world's smallest continent, is in the southern hemisphere and borders both the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.

The Commonwealth of Australia comprises the mainland of the Australian continent, plus the major island of Tasmania,

The neighbouring countries are Indonesia, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea to the north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east.

THE AMERICAS

North America

North America is a continent [1] in the Earth's northern hemisphere and (chiefly) western hemisphere.

It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the south and west by the North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the southeast.

It covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 sq   mi ), about 4.8% of the planet's surface or about 16.5% of its land area. As of July 2007, its population was estimated at nearly 524 million people.

It is the third-largest continent in area, following Asia and Africa, and is fourth in population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. North America and South America are collectively known as the Americas.

South America

South America is the southern part of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with about a quarter in the Northern Hemisphere.

It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean. North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest.

South America was named in 1507 by cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a New World unknown to Europeans.

South America has an area of 17,780,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi), or almost 3.5% of the Earth's surface.

As of 2005, its population was estimated at more than 371,090,000. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America).

EURASIA

Europe

Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of Earth. The westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, it is bounded to the north by the Arctic

Ocean, to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the Mediterranean Sea, to the southeast by the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.

To the east, Europe is generally divided from Asia by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, and by the Caspian Sea.[1]

Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of area, covering about 10,180,000 square kilometres (3,930,000 sq mi) or 2% of the Earth's surface.

Of Europe's 48 countries, Russia is the largest by both area and population, while the Vatican is the smallest.

Europe is the third most populous continent after Asia and Africa with a population of 710,000,000 or about 11% of the world's population.

However, Europe's borders, and population are in dispute, as the term continent can refer to a cultural and political distinction or a physiographic one.

Regions of Europe Central Europe Eastern Europe Northern Europe Southern Europe Western Europe United Nations geoscheme for Europe

Asia

Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent. It covers 8.6% of the Earth's total surface area (or 29.4% of its land area) and,

with almost 4 billion people, it contains more than 60% of the world's current human population.

Chiefly in the eastern and northern hemispheres, Asia is traditionally defined as part of the landmass of Eurasia – with the western portion of the latter occupied by Europe – lying east of the Suez Canal, east of the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas.

It is bounded to the east by the Pacific Ocean, to the south by the Indian Ocean, and to the north by the Arctic Ocean.

Given its size and diversity, Asia – a toponym dating back to classical antiquity – is more a cultural concept incorporating a number of regions and peoples than a homogeneous physical entity [1] [2] (see Subregions of Asia, Asian people).

Regions of Asia Central Asia East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia Subregions of Asia

CHAPTER 2

SOLAR SYSTEM AND THE EARTH

Earth How did life get started on Earth? Where did it come from? Looking out at other planets may give clues to what might have happened once-upon-a-time

on Earth.

When Solar System scientists got together to discuss how Jupiter's mammoth atmospheric storms, Martian soils and evidence of lakes on Venus relate to the search for life's origins, they decided they have only glimpsed what may be Out There. They wanted to do more.

Ancient inner planets. Scientists have discovered that Mars, Earth's nearest planet neighbor, once had more atmosphere. Martian soils show that lakes and deep rivers once covered the Red Planet. Evidence of lakes on Venus suggests that in ancient times the Solar System's inner planets had an abundant water supply -- probably a necessary condition for life.

Large storms seen on Jupiter suggest a natural laboratory for chemical evolution. Scientists also have found oceans of something on Jupiter's satellite Europa.

Such discoveries help trace the origins of Earth, the Solar System and life itself. Interplanetary probes visiting the Sun, Venus Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and its moon Titan may help explain the origin of life.

Earth is the fifth largest planet in the Solar System and the third planet from the Sun.

Earth's atmosphere is made of 77 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen, with traces of argon, carbon dioxide, and water.

Earth is the only planet that has liquid water on its surface. Liquid water covers 71 percent of Earth's surface. The other 29 percent is rock and soil.

White clouds of water vapor hide much of Earth's surface.

Earth has one moon. Earth is 92,960,000 miles from the Sun. The diameter of Earth is 7,926 miles.

Solar System: The Sun

Inner System: Mercury Venus Earth Mars

Outer System: Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto

Other Bodies: Moons Rings Asteroids Comets

SUNThe Sun is the most prominent feature in our solar system. It is the largest object and contains approximately 98% of the total solar system mass. One hundred and nine Earths would be required to fit across the Sun's disk, and its interior could hold over 1.3 million Earths. The Sun's outer visible layer is called the photosphere and has a temperature of

6,000°C (11,000°F). This layer has a mottled appearance due to the turbulent eruptions of energy at the surface.

MercuryWhen men are arrived at the goal, they should not turn back. - Plutarch

Mercury was named by the Romans after the fleet-footed messenger of the gods because it seemed to move more quickly than any other planet. It is the closest planet to the Sun, and second smallest planet in the solar system. Its diameter is 40% smaller than Earth and 40% larger than the Moon. It is even smaller than Jupiter's moon Ganymede and Saturn's moon Titan.

Venus IntroductionAdvance in science comes by laying brick upon brick, not by sudden erection of fairy

palaces.- J. S. Huxley

Venus, the jewel of the sky, was once know by ancient astronomers as the morning star and evening star. Early astronomers once thought Venus to be two separate bodies. Venus, which is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty, is veiled by thick swirling cloud cover. Astronomers refer to Venus as Earth's sister planet

Earth IntroductionMy view of our planet was a glimpse of divinity.

-Edgar Mitchell, USA

From the perspective we get on Earth, our planet appears to be big and sturdy with an endless ocean of air. From space, astronauts often get the impression that the Earth is small with a thin, fragile layer of atmosphere. For a space traveler, the distinguishing Earth features are the blue waters, brown and green land masses and white clouds set against a black background.Many dream of traveling in space and viewing the wonders of the universe. In reality all of us are space travelers. Our spaceship is the planet Earth, traveling at the speed of 108,000 kilometers (67,000 miles) an hour.

Earth is the 3rd planet from the Sun at a distance of about 150 million kilometers (93.2 million miles). It takes 365.256 days for the Earth to travel around the Sun and 23.9345 hours for the Earth rotate a complete revolution. It has a diameter of 12,756 kilometers (7,973 miles), only a few hundred kilometers larger than that of Venus. Our atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and 1 percent other constituents.Earth is the only planet in the solar system known to harbor life.

Mars IntroductionWhere there is no vision, the people perish.

- Proverbs 29:18

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and is commonly referred to as the Red Planet. The rocks, soil and sky have a red or pink hue. The distinct red color was observed by

stargazers throughout history. It was given its name by the Romans in honor of their god of war. Other civilizations have had similar names. The ancient Egyptians named the planet Her Descher meaning the red one.Before space exploration, Mars was considered the best candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life.

JupiterThen felt I like some watcher of the skies when a new planet swims into his ken. - John

Keats

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and is the largest one in the solar system. If Jupiter were hollow, more than one thousand Earths could fit inside. It also contains more matter than all of the other planets combined. It has a mass of 1.9 x 1027 kg and is 142,800 kilometers (88,736 miles) across the equator.Unlike Saturn's intricate and complex ring patterns, Jupiter has a simple ring system that is composed of an inner halo, a main ring and a Gossamer ring.

SaturnIt is difficult to say what is impossible, for the dream of yesterday is the hope of today

and reality of tomorrow.- Robert Goddard

Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and is the second largest in the solar system with an equatorial diameter of 119,300 kilometers (74,130 miles). Much of what is known about the planet is due to the Voyager explorations in 1980-81. Saturn is visibly flattened at the poles, a result of the very fast rotation of the planet on its axis. Its day is 10 hours, 39 minutes long, and it takes 29.5 Earth years to revolve about the Sun. The atmosphere is primarily composed of hydrogen with small amounts of helium and methane. Saturn is the only planet less dense than water (about 30 percent less). In the unlikely event that a large enough ocean could be found, Saturn would float in it. Saturn's hazy yellow hue is marked by broad atmospheric banding similar to, but fainter than, that found on Jupiter.Saturn's ring system makes the planet one of the most beautiful objects in the solar system. The rings are split into a number of different parts, which include the bright A and B rings and a fainter C ring. The ring system has various gaps.

UranusThe important thing is not to stop questioning.

- Albert Einstein

Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun and is the third largest in the solar system. It was discovered by William Herschel in 1781. It has an equatorial diameter of 51,800 kilometers (32,190 miles) and orbits the Sun once every 84.01 Earth years. It has a mean distance from the Sun of 2.87 billion kilometers (1.78 billion miles). It rotates about its axis once every 17 hours 14 minutes. Uranus has at least 22 moons. The two largest moons, Titania and Oberon, were discovered by William Herschel in 1787.

The atmosphere of Uranus is composed of 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, 2% methane and small amounts of acetylene and other hydrocarbons. Methane in the upper atmosphere absorbs red light, giving Uranus its blue-green color

NeptuneIn the long run men hit only what they aim at.

- Thoreau

Neptune is the outermost planet of the gas giants. It has an equatorial diameter of 49,500 kilometers (30,760 miles). If Neptune were hollow, it could contain nearly 60 Earths. Neptune orbits the Sun every 165 years. It has eight moons, six of which were found by Voyager. A day on Neptune is 16 hours and 6.7 minutes. Neptune was discovered on September 23, 1846 by Johann Gottfried Galle, of the Berlin Observatory, and Louis d'Arrest, an astronomy student, through mathematical predictions made by Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier.

The first two thirds of Neptune is composed of a mixture of molten rock, water, liquid ammonia and methane. The outer third is a mixture of heated gases comprised of hydrogen, helium, water and methane. Methane gives Neptune its blue cloud color.Neptune is a dynamic planet with several large, dark spots reminiscent of Jupiter's hurricane-like storms. The largest spot, known as the Great Dark Spot, is about the size of the earth and is similar to the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. Voyager revealed a small, irregularly shaped, eastward-moving cloud scooting around Neptune every 16 hours or so.

Dwarf Planet PlutoCome wander with me, she said,

Into regions yet untrod;And read what is still unreadIn the manuscripts of God.

- Longfellow

Although Pluto was discovered in 1930, limited information on the distant object delayed a realistic understanding of its characteristics. Pluto is the second largest known dwarf planet and tenth largest orbiting the Sun. From its time of discovery in 1930 to 2006 it was considered to be the ninth planet in the solar system, but because additional objects have been discovered including Eris which is 27% more massive, the IAU reclassified Pluto and the other objects as dwarf planets.Pluto is usually farther from the Sun than any of the eight planets; however, due to the eccentricity of its orbit, it is closer than Neptune for 20 years out of its 249 year orbit.

The astronomers have demoted Pluto so there are now only eight planets; Pluto is no longer officially a planet. Now they're calling it a "dwarf planet". Well, it's certainly a dwarf. But planet or not, it's still out there and we can still try to find out what it's made of and how it got there.

Asteroid IntroductionThe future cannot be predicted, but futures can be invented. - Dennis Gabor

Asteroids are rocky and metallic objects that orbit the Sun but are too small to be considered planets. They are known as minor planets. Asteroids range in size from Ceres, which has a diameter of about 1000 km, down to the size of pebbles. Sixteen asteroids have a diameter of 240 km or greater. They have been found inside Earth's orbit to beyond Saturn's orbit. Most, however, are contained within a main belt that exists between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Some have orbits that cross Earth's path and some have even hit the Earth in times past.

Comet Introduction

Comets are small, fragile, irregularly shaped bodies composed of a mixture of non-volatile grains and frozen gases. They have highly elliptical orbits that bring them very close to the Sun and swing them deeply into space, often beyond the orbit of Pluto.

Comet structures are diverse and very dynamic, but they all develop a surrounding cloud of diffuse material, called a coma, that usually grows in size and brightness as the comet approaches the Sun. Usually a small, bright nucleus (less than 10 km in diameter) is visible in the middle of the coma. The coma and the nucleus together constitute the head of the comet.

In this state comets are sometimes referred to as a "dirty iceberg" or "dirty snowball," since over half of their material is ice.

Meteoroids and MeteoritesThe term meteor comes from the Greek meteoron, meaning phenomenon in the sky. It is used to describe the streak of light produced as matter in the solar system falls into Earth's atmosphere creating temporary incandescence resulting from atmospheric friction. This typically occurs at heights of 80 to 110 kilometers (50 to 68 miles) above Earth's surface. The term is also used loosely with the word meteroid referring to the particle itself without relation to the phenomena it produces when entering the Earth's atmosphere. A meteoroid is matter revolving around the sun or any object in interplanetary space that is too small to be called an asteroid or a comet. Even smaller particles are called micrometeoroids or cosmic dust grains, which includes any interstellar material that should happen to enter our solar system. A meteorite is a meteoroid that reaches the surface of the Earth without being completely vaporized.Meteorites have proven difficult to classify, but the three broadest groupings are stony, stony iron, and iron. The most common meteorites are chondrites, which are stony meteorites.

The ContinentsA continent is one of several large landmasses on Earth.

Seven areas are commonly regarded as continents. They are:

1. Africa2. Antarctica3. AustraliaThe Americas: 4. List of basic North America topics5. List of basic South America topicsEurasia: 6. Europe7. Asia

3. GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT

Geographical features

Regions are further differentiated by virtue of being geographical features, or by the geographical features in them (or both). A geographical feature is a landform, a body of water, or an artificial creation large enough to show up on a regional map.

Natural geographical features

Features of the World that are naturally occurring:

LandformsMain article: Landform

A landform is part of the terrain, defined by its shape and location in the landscape, and is typically an element of topography. Landforms are characterized by aspects such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. Examples of landforms:

Arch Arroyo Badlands . Beach Canyon Cave Cove Cliff Coast Coral reef Crater, impact Crater, volcanic Cuesta Dell Delta Desert Escarpment Forest Geyser Glacier Grassland Gulch Headland

o Cape Hill

o Dune o Foothills

Hoodoo Island

o Archipelago o Atoll o Islet o Volcanic arc

Highland

Isthmus Landmass

o Continent o Large island o Supercontinent

Lowland Meadow Mesa Mountain Mountain pass Mountain range Moraine Pingo Plain

o Prairie o Savanna o Steppe o Tundra

Plateau Presque-isle Promontory Peninsula Reef Ridge Sandbar Spit Subterranea Valley (also vale, or

dale) o Cirque o Gully o Ravine

Volcano

Watershed

Bodies of waterMain article: Body of water

A body of water is any significant accumulation of water on a geographical scale. Some bodies of water can be man-made, but most are naturally occurring. Some bodies of water collect and move water, such as rivers and streams, and others primarily hold water, such as lakes and oceans. Bodies of water that are navigable are known as waterways.

Channel Geyser Inlet

o Bay Gulf Sound

o Cove o Estuary o Firth

River Sea Source of a river Spring Strait Stream Tide pool Vernal pool Waterfall

o Fjord Lagoon Lake

o Oxbow lake Loch Ocean

Pond

Waterway Wetland

o Bog o Fen o Marsh o Mudflat

o Swamp

Manmade geographical features

Manmade geographical features, artificial creations large enough that they may show up on a regional map,:

Airport Aqueduct Artificial dwelling hill Artificial island Artificial reef Breakwater Bridge Canal Causeway Dam

o Dike Levee

Farm Manmade harbor Marina Nation National park Nature reserve Orchard Park Pier

Pipeline

Port Railway Ranch Reservoir Road

o Highway o Race track o Street

Settlement o Village o Town o City o Megalopolis

Subsidence crater Ski resort Train station Tree farm Tunnel Viaduct Wharf

Wildlife reserve

AFRICA Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after

Asia. At about 30,221,532 km² (11,668,545 sq   mi ) including adjacent islands, it covers

6% of the Earth's total surface area, and 20.4% of the total land area.[1] With more than 900 million people (as of 2005)[2] in 61 territories, it accounts for

about 14% of the world's human population. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Suez

Canal and the Red Sea to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

There are 46 countries including Madagascar, and 53 including all the island groups.

List of the largest metropolitan areas in Africa

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia  (Redirected from List of most populous cities in Africa)

Countries of AfricaMain article: List of African countries

West Africa Benin Burkina Faso Cape Verde Côte d'Ivoire The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo

North Africa Algeria Egypt 1

Libya

Mauritania Morocco Sudan Tunisia Western Sahara

Central Africa Angola Burundi Cameroon Central African Republic Chad Democratic Republic of the Congo Equatorial Guinea Gabon Republic of the Congo Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe

East Africa Burundi Comoros Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Madagascar Malawi Mauritius Mozambique Rwanda Seychelles Somalia Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe

Southern Africa Botswana Lesotho Namibia South Africa Swaziland

References

1. ̂ Sayre, April Pulley. (1999) Africa, Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-1367-2.

2. ̂ "World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision" United Nations (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, population division)

Culture of Africa

Writing systems of Africa

The Writing Systems of Africa

refer to the current and historical practice of written language on the African continent.

The importance of oral culture and tradition in Africa and the recent dominance of European languages through colonialism, among other factors, have often led to the misconception that African languages as a whole either have no written forms, or have been put to writing only very recently.

In fact, Africans have made use of symbols and writing in various ways in different parts of the continent for a long time. Indeed, since the vast majority of writing systems around the world may be traced to origins in Egyptian hieroglyphs, it could reasonably be argued that writing itself is originally an African invention.

Latin script is commonly encountered across the African continent, especially Sub-Saharan Africa. Arabic script is dominant in North Africa and Ge'ez/Ethiopic in the Horn of Africa. Regionally and in some localities other scripts may be of significant importance.

2 Indigenous writing systems 2.1 Ancient Egyptian and Meroitic

Ancient Egyptian and Meroitic

the most famous writing system of the African continent is ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.

These developed later into forms known as Hieratic and Demotic. Still later in ancient history, this system was adapted to the Meroitic script in the upper Nile valley.

2.2 Tifinagh

Tifinagh

Tifinagh alphabet is often assumed to be derived originally from the Phoenician alphabet.

It is still actively used to varying degrees in traditional and modernized forms for writing of Berber languages (Tamazight, Tamashek, etc.) of the Maghreb, Sahara, and Sahel regions

2.3 Ge'ez

Ge'ez script is an abugida that was developed in the Horn of Africa for writing the Ge'ez language.

The script is used today in Ethiopia and Eritrea for Amharic, Tigrinya, Tigre, and several other languages.

It sometimes called Ethiopic, and is known in Ethiopia as the fidel or abugida (the actual origin of the 21st century linguistic term “abugida”, which western linguists apply to scripts of India).

2.4 Osmanya

Osmanya is a writing script for the Somali language invented in the early 20th century by the Sultan of Hobyo's brother, Osman Yuusuf Keenadiid of the Majeerteen clan.

Though no longer the official writing script in Somalia, Osmanya has experienced a resurgence of interest in recent years, as young Somalis have lobbied to reinstate it as the country's national writing script.

2.5 Other

There are various other writing systems native to West Africa and Central Africa

3 Other Indigenous Writing Systems 4 Introduced and adapted writing systems

4.1 Phoenician/Punic

Phoenicians from what is now Lebanon traded with North Africans and founded cities there, the most famous Carthage.

The Phoenician alphabet is thought to be the origin of many others, including: Arabic, Greek and Latin.

The Carthaginian dialect is called Punic.[5] Today's Tifinagh is descended from Punic.

4.2 Greek

Greek alphabet was adapted in Egypt to the Coptic alphabet and language (which is today only a liturgical language).

The latter alphabet was in turn adapted to what is now called the Old Nubian alphabet, with the addition of a few letters derived from ancient Meroitic

4.3 Arabic

Arabic script was introduced into Africa by the spread of Islam and by trade. Apart from its obvious use for the Arabic language, it has been adapted for a

number of other languages over the centuries. The Arabic script is still used in some of these cases, but not in others.

4.4 Latin

Latin script to African languages were probably those of Christian missionaries on the eve of European colonization (Pasch 2008).

These however were isolated, done by people without linguistic training, and sometimes resulted in competing systems for the same or similar languages

Religion in Africa

Religion in Africa is multifaceted. Most Africans adhere to either Christianity or Islam. Islam and Christianity contest which is larger, but many people that are adherents of both religions also practice African traditional religions, with traditions of folk religion or syncretism practised alongside an adherent's Christianity or Islam. [

1 Abrahamic religions

The majority of Africans are adherents of the Abrahamic religions: Islam and Christianity.

Both religions are widespread throughout Africa. These religions are often adapted to African cultural contexts and indigenous belief systems. It was estimated in 2000 that Christians form 45% of Africa's population, and Muslims forming 40.6%.

1.1 Christianity 1.2 Islam 1.3 Judaism

2 Hinduism 3 Traditional religion

Traditional African religion encompasses a wide variety traditional beliefs. Traditional religious customs are sometimes shared by many African societies,

but they are usually unique to specific ethnic groups.

Many African Christians and Muslims maintain some aspects of their traditional religions.

Below are some of the African Traditional religions practiced in West Africa, for example: Rep. Benin, Nigeria, Ghana, amongst others.

1- There is Legba, the god of crossroads, who acts as a messenger to other gods

2- Sango, the god of thunder, who acts and protects its loyal. It is better recognized with red and white attire for worship.

3- Orounmila/Eboh, this god is predominately worshiped in Benin Kingdom, and other cities in Nigeria. Mode of worship includes sacrificing of hen, kola nuts, turtles, white chalk and coconut while making chants in appealing the gods of Orounmila

Antarctica is Earth's southernmost continent, underlying the South Pole. It is situated in the Antarctica region of the southern hemisphere, almost entirely

south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14.0 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent in area

after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice, which averages at least 1.6

kilometres (1.0 mi) in thickness. On average, Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent, and has the

highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8

inches) along the coast and far less inland. There are no permanent human residents, but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000

people reside at the various research stations scattered across the continent throughout the year. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including penguins, seals, mosses, lichen, and many types of algae.

Climate

Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F)

at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983. For comparison, this is 11 °C colder than subliming dry ice. Antarctica is a frozen

desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 centimeters (4 in) per year, on average.

Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C and −90 °C (−112 °F and −130 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C and 15 °C (41 °F and 59 °F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it.

Australia

Australia refers to both the continent of Australia and the Commonwealth of Australia, the country that comprises the continent, Tasmania, and other nearby islands.

Australia, the world's smallest continent, is in the southern hemisphere and borders both the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.

The Commonwealth of Australia comprises the mainland of the Australian continent, plus the major island of Tasmania,

The neighbouring countries are Indonesia, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea to the north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east.

THE AMERICAS

North America North America is a continent [1] in the Earth's northern hemisphere and (chiefly)

western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic

Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the south and west by the North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the southeast.

It covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 sq   mi ), about 4.8% of the planet's surface or about 16.5% of its land area. As of July 2007, its population was estimated at nearly 524 million people.

It is the third-largest continent in area, following Asia and Africa, and is fourth in population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. North America and South America are collectively known as the Americas.

South America

South America is the southern part of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with about a quarter in the Northern Hemisphere.

It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean. North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest.

South America was named in 1507 by cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a New World unknown to Europeans.

South America has an area of 17,780,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi), or almost 3.5% of the Earth's surface.

As of 2005, its population was estimated at more than 371,090,000. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America).

EURASIA

Europe

Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of Earth. The westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, it is bounded to the north by the Arctic

Ocean, to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the Mediterranean Sea, to the southeast by the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.

To the east, Europe is generally divided from Asia by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, and by the Caspian Sea.[1]

Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of area, covering about 10,180,000 square kilometres (3,930,000 sq mi) or 2% of the Earth's surface.

Of Europe's 48 countries, Russia is the largest by both area and population, while the Vatican is the smallest.

Europe is the third most populous continent after Asia and Africa with a population of 710,000,000 or about 11% of the world's population.

However, Europe's borders, and population are in dispute, as the term continent can refer to a cultural and political distinction or a physiographic one.

Regions of Europe Central Europe

Eastern Europe Northern Europe Southern Europe Western Europe United Nations geoscheme for Europe

Asia Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent. It covers 8.6% of the Earth's total surface area (or 29.4% of its land area) and,

with almost 4 billion people, it contains more than 60% of the world's current human population.

Chiefly in the eastern and northern hemispheres, Asia is traditionally defined as part of the landmass of Eurasia – with the western portion of the latter occupied by Europe – lying east of the Suez Canal, east of the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas.

It is bounded to the east by the Pacific Ocean, to the south by the Indian Ocean, and to the north by the Arctic Ocean.

Given its size and diversity, Asia – a toponym dating back to classical antiquity – is more a cultural concept incorporating a number of regions and peoples than a homogeneous physical entity [1] [2] (see Subregions of Asia, Asian people).

Regions of Asia Central Asia East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia Subregions of Asia

CONTINENTS:

Asia: Located in the Eastern and Northern Hemispheres. Largest continent with 17,400 square miles.

Africa: Located in the Eastern and Northern & Southern Hemispheres. Second largest continent with 11,700 square miles.

North America: Located in the Western and Northern Hemispheres with 9,400 square miles.

South America: Located in the Western and Southern Hemispheres with 6,900 square miles.

Europe: Located in the Eastern and Northern Hemispheres with 3,800 square miles.

Australia: Located in the Eastern and Southern Hemispheres with 3,300 square miles.  

Antarctica: Located in the Eastern, Western and Southern Hemispheres with 5,400 square miles.

CLIMATE

Climate is how hot or cold it is in a certain place over a long period of time. It differs from weather in that weather is a measure of how hot or cold it is over a short period of time.

Climate is affected by several factors:

Latitude - How far a place is from the equator. The nearer a location is to the equator, the hotter it will tend to be and vice versa.

Altitude - How high a place is above sea level. Places high above sea level are cooler than those near sea level.

Oceans - Ocean waters don't change temperature as quickly as land areas do. Thus land near oceans is warmer in winter and cooler in summers.

Climates can vary not only in temperature but in how much precipitation the place receives. Precipitation is the amount of water in the form of rain, snow, sleet,etc. that falls from the sky. An area with little precipitation has a dry or arid climate.

There are three basic climate zones.

Tropical climate zone. This is an area that falls between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. This area has hot climates all year long.

Temperate Climate Zone - These areas are between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle and between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle. The climate in these areas is warm in the summer and cold in the winter.

Polar Climate Zone - These areas are at either pole below the Antarctic Circle and above the Arctic Circle. The winters are very cold and the summers cool to cold.

Climate Quiz

Pick out the correct answer to the following questions:

1. Climate is:

How hot or cold it is in a place over a long period of time.

How hot or cold it is in a place over a short period of time.

How high a place is above sea level.

2. All of these affect climate except:

Latitude

Altitude

Population

3. Precipitation is

How hot or cold it is in a place over a short period of time

The amount of water that falls from the sky in the form of rain, snow, etc..

How high a place is above sea level.

4. A tropical climate is:

Very cold

Very hot

Cold in winter and warm in summer

5. A polar climate is

Very cold

Very hot

Cold in winter and warm in summer

6. A temperate climate is

Very cold

Very hot

Cold in winter and warm in summer

7. The word arid means

Extra dry

Extra hot

Extra cold

Latitude

Latitude is the measure of how far north or south a location is from the equator. Latitude is measure in degrees. Each half of the earth or hemisphere is 180 degrees. Dividing that number in half, locations are between 0 and 90 degrees north or south of the equator. The equator is at 0 degrees latitude and is stretches the diameter of the earth. Latitude lines are imaginary lines that are marked every twenty degrees north and south of the equator.

The latitude of an area is one factor in the kind of climate the area might have. If an area is located close to the equator, the climate will be very hot, or tropical.

As one gets above the Tropic of Cancer or Capricorn, the climate becomes milder, with hot summers and cold winters This is defined as temperate climate.

At the points furthest away from the equator, the climate is cold and is called polar.

Longitude

Longitude is a measure of how far east or west a place is from the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian is in Greenwich England and is an arbitrary place from which longitude is measured. The longitude lines or meridians as they are sometimes called are imaginary lines every 20 degrees east or west of the Prime Meridian.

While the latitude of a particular location affects its climate, the longitude can determine the time zone a particular location is in. 

When latitude and longitude lines are overlaid on each other, they form a grid. If one knows the latitude and longitude of a place, it is possible to locate that place on a globe or map.

Latitude and Longitude Quiz

1.The measure of how far north or south a place is from the equator is

Latitude

Longitude

Prime Meridian

2. The measure of how far east or west of the Prime Meridian a place is located is

Latitude

Longitude

Equator

3.The latitude line at 0 degrees latitude is

The equator

The Prime Meridian

The Tropic of Cancer

4. The line at 0 degrees longitude is

The equator

The Prime Meridian

The Tropic of Capricorn

5. How far a location is from the equator effects

The time zone the place is in

The climate of the area

When it is day and when it is night

6. The longitude of a place or how far it is from the Prime Meridian effects

The time zone a place is in

How much rainfall a place receives

The climate of the area

7 The closer to the equator a place is

The colder it is

The hotter it is

The more money people have

8. Latitude and longitude are measured in

Degrees

Pounds

Acres

 Earth

How the Earth Formed

The earth was formed in the same way as the sun, planets, stars. At first the earth was a hot glowing ball of white hot gases with a temperature that was millions of degrees Fahrenheit. This was caused by particles of gases being drawn together and compressed, giving off a lot of heat. This happened millions of years ago.

Finally the earth cooled down. The ball of gas slowed down from spinning and the color changed from white to yellow to red to not giving off any light at all.

The earth contracted, getting smaller and the gases changed to liquid as they cooled. Heavier materials drew to the center of the earth. The heavier liquid settled at the middle of the earth. As the earth cooled more, a solid crust formed over the over the liquid material. As the crust cooled, it got wrinkled and burst open in spots. Gradually cracks formed in the crust. Water that formed under the earth's crust escaped from the cracks in the earth and soon water vapor formed above the earth. This lead to cloud formation. Larger droplets formed in the clouds and as they were pulled to the earth by gravity came the first rainfalls. The rain at first evaporated as soon as it hit the earth. Later, as the earth continued to cool, the rain stayed on to form lakes and oceans. At first the water was all fresh water, but as it had chemicals from the earth's crust mix in, the water of the oceans became salty. At one time the earth was all water on its surface.

Later pressure and heat in its center pushed up solid portions of the earth that became land forms. Sometimes the land would sink back down and other portions arise.

About three million years ago, the earth cooled a great deal and great sheets of ice called glaciers covered its surface. As the ice spread over the land, it gouged great valleys, rivers and lakes into the earth. About 8000 years ago the last glaciers melted, with the earth more as it is today.

Layers of the Earth

The part of the earth we live on is a very thin layer relative to the inner earth. Looking at the cutaway earth below, the earth has several layers.

The innermost layer is the core of the earth. It is about 4000 miles thick. It has two parts, the inner core which is red on the diagram below and the outer core which is melon colored. The inner core is very hot is very hot and made of heavy metals, mostly iron.

The next layer which is yellowish in color is the mantle. It is made up of a rock called peridodite which is heavier than the earth's rocks.

The layer that we live on is called the crust and is the thin brown layer on the diagram. It is thickest under the continents and thinner under the oceans. It is about 50 miles down at its thickest. The crust is actually not as solid as it feels to us and shifts, sometimes abruptly during earthquakes, and very slowly as when continents drift. The different pieces of the earth's crust are referred to as plates, and their movements towards and away from each other are called plate tectonics.

 The earth's age has been estimated to be between 4 and 5 billion years old.

Earth Quiz

Choose the radio button in front of the correct answer

1. An earthquake is formed when

A meteor strikes the earth

Huge blocks or rocks along a fault sometimes have a sudden movement and assume a new position.

A hurricane or other weather disturbance occurs.

2. A fault is

A huge boulder

A crack in the earth

A tidal wave caused by an earthquake

3. Which of these is not an area where earthquakes regularly occur.

Antarctica

Along the Mediterranean

In a circle around the Pacific Ocean

4. A tsunami is

A crack in the earth

An earthquake that occurs under water

An instrument that measures how severe an earthquake is

5. A seismograph is

An instrument that measures how severe an earthquake is

A crack in the earth

A tidal wave

MAPS

A map is literally a picture or drawing of a place. Just like photos or drawings of animals, people and other things, a map can be a picture of a place really up close or really far away, but almost always from above the area shown. Pictures can be of different types - photos, watercolors, digital or computer art, 3D, etc.. There are also many types of maps that like a picture, highlight certain features of a place.

All maps have certain characteristics in common. Every map uses symbols. A symbol is a graphic, color dot, line, etc. that stands for something else on a map. The symbols are explained in a map key or map legend.

To learn some of the different types of maps and map features, click on the following:

Directions Political Maps Physical/Elevation Maps Historical Map Aerial Maps Weather Maps Road Maps Grids Latitude and Longitude Globes

 

Directions & Distance

In order to find where you are going and how far away it is, you need to know what direction you are going and need to be able to figure the distance between the place you are and the place you are going. One important device that can help you with that is a compass. A compass, as pictured below, is a device that helps the user know what direction one is headed.

The earth actually behaves as a giant magnet with a north magnetic pole and a south magnetic pole. If a magnet is allowed to swing freely on a string, it will eventually line up in a north-south position in alignment with the north and south poles of the earth, although slightly to one side of the poles.

The needle on a compass is magnetized to point to the earth's north magnetic pole. Thus with a compass, a person can roughly tell which direction they are headed.

There are four major or cardinal directions on a compass- north, south, east & west. In between are the directions northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest.

Below is a model of a compass and the cardinal directions indicated.

 

Northwest (NW) North (N) Northeast (NE) 

West(W)East (E)

Southwest (SW) South (S) Southeast (SE)

 

Measuring distance on a map is done with a map scale. Since a map is basically a drawing of a place, it is much, much smaller than that actual place. In order to know how far distances on a map are equal to on the ground, it is necessary to use a map scale. The map scale shows for example, how many miles an inch is equal to on a map. On the map below, the mainland United States would be about 3000 miles across from coast to coast since the United States measures 3 inches across and 3 inches equals 1000 miles.

Directions - Compass Quiz

Directions and Distance Quiz

1. The earth behaves as a giant magnet and has a magnetic field.

True

False

2. A device that helps a user determine direction is a

Compass

Ruler

Map scale

3. In order to find out what distances on the map are equal to on the ground, one should use a

Compass

Magnet

Map scale

Political Maps

Political maps are maps that have to do with government. They show where the boundaries and locations of countries, states, cities, towns and

counties are. These boundaries and locations are generally determined by people rather than nature.

Countries are parts of continents with their own central government, sometimes referred to as nations.

States are a unit or part of a country, such as the United States, that have a federal government. Federal means that powers are shared between the states and national government. Capitals are the seats of government for states or where the government of a state takes place.

Counties are the parts in which a state is divided for purposes of government. In some states such as Louisiana these divisions are referred to as parishes. The county seat is the city or town in which the governing of the county takes place.

Cities are the parts of states with great concentrations of people living and/or working there.

Physical Maps

Physical/Elevation/Topographic/Relief Maps show how high or low places are, generally in relation to sea level. They are of value not only for this, but also to help determine the climate of an area. Below is a shaded relief map of the United States. There are several important terms that relate to these kinds of maps:

Historical Maps

Historical maps are maps from the past that are valuable for learning how events unfolded many years ago relative to a place's geography and allow us to compare the changes in an area over time. For example, the map below shows the United States in 1783. Besides noticing how much different the size and shape of the country is, one can notice how the map is not as colorful as maps today, with fewer graphics.

Aerial Maps

Aerial maps, as their name would suggest, are photo maps taken from up in the air. Many times they can be satellite maps. By looking at aerial maps over time, one can see changes that took place in an area. Unfortunately, aerial maps have a much shorter history than other maps as the history of aviation and photography is much shorter than that of cartography or the making of maps.

One great source of aerial maps is the Microsoft Terra Server that was created in partnership with the USGS. It is one of the world's largest servers containing digitized images. Many of the images were declassified spy satellite pictures from the Cold War!

Weather Maps

Weather maps are maps that show predictions of coming weather or report on weather that is actually happening. Weather is how hot or cold or how wet or dry it is in a location over a short period of time.

There are a number of factors that affect weather. These factors are similar to those that affect climate. They are:

How far a place is from the equator. How high a place is above sea level Which side of a mountain a place is located If a place is inland or near water

A weather map will show the viewer on the map and in the map key and legend:

The high and low temperatures Cloud cover in an area The precipitation - how much rain, snow, other water forms that fall

from the sky The wind speed, wind direction and wind chill (the temperature with

the wind factored in) The humidity of an area - how much water vapor is in the air or how

damp it is Oncoming weather conditions

Road Maps

Road maps show where roads, highways, routes, etc. are. The more a user zooms in on a map the more detailed the map is as to local roads, routes, etc.. Below is a map of major interstate highways in the United States.

 

Grids

One way to find the exact location of a place is to use a grid. A grid generally resembles graph paper with lines going horizontally and vertically forming little boxes. The row going across and the column going down generally contain letters and or numbers. These help to locate or pinpoint where a place is located.

On a map or globe, these horizontal and vertical lines are called latitude and longitude lines. The lines of latitude are numbered from 0 to 90 and are either north or south, depending if they are north or south of the equator. The lines of longitude are numbered 0 to 180 and are either east or west, depending how far they are from the prime meridian.

A globe is a round model of the earth. A globe is in the shape of a sphere which is a three dimensional round space figure.

Half of the globe is a hemisphere. There are four hemispheres on the earth. They are the Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western Hemisphere. Most places are located in two out of the four hemispheres, and if they cross the equator, three hemispheres. A continent such as Africa would be such a place.

 

  Northern Hemisphere:The top two quarters

 

The Western Hemisphere:The left two

quarters

The Eastern Hemisphere:

The right two quarters

  The Southern Hemisphere:The bottom two quarters

 

 

The dividing point for the Northern and Southern hemispheres is the equator which runs through the middle of the sphere at 0 degrees latitude.

A globe demonstrates the earth rotating on its axis which is an imaginary line through the middle of the earth. Rotation is what causes day and night as the earth shows a different part of its surface to the sun as it turns on its axis.

Globes Quiz

Click on the radio button in front of the correct answer

1. A round model of the earth is

A hemisphere

A globe

A rotation

2. A round, three dimensional space figure is a

Hemisphere

Rotation

Sphere

3. The dividing line for the Northern and Southern hemispheres is

The equator

The Prime Meridian

The Arctic Circle

4. The imaginary line that the earth spins around is

A sphere

A globe

An axis

5. Rotation of the earth on its axis causes

The seasons

Day and night

Meteor showers

GLOBE

 Well, the other way of portraying graphical spatial information is using a globe. You can't fold up globes. They are hard to put in your pocket. Plus, what do if you want to know the location of a street in a city. Make the globe, really big or have like a section of the globe. You get my point. Globes are the most accurate depiction of things on the surface of the earth. However, they are not practical for transportation purposes and other purposes.

Therefore, the idea of putting spatial information on a flat surface was developed. But, you know what happens when you represent a sphere on a plane? You get distortion. It is like putting"a square peg in a round hole". So maps take the aspects of sphere and portray spatial information to minimize certain aspects of distortion depending upon the type of the map. There is not one map, at least to my knowledge, that does not have some type of distortion.