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Page 1: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Gene and Genome and Chromosomes

School of Life Science

Shandong University

Page 2: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Ch7&20: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes

1. Gene & Genome

2. Chromosomes

3. HGP —human genome project

Page 3: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Gene:A gene is a sequence of DNA that codes for a diffusible(可扩散的) product. This product may be protein (as in the case of the majority of genes) or may be RNA (as in the case of genes that code for tRNA and rRNA etc.).

1. Gene & Genome

1.1. The concept of Gene and Genome

Page 4: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

基因是可以转录成RNA所必须的全部DNA片段,

分为编码区及调控区。

编码区:编码蛋白的基因中翻译成蛋白质的那部

分核苷酸序列称可读框(open reading frame,

ORF)。ORF始于起始密码子(initiation codon), 终止

于终止密码子(termination codon)。

调控区:起调控作用的DNA序列,一般位于ORF

的上游(upstream)或真核生物中也可位于下游

(downstream)。

Page 5: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Genome (基因组) is the complete set of sequences in the genetic material of an organism. It includes the sequence of each chromosome plus any DNA in organelles (细胞器).

基因组携带着构成和维持该生物体生命形式所必需的一套完整的生物信息(biological information) 。

真核生物基因组分为两部分,细胞核基因组和细胞器基因组。 质粒,由于不是其生命活动所必需的,因而不包含在基因组的概念中。

单倍体Haploid

Page 6: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Genome: all DNA sequences in a cell

Genes: a stretch of continuous DNA sequence encoding a protein or RNA

基因是可以转录成RNA的基因组片段

并不是真正意义上的整体和局部的关系

Page 7: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

106 106

bp is an abbreviation for base pairs; distance along DNA is measured in bp. 103=kb,106=Mb

不同生物基因组大小

基因组的大小用全部DNA的碱基对总数表示

Page 8: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

a) 基因组很小,大多只有一条染色体,且结构简炼

b) 蛋白质基因通常以单拷贝的形式存在;蛋白质基因内没有内含子

c) RNA基因通常是多拷贝的,为中度重复序列

1.2. 原核生物基因组的结构特点

d) 操纵子(operon)是原核生物基因组的遗传组成基本特点

e) 有重叠基因(Overlapping Genes)

f) 多顺反子mRNA(polycistronic mRNA)——包括不止一条基因编码区的mRNA,各自含有独立的起始及终止密码子

Page 9: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control elements in DNA recognized by regulator gene product.

Operator(操纵元件) is the site on DNA at which a repressor protein binds to prevent transcription form initiating at the adjacent promoter.

操纵子(operon)是原核生物基因组的遗传组成基本特点

Page 10: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

a) 真核生物基因组DNA在细胞核内处于以核小体为基本单位的染色体结构中

b) 真核基因组结构庞大--3×109 bp

c) 真核基因组中,编码序列只占整个基因组的很小部分,且复杂性高的生物基因密度低

d) 单顺反子mRNA(monocistronic) e) 基因不连续性 断裂基因(interrupted

gene)、内含子(intron)、 外显子(exon) f) 含有大量重复序列

1.3. 真核生物基因组的结构特点

Page 11: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

p140 Figure 7-2

Comparison of chromosomal gene density for different organisms

The E. coli genome is composed almost entirely of genes. More complex organnisms have decreased gene density.

Page 12: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control
Page 13: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

1.4. Overlapping Genes---- Two genes may

share or partially share the same DNA sequence

Page 14: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

a) by reading the DNA in different frames.

gly

GTT TAT GGT A

val tyr

met val gene E

geneD

b) 相邻基因的终止位点和起始位点重叠 ATGA

终止密码

起始密码

Page 15: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

c) Two proteins can be generated from a single gene by starting (or terminating) expression at different points. ----misreading

Page 16: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

d) Selection different start condon or stop codon

SV40

e) Genes-within-gene(嵌套基因)

一个基因位于另一个基因的内含子中——真核生物特有

Page 17: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

g) 反向重叠基因——DNA双链都转录,密码读框方向不同。

Template DNA 2

Template DNA 1

f) 真核生物内含子的选择性剪切,从某种意义上讲也是重叠基因的一种

Page 18: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

在结构基因中,编码某一蛋白的各个外显子不连续的排列在一起,常常被长度不等的内含子所隔离,称为断裂基因 (split gene ) 。

Exon is any segment of an interrupted gene that is represented in the mature RNA product.

Intron is a segment of DNA that is transcribed, but removed from within the transcript by splicing together the sequences (exons) on either side of it.

The mRNA has only the sequences of the exons.

1.5. Split ( interrupted ) gene

RNA splicing——Ch13

P141, Figure 7-3

Page 19: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

鸡卵清蛋白mRNA与DNA杂交的电镜照片及基因示意图

表明该片断中有7个内含子

Page 20: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

GT-AG( GU-AG)规律 :几乎每个内含子5’端起始的

两个碱基都是GT,而3 ’端最后两个碱基都是AG,

外显子与内含子的连接区是指外显子和内含子的交界或称边界序列,它有两个重要特征: a) 内含子的两端序列之间没有广泛的同源性 b) 连接区序列很短,高度保守,是RNA剪接的信号序列 5'GT——AG 3'

外显子与内含子的连接区

由于这两个碱基的高度保守性和广泛性,因而称为GT-AG( GU-AG )规律。

Page 21: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

断裂基因的基本共性: 外显子部分在DNA及成熟mRNA中的序列是相同的; 断裂基因在不同组织细胞中有相同的内含子成分; 大多数内含子发生突变不影响蛋白质的结构,但有列外;

断裂基因存在的普遍性: 真核生物中大多数基因,包括rRNA、tDNA基因也是断裂基因; 真核生物线粒体、叶绿体基因组也存在断裂基因; 少数原核生物基因也有断裂基因的存在;

真核生物基因也不一定全是断裂基因,在酿酒酵母中的大部分基因不是断裂基因。

Page 22: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Most genes are uninterrupted in yeast, but most genes are interrupted in flies and mammals. (Uninterrupted genes have only 1 exon.)

Page 23: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Introns early—认为内含子进化较早并

逐渐从原核生物基因中消失的假说。

The "introns early" model supposes that introns have always been an integral part of the gene. Genes originated as interrupted structures, and those without introns have lost them in the course of evolution.

Introns late—认为内含子进化较晚并逐渐在

真核生物基因组中积累的假说。

The "introns late" model supposes that the ancestral protein-coding units consisted of uninterrupted sequences of DNA. Introns were subsequently inserted into them.

How did interrupted genes evolve?

Page 24: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

1.6. Jumpping gene(Transposable element)

Barbara McClintock

Transposition of DNA——Ch11

Transposable elements are sequence that can “move” from one place in the genome to another.

Page 25: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

真核生物基因组中有许多来源相同、结构相似、功能相关的基因,这样的一组基因称为一个基因家族。一个基因家族中的成员可以紧密地集中在一条染色体上,中间常以中度重复序列相隔;也可以分散在不同的染色体上。基因家族

1.7. Gene family

——(进化)

可能由某一共同祖先基因(ancestral gene)经重复(duplication)和突变产生。

在进化过程中,保持了序列的一致性。

Page 26: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

基因家族的特点: ①基因家族的成员可以串联排列在一起,形成基因簇(gene cluster)或串联重复基因(tandemly repeated genes),如rRNA、tRNA和组蛋白的基因; ②有些基因家族的成员也可位于不同的染色体上,如珠蛋白(globin)基因; ③有些成员不产生有功能的基因产物,这种基因称为假基因 (Pseudogene).

Page 27: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

简单多基因家族——简单多基因家族中的基因一般以串联方式前后相连。

The eukaryotic ribosomal DNA repeating unit

Page 28: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

复杂多基因家族一般由几个相关基因家族构成,

基因家族之间由间隔序列隔开,并作为独立的转录单位——基因簇(gene cluster)。现已发现存在不同形式的复杂多基因家族。

Organization of histone genes in the animal genome

Page 29: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

基因簇(gene cluster)

一个基因家族成员紧密连锁成簇状排列在某一染色体上,称之为基因簇。在人类基因组中有12个大的基因簇,如组蛋白基因簇。 组蛋白基因簇的特点:30-40copy. 重复单位:H1,H2A,H2B,H3、H4 无intron,Poly(A)- RNA.

H1 H4 H2B H3 H2A

海胆(R) 6000bp

海胆(S) 6540bp

海胆(L) 7240bp H1 H3 H4 H2A H2B

果蝇 4800bp

H1 H3 H2B H2A H4

蝾螈 9000bp

图 10-31组蛋白基因簇的重复单位

图例: 基因; 间隔区; 转录方向

Page 30: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Pseudogene(假基因): 在多基因家族中,某些成员并不产生有功能的基因产物,但其结构和功能基因具有相似性,这些基因称为假基因。来源于功能基因但已失去活性的DNA序列。

第一类假基因称为常规假基因(conventional pseudogene)是

由重复产生的假基因,位置一般与起源基因拷贝邻近,保留祖先基因的特点。

第二类假基因称为加工假基因(processed pseudogenes)。这类假基因由RNA反转录为cDNA后再整合到基因组中。它们

与第一类假基因的区别有:不含原来基因的内含子以及两侧序列;分散在整个基因组中,很少与起源基因邻近排列;大多数为5’残缺。

第三类假基因为残缺基因(truncated gene),它们缺失了或

长或短的基因片段,常常位于基因家族内部,由不等交换及

重排产生。

Page 31: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

加工假基因的起源

P144, Figure 7-5

Page 32: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

A truncated gene (残缺基因) and a gene fragment

Page 33: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

超基因家族(Supergene family ,Superfamily)

是DNA序列相似,结构上有程

度不等的同源性,但功能不一定相关的若干个单拷贝基因或若干组基因家族的总称。

Page 34: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

支原体

The total amount of DNA in the haploid genome is a characteristic of each living species known as its C-value.

一般地,随着生物结构和功能复杂程度的增加,而C值变大。

两栖类

a) 真核生物基因组的C值与特点

1.8. The diversity of DNA Sequence and Genome of eukaryotes

Page 35: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

不同种类生物基因组的C值分布

C值与生物进化复杂性不相应的现象,称为C值矛盾(悖理)---- C-value Paradox

DNA content of the haploid genome is related to the morphological (形态

学的), complexity of lower eukaryotes, but varies extensively among the higher eukaryotes.

Page 36: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Genome sizes and gene numbers are known from complete sequences for several organisms.

线虫

Page 37: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

生物的复杂性与基因组的大小并不完全成比例增加。如有些鱼类和两栖类的C值比脯乳类的高。这种看来有点反常的现象称为C值悖论,是复杂基因组的一个普遍特征。 C值悖论的实质:复杂程度低的生物中基因组

的空间被节省下来了,即基因间隔区小,基因内内含子区域比例低,基因组中重复序列少;而复杂程度高的生物基因组的组成则相反。

Page 38: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

图示不同生物基因组中单拷贝序列所占比例

线虫

b) 真核生物基因组DNA序列类型

Eukaryotic genomes have several sequence components

Cot½ =1/k,k值决定单链DNA复性所需时间,其与

基因组大小成反比,和基因组复杂程度成正比。

Page 39: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

密度梯度离心形成卫星条带

Satellite sequence one kind of repetitive DNA

真核细胞染色体具有的高度重复核苷酸序列的DNA。因其碱基组成中GC含量少,因而浮力密度低,具有不同的

浮力密度,在氯化铯密度梯度离心后呈现与大多数DNA有差别的“卫星”带,因而得名卫星DNA。其总量可占全部DNA的10%以上,主要存在于染色体的着丝粒区域,通常不被转录。

Page 40: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

a) 卫星DNA(Satellite sequence):总长几百kb的串联重复序列。

b) 小卫星DNA(Minisatellite sequence):由15-65bp的基本单位串联重复而成,长度一般不超过20kb。

c) 微卫星DNA Microsatellite sequence /简短串联重复重复单元2-8bp,通常重复10-60次。

CTAGCTTATATATATATATATATATATATAAGCT CACACACACACACACACACACACACACAC

卫星DNA按其重复单元的核苷酸的多少,可以分为:

Page 41: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Satellites are very highly repetitive with repeat lengths of one to several thousand base pairs. These sequences typically are organized as large clusters (up to 100 million bp !) in the heterochromatic regions of chromosomes, near centrosomes and telomeres; these are also found abundantly on the Y chromsome. Minisatellites are moderately repetitive, tandemly repeated arrays of moderately-sized (9 to 100 bp, but usually about 15 bp) repeats, generally involving mean array lengths of 0.5 to 30 kb. They are found in euchromatic regions of the genome of vertebrates(脊椎动物), fungi and plants and are highly variable in array size. Microsatellites are moderately repetitive, and composed of arrays of short (2-6 bp) repeats found in vertebrate, insect and plant genomes. The human genome contains at least 30,000 microsatellite loci located in euchromatin. Copy numbers are characteristically variable within a population, typically with mean array sizes on the order of 10 to 100.

Page 42: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

telomere

每个端粒3’端突出部分长度不等长

端粒小卫星

人6号染色体短臂微卫星(microsatelliteDNA分析。 每条泳道是一个人的遗传图)

卫星DNA标记是近年发展起来的一种新型分子遗传标记。

Page 43: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

c) Intergenic DNA

What is the intergenic sequences? —— are the spaces between genes. Most intragenic DNA has no known function. Some intergenic sequences contain regulatory

sequences that control where and when transcription occurs.

More complex organisms contain a much higher percentage of intergenic sequences.

Over 60% of the human DNA is intragenic sequences.

The majority of human intergenic sequences are composed of repetitive DNA

Page 44: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

There are 2 kinds of intergenic DNA: unique repetitive (repeated)

Unique intergenic sequences contain parts of genes called gene fragments and nonfunctional mutant genes. These are produced by mutations.

intergenic sequences: microsatellite DNA genome wide repeats(基因组范围的重复序列)——

Genome wide repeats are much longer than microsatellites. Genome wide repeats are 100 bp or longer and can be more than 1 kb in length. Genome wide repeats are transposable elements.

重复DNA的生物学功能尚未完全揭示,但这些序列能够保留至今,应该是对生物体有一定的积极意义。

Page 45: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

2. Chromosomes

Chromosomes(染色体)——携带很多基因

的基因组分离单位。每条染色体包含双链DNA分子及大约等量的蛋白质。只有在细胞分裂中才可见的形态单位。 Nucleosomes(核小体) are the building blocks of Chromosomes in eukaryotes. Chromatin (染色质)——真核生物细胞中,核内DNA和蛋白质的复合体

Chromosomes

P157, Figure 7-18 核小体包装和组织示意图 核小体晶体结构

Page 46: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

1) A single closed-circular DNA, 4.6 X 106bp

(一个双链共价闭合环状DNA分子)

2) The DNA packaged into a region known as Nucleoid (核质体、类核、拟核) that contains high concentration of DNA (up to 30-50 mg/ml) as well as all proteins associated with DNA.

2.1. The E. coli chromosome

3) Attach to a part of cell membrane

4) Continuous replication (no cell cycle)

Page 47: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

E.coli与其染色体DNA线性长度的相对比较。

The length of this chromosome is about 1300μm. The diameter of the bacterial cell is about 2μm, so the DNA must be compacted somehow.

Page 48: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

The E. coli chromosome

裂解的E.coli细胞

释放出的纤维状核酸

Page 49: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Most prokaryotes have circular chromosomes.

Some prokaryotes have linear chromosomes or multiple chromosomes.

Some have both circular and linear chromosomes.

Normally there is a single copy of the DNA in the nucleoid, but during cell replication, there may be 2 or even 4 copies of the chromosome.

Page 50: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

The DNA of a prokaryote is in the nucleoid region. There is no membrane surrounding it like the nucleus in eukaryotes.

The nucleoid regions are visible in the cells.

The bacterial nucleoid as a compact mass in the cell.

Nucleoid(核质体、类核、拟核)

Page 51: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

The DNA is folded into multiple domains or loops that may be attached to a protein scaffold.

DNA domains/loops

1. Observed under electron microscope. 50-100 domains or loops per E. coli chromosome, with 50-100 kb/loop

2. The ends of loops are constrained (束缚)。

by?

Page 52: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

大量的超螺旋DNA环从蛋白质性的scaffold散开,每一个环是独立的结构域(domain)

Page 53: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

微量DNaseI 对E.coli染色体的作用

与EB(溴化乙锭)结合的性状没有改变

1 nick

1 cut

2 cuts

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Page 55: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

E.coli DNA-binding proteins

Page 56: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

2.2. Eukaryotic Chromosome

• Eukaryotic chromosomes has higher-order chromatin structure.

• Eukaryotic chromosomes require centromeres, telomeres and origins of replication to be maintained during cell division.

• Eukaryotic chromosomes duplication and segregation occur in separate phases of the cell cycle

Page 57: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

• Chromosome structure changes as eukaryotic cells divide

• Sister-chromatid cohesion and chromosome condensation are mediated by SMC proteins

• Mitosis maintains the parental chromosome number

• During gap phases, cells prepare for the next cell cycle stage and check that the previous stage is completed correctly

• Meiosis reduces the parental chromosome number

请复习细胞生物学及阅读参考教材第7章后半部分

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Organisms with 2 copies of their chromosomes are diploid. Having one copy of the chromosome is called haploid. Polyploidy (having extra sets of chromosomes) is rare in animals but common in plants. Polyploidy 植物多为人工育种获得。

grapes

Page 59: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

1) 真核细胞器基因组的物理特征:

细胞器基因组为环形分子

细胞器基因组的拷贝数尚不完全清楚

线粒体基因组大小变化很大,且与生物的

复杂程度无关,基因间几乎没有间隔

叶绿体基因组大小变化很小,几乎所有的

叶绿体基因组有相似的组成方式

2) 真核细胞器基因组的遗传组成

细胞器基因组

Page 60: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

线粒体和叶绿体基因组大小

Page 61: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

人和酿酒酵母线粒体基因组

人 酵母

Page 62: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

莱茵衣藻

Page 63: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

水稻叶绿体基因组

endosymbiont theory(内共生理论) ---认为真核细

胞内线粒体和叶绿体来源于原核生物的理论

Page 64: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

20世纪人类科技发展史上的三大创举

90年代人类基因组计划

40年代第一颗原子弹爆炸

60年代人类首次登上月球

3. HGP —human genome project

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1975年,杜尔贝科获诺贝尔生理医学奖

3.1. 人类基因组计划

• 1986 年,诺贝尔奖获得者R. Dulbecco(杜尔贝科)提出人类基因组计划

• 1990年,美国政府正式启动HGP • 1993年, HGP 扩展为多国协作计

划,形成国际基因组测序联盟。参与者包括:英、日、法、德和中国

《肿瘤研究的转折点:人类基因组测序》(Science, 231: 1055-1056)

“如果我们想更多地了解肿瘤,我们从现在起必须关注细胞的基因组。…… 从

哪个物种着手努力?如果我们想理解人类肿瘤,那就应从人类开始。……人类肿瘤研究将因对DNA的详细知识而得到巨大推动。”

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按照这个计划的设想,在2005年,要把人体内约10万个基因的密码全部解开,同时

绘制出人类基因的谱图。换句话说,就是要揭开组成人体4万个基因的30亿个碱基对的秘密。

Annotation(注释)是指系统鉴定每一段基因组DNA中所包含的蛋白质编码序列和非编

码序列(主要指调控区)。对于每一个转录单元,都要确定其内含子的准确结构。

Page 67: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

二000年六月二十六日克林顿宣布人类基因组草图绘制完成

人类基因组工作框架图( 90%)。

二00一年二月十六日

人类基因组“精细图”完成,(99%),

二00三年4月14日,

人类基因组序列图亦称“完成图”(99.99%),提前绘制成功。

Page 68: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

Organation and content of the human genome

p142 Figure 7-4

Page 69: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/journals/insights.shtml

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/genome/guide/human/

Page 70: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

(1)确定人类基因组中约5万个编码基因的序列

及其在基因组中的物理位置,研究基因的产物

及其功能。

(2)了解转录和剪接调控元件的结构与位置,

从整个基因组结构的宏观水平上理解基因转录

与转录后调节。

3.2. 人类基因组计划的科学意义:

Page 71: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

(3)从整体上了解染色体结构,包括各种重复序列

以及非转录“框架序列”的大小和组织,了解各种

不同序列在形成染色体结构、DNA复制、基因转录

及表达调控中的影响与作用。

(4)研究空间结构对基因调节的作用。有些基因

的表达调控序列与被调节基因从直线距离上看,似

乎相距甚远,但若从整个染色体的空间结构上看则

恰恰处于最佳的调节位置,因此,有必要从三维空

间的角度来研究真核基因的表达调控规律。

Page 72: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

(5)发现与DNA复制、重组等有关的序列。DNA的

忠实复制保障了遗传的稳定性,正常的重组提供

了变异与进化的分子基础。局部DNA的推迟复制、

异常重组等现象则导致疾病或者胚胎不能正常发

育,因此,了解与人类DNA正常复制和重组有关

的序列及其变化,将对研究人类基因组的遗传与

进化提供重要的结构上的依据。

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(6)研究DNA突变、重排和染色体断裂等,了解疾病的

分子机制,包括遗传性疾病、易感性疾病、放射性疾

病甚至感染性疾病引发的分子病理学改变及其进程,

为这些疾病的诊断、预防和治疗提供理论依据。

(7)确定人类基因组中转座子、逆转座子和病毒残余序

列,研究其周围序列的性质。了解有关病毒基因组侵

染人类基因组后的影响,可能指导人类有效地利用病

毒载体进行基因治疗。

Page 74: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

(8)研究染色体和个体之间的多态性。这些知

识可被广泛用于基因诊断、个体识别、亲子鉴

定、组织配型、发育进化等许多医疗、司法和

人类学的研究。此外,这些遗传信息还有助于

研究人类历史进程、人类在地球上的分布与迁

移以及人类与其他物种之间的比较。

Page 75: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

3.3. 逐渐成熟的基因组学研究方法

Genomics(基因组学) is the study of the structure and function of whole genomes.

The sequencing of whole genomes has revolutionized modern life sciences.

基因组学完全改变了经典遗传学“零打碎敲”的方法,因为它着眼于研究并解释生物体整个基因组所有遗传信息。

Page 76: Gene and Genome and Chromosomes - Shandong University · Operon is complete unit of bacterial gene expression and regulation, including structural genes, regulator genes, and control

完成一系列模式生物全基因组测定,这些模式生物全基因组测定的完成有重大理论与现实意义。