• Gender: refers to psychological Gender: refers to psychological characteristics and social categories characteristics and social categories that are created by human culture. that are created by human culture. (e.g. Gender roles).(e.g. Gender roles).

• Sex refers only to the physiological Sex refers only to the physiological characteristics related to characteristics related to reproduction (i.e. Sex chromosomes reproduction (i.e. Sex chromosomes or sex organs).or sex organs).

Karraker et al., 1995Karraker et al., 1995 1 2 1 2 BB GG 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 StrongStrong Weak Weak

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 BB 6 6 GG7 8 9 7 8 9 Large FeaturedLarge Featured Fine FeaturedFine Featured

1 2 3 1 2 3 BB 4 5 4 5 G G 6 7 8 9 6 7 8 9 HardyHardy Delicate Delicate

1 2 1 2 B B 3 4 5 6 7 8 3 4 5 6 7 8 G G 9 9 MasculineMasculine Feminine Feminine

****Average ratings for newborn girls and boys on Average ratings for newborn girls and boys on four dimensions.four dimensions. B = boy G= girlB = boy G= girl

Theories of Gender Theories of Gender DevelopmentDevelopment

• 1- Social Learning Theory1- Social Learning Theory• children are rewarded for gender children are rewarded for gender

appropriate behavior and they are appropriate behavior and they are punished for gender inappropriate punished for gender inappropriate behavior;behavior;

• and children watch and imitate the and children watch and imitate the behavior of the gender of other behavior of the gender of other people of their own gender.people of their own gender.

Cognitive Developmental Cognitive Developmental ApproachApproach

• focuses on thoughts.focuses on thoughts.

• children are active thinkers who seek children are active thinkers who seek information from their environment information from their environment and try to make sense of this and try to make sense of this information and organize it in a information and organize it in a coherent fashion.coherent fashion.

• Acquire gender schemas which teach Acquire gender schemas which teach gender appropriate behaviorgender appropriate behavior

Essentialist vs. Essentialist vs. NonessentialistNonessentialist

discovered vs. inventeddiscovered vs. invented

biological vs. socialbiological vs. social

inherent vs. product of interactioninherent vs. product of interaction

unalterable vs. easily changedunalterable vs. easily changed

enduring vs. transientenduring vs. transient

universal vs. individualuniversal vs. individual

mutually exclusive traits vs. overlappingmutually exclusive traits vs. overlapping

alpha bias vs. beta bias (minimizing differences)alpha bias vs. beta bias (minimizing differences)

Interaction TheoryInteraction Theory

• local biology (Margaret Lock)local biology (Margaret Lock)• “… “… this notion derives from a perspective this notion derives from a perspective

on human embodiment grounded in the on human embodiment grounded in the ‘lived body’, a body that is ‘‘lived body’, a body that is ‘simultaneously simultaneously a physical and symbolic artifact’, both a physical and symbolic artifact’, both naturally and culturally produced. The naturally and culturally produced. The position taken by Lock also acknowledges position taken by Lock also acknowledges the plasticity of human biology, particularly the plasticity of human biology, particularly at the level of physiology and chemistry, at the level of physiology and chemistry, and its interdependence with culture” and its interdependence with culture” (Stoppard, 1997, p. 27).(Stoppard, 1997, p. 27).

What Shapes Gender What Shapes Gender Typing?Typing?

• ParentsParents

• PeersPeers

• SchoolSchool

• Media including TV and CartoonsMedia including TV and Cartoons

• ClothingClothing

• ToysToys

• BooksBooks

Sexualization of GirlsSexualization of Girls

Sexualization Occurs Sexualization Occurs when:when: • a person’s value comes only from their sexual a person’s value comes only from their sexual

appeal or behavior, to the exclusion of other appeal or behavior, to the exclusion of other characteristics; characteristics;

• a person is held to a standard that equates physical a person is held to a standard that equates physical attractiveness (narrowly-defined) with being sexy;attractiveness (narrowly-defined) with being sexy;

• a person is sexually objectified, that is, made into a a person is sexually objectified, that is, made into a thingthing for others’ sexual use, rather than a for others’ sexual use, rather than a personperson with the capacity for independent action and with the capacity for independent action and decision-making; and/ordecision-making; and/or

• sexuality is inappropriately imposed upon a person.sexuality is inappropriately imposed upon a person.

Gregory Smith Gregory Smith (1985)(1985)• attractive girls more likely to receive attractive girls more likely to receive

prosocial treatmentprosocial treatment• less attractive girls more likely to be hit, less attractive girls more likely to be hit,

pushed and kicked.pushed and kicked.• no correlation between attractiveness and no correlation between attractiveness and

prosocial treatment for the boys prosocial treatment for the boys • Lesson:Lesson: physical attractiveness is physical attractiveness is

important for females and pretty girls and important for females and pretty girls and women will receive better treatment. women will receive better treatment.

• Boys learn that physical attractiveness is Boys learn that physical attractiveness is not really relevant to their lives.not really relevant to their lives.

Cultivation TheoryCultivation Theory

• Cultivation theory: Cultivation theory: exposure to consistent exposure to consistent themes themes over timeover time leads viewers to adopt a leads viewers to adopt a particular perspective of the world, one that particular perspective of the world, one that coincides with the images they have been coincides with the images they have been viewing.viewing.

• what young women believe about what young women believe about themselves and how they feel in the present themselves and how they feel in the present moment was shaped by how they were moment was shaped by how they were treated and what they were exposed to when treated and what they were exposed to when they were girls.they were girls.

Rosa BrooksRosa Brooks• ““First, we darted into Abercrombie & Fitch, joining a gaggle of First, we darted into Abercrombie & Fitch, joining a gaggle of

preteens checking out the T-shirts. Perhaps a slinky pink preteens checking out the T-shirts. Perhaps a slinky pink number that coyly declared "The Rumors Are True"? Or maybe number that coyly declared "The Rumors Are True"? Or maybe the masculine gray one emblazoned with "Something About the masculine gray one emblazoned with "Something About You Attracts Me — I Wish I Could Put My Finger On It"?You Attracts Me — I Wish I Could Put My Finger On It"?

Well, no thanks. We headed toward Limited Too, where we Well, no thanks. We headed toward Limited Too, where we found thong-like underwear sized for 7-year-old girls. My 4-found thong-like underwear sized for 7-year-old girls. My 4-year-old was entranced: "Mommy, those underpants have no year-old was entranced: "Mommy, those underpants have no wallswalls!"!"

We soldiered on, through Old Navy (where the toddler section We soldiered on, through Old Navy (where the toddler section carries clothes that make 2-year-olds look like Britney Spears), carries clothes that make 2-year-olds look like Britney Spears), through Toys R Us (where ads for the scantily clad Bratz Babyz through Toys R Us (where ads for the scantily clad Bratz Babyz dolls, with their bottles and their painted toenails, boast that dolls, with their bottles and their painted toenails, boast that these "Babyz already know how to flaunt it, and they're these "Babyz already know how to flaunt it, and they're keepin' it real in the crib!"), and past the Disney Store (where keepin' it real in the crib!"), and past the Disney Store (where little girls can covet seashell bikinis like those worn by the little girls can covet seashell bikinis like those worn by the Little Mermaid and glittery halter tops like those worn by Little Mermaid and glittery halter tops like those worn by Princess Jasmine in the surprisingly broad-minded sultanate of Princess Jasmine in the surprisingly broad-minded sultanate of Agrabah). Agrabah).

• By the time we made it to CVS Pharmacy, I thought By the time we made it to CVS Pharmacy, I thought we were out of the woods. Wrong. Those bare-we were out of the woods. Wrong. Those bare-midriffed Disney princesses are everywhere — even, it midriffed Disney princesses are everywhere — even, it turns out, on diapers sized for people weighing 18 to turns out, on diapers sized for people weighing 18 to 34 pounds. 34 pounds.

• In our hyper-commercialized consumerist society, In our hyper-commercialized consumerist society, there's virtually no escaping the relentless there's virtually no escaping the relentless sexualization of younger and younger children. My 26-sexualization of younger and younger children. My 26-month-old daughter didn't emerge from the womb month-old daughter didn't emerge from the womb clamoring for a seashell bikini like Princess Ariel's — clamoring for a seashell bikini like Princess Ariel's — but now that she's savvy enough to notice who's but now that she's savvy enough to notice who's prancing around on her pull-ups, she wants in on the prancing around on her pull-ups, she wants in on the bikini thing. And my 4-year-old wasn't born bikini thing. And my 4-year-old wasn't born demanding lip gloss and nail polish, but when a little demanding lip gloss and nail polish, but when a little girl at nursery school showed up with her Hello Kitty girl at nursery school showed up with her Hello Kitty makeup kit, she was hooked.makeup kit, she was hooked.

• In a culture in which the sexualization of In a culture in which the sexualization of childhood is big business — mainstream childhood is big business — mainstream mega-corporations such as Disney earn mega-corporations such as Disney earn billions by marketing sexy products to billions by marketing sexy products to children too young to understand their children too young to understand their significance — is it any wonder that significance — is it any wonder that pedophiles feel emboldened to claim that pedophiles feel emboldened to claim that they shouldn't be ostracized for wanting they shouldn't be ostracized for wanting sex with children? On an Internet bulletin sex with children? On an Internet bulletin board, one self-avowed "girl lover" offered board, one self-avowed "girl lover" offered a critique of this week's New York Times a critique of this week's New York Times series on pedophilia: "They fail, of course, series on pedophilia: "They fail, of course, to mention the hypocrisy of Hollywood to mention the hypocrisy of Hollywood selling little girls to millions of people in a selling little girls to millions of people in a highly sexualized way."highly sexualized way."

Sexualization of GirlsSexualization of Girls • Television:Television: • verbal sexual messages involved sexually verbal sexual messages involved sexually

objectifying comments on womenobjectifying comments on women

• leering, ogling, staring, and catcalling at female leering, ogling, staring, and catcalling at female characters. characters.

• deprecating words were used to describe women deprecating words were used to describe women (e.g., (e.g., broad, bimbo, dumbass chick, toots, fox, babe, broad, bimbo, dumbass chick, toots, fox, babe, blondie).blondie).

• comments focused on women’s bodies or body comments focused on women’s bodies or body

parts, especially breasts; referred to as parts, especially breasts; referred to as jugs, boobs, jugs, boobs, knockers, hooters, cookware, knockers, hooters, cookware, andand canned goods canned goods. .

• men or adolescent boys leering at women or girls.men or adolescent boys leering at women or girls.

Music Videos:Music Videos:• Women are presented in provocative Women are presented in provocative

and revealing clothing, are and revealing clothing, are objectified, and typically serve as objectified, and typically serve as decorative objects that dance and decorative objects that dance and pose and do not play any pose and do not play any instruments.instruments.

• displayed in ways that emphasize displayed in ways that emphasize their bodies, body parts, facial their bodies, body parts, facial features, and sexual readiness.features, and sexual readiness.

Music LyricsMusic Lyrics• "So blow me bitch I don't rock for cancer I rock for "So blow me bitch I don't rock for cancer I rock for

the cash and the topless dancers" (Kid Rock, "f*ck the cash and the topless dancers" (Kid Rock, "f*ck off," 1998).off," 1998).

• ““Dontcha wish your girlfriend were hot like me?” Dontcha wish your girlfriend were hot like me?” (Pussycat Dolls, 2005). (Pussycat Dolls, 2005).

• ““That’s the way you like to f***…rough sex make That’s the way you like to f***…rough sex make it hurt, in the garden all in the dirt” (Ludacris, it hurt, in the garden all in the dirt” (Ludacris, 2000).2000).

• ““I tell the hos all the time, Bitch get in my car” I tell the hos all the time, Bitch get in my car” (50 Cent, 2005 ).(50 Cent, 2005 ).

• ““Ho shake your ass” (Ying Yang Twins, 2003).Ho shake your ass” (Ying Yang Twins, 2003).

Magazines and AdvertisingMagazines and Advertising

• Presenting oneself as sexually desirable Presenting oneself as sexually desirable and thereby gaining the attention of and thereby gaining the attention of men is the focal goal for women. men is the focal goal for women.

• Girls and young women are repeatedly Girls and young women are repeatedly encouraged to look and dress in specific encouraged to look and dress in specific ways to look sexy for men and to use ways to look sexy for men and to use certain products in order to be more certain products in order to be more attractive to and desired by males.attractive to and desired by males.

• girls depicted as sexual objects or girls depicted as sexual objects or counterparts to adult versions; girls appear counterparts to adult versions; girls appear with sexualized adult women and are with sexualized adult women and are posed in matching clothing or seductive posed in matching clothing or seductive poses. poses.

• ““trickle up” and a “trickle down” trickle up” and a “trickle down” framework on girls and women (Cook & framework on girls and women (Cook & Kaiser, 2004); the distinction between Kaiser, 2004); the distinction between women and girls may become blurred. women and girls may become blurred.

• young girls are “adultified” and adult young girls are “adultified” and adult women are “youthified.” women are “youthified.”

• Ie. magazines Ie. magazines CosmoGirlCosmoGirl and and ElleGirlElleGirl in in 2001 and 2001 and Teen VogueTeen Vogue in 2003. in 2003.

• The trickle-down or “youthification” includes sexual The trickle-down or “youthification” includes sexual portrayals of adult women as young girls in portrayals of adult women as young girls in advertisingadvertising

• ie. wearing schoolgirl clothing and licking lollipops ie. wearing schoolgirl clothing and licking lollipops or popsicles or wearing scaled up versions of or popsicles or wearing scaled up versions of children’s clothing styles like baby-doll dresses and children’s clothing styles like baby-doll dresses and tops, knee socks, and Mary Janes, all marketed as tops, knee socks, and Mary Janes, all marketed as adult women’s wear. adult women’s wear.

• Merskin (2004) concludes, “The message from Merskin (2004) concludes, “The message from advertisers and the mass media to girls (as advertisers and the mass media to girls (as eventual women) is they should always be sexually eventual women) is they should always be sexually available, always have sex on their minds, be available, always have sex on their minds, be willing to be dominated and even sexually willing to be dominated and even sexually aggressed against, and they will be gazed on as aggressed against, and they will be gazed on as sexual objects” (p. 120). sexual objects” (p. 120).

Other examples of Other examples of sexualization:sexualization:

- DollsDolls

- ClothesClothes

- Cosmetics Cosmetics

Parents Sexualization of Parents Sexualization of GirlsGirls• convey their support for cultural messages, either convey their support for cultural messages, either

subtly or overtly subtly or overtly

• parents’ gender schemas have a significant effect on parents’ gender schemas have a significant effect on children’s gender self-concepts and gender-related children’s gender self-concepts and gender-related attitudes toward others (Tenenbaum & Leaper, attitudes toward others (Tenenbaum & Leaper, 2002). 2002).

• parents, peers, and the media all support a “culture parents, peers, and the media all support a “culture of dieting” for girls (Levine, Smolak, & Hayden, of dieting” for girls (Levine, Smolak, & Hayden, 1994; Nichter, 2000). 1994; Nichter, 2000).

• Example: Beauty PagentsExample: Beauty Pagents

Consequences of Consequences of SexualizationSexualization• self-objectification fragments self-objectification fragments

consciousness. consciousness.

• Chronic attention to physical Chronic attention to physical appearance leaves fewer cognitive appearance leaves fewer cognitive resources available for other mental resources available for other mental and physical activities. and physical activities.

Body Dissatisfaction and Body Dissatisfaction and Appearance AnxietyAppearance Anxiety • Sexualization and objectification undermine Sexualization and objectification undermine

confidence in and comfort with one’s own body, confidence in and comfort with one’s own body, leading to a host of negative emotional leading to a host of negative emotional consequences, such as shame, anxiety, and even consequences, such as shame, anxiety, and even self-disgust. self-disgust.

• leads to increased feelings of shame about one’s leads to increased feelings of shame about one’s body (e.g., Fredrickson et al., 1998; McKinley, body (e.g., Fredrickson et al., 1998; McKinley, 1998, 1999; Tiggemann & Slater, 2001). 1998, 1999; Tiggemann & Slater, 2001).

• appearance anxiety: checking and adjusting one’s appearance anxiety: checking and adjusting one’s appearance.appearance.

Mental HealthMental Health

• sexualization is associated with three most common sexualization is associated with three most common mental health problems of girls and women: eating mental health problems of girls and women: eating disorders, low self-esteem, and depression or depressed disorders, low self-esteem, and depression or depressed mood. mood.

• For individual women, findings across several studies For individual women, findings across several studies indicate associations between exposure to female indicate associations between exposure to female beauty ideals and disordered eating attitudes and beauty ideals and disordered eating attitudes and symptoms, such that greater exposure to thin-ideal symptoms, such that greater exposure to thin-ideal media has been associated with higher levels of dieting, media has been associated with higher levels of dieting, exercising, and disordered eating symptomatology (e.g., exercising, and disordered eating symptomatology (e.g., Abramson & Valene, 1991; Harrison, 2000; Hofschire & Abramson & Valene, 1991; Harrison, 2000; Hofschire & Greenberg, 2001; Stice, Schupak-Neuberg, Shaw, & Greenberg, 2001; Stice, Schupak-Neuberg, Shaw, & Stein, 1994; Thomsen, Weber, & Brown, 2002). Stein, 1994; Thomsen, Weber, & Brown, 2002).

Physical HealthPhysical Health

• link between body dissatisfaction and link between body dissatisfaction and the onset of cigarette smoking the onset of cigarette smoking among adolescent girls (e.g., Stice & among adolescent girls (e.g., Stice & Shaw, 2003).Shaw, 2003).

SummarySummary• ““First, there is evidence that girls exposed to sexualizing and First, there is evidence that girls exposed to sexualizing and

objectifying media are more likely to experience body objectifying media are more likely to experience body dissatisfaction, depression, and lower self-esteem; dissatisfaction, depression, and lower self-esteem;

• Self-objectification has been shown to diminish cognitive ability Self-objectification has been shown to diminish cognitive ability and to cause shame. This cognitive diminishment, as well as and to cause shame. This cognitive diminishment, as well as the belief that physical appearance rather than academic or the belief that physical appearance rather than academic or extracurricular achievement is the best path to power and extracurricular achievement is the best path to power and acceptance, may influence girls’ achievement levels and acceptance, may influence girls’ achievement levels and opportunities later in life. opportunities later in life.

• Girls’ sexual development may also be affected as they are Girls’ sexual development may also be affected as they are exposed to models of passivity and studies indicate that the exposed to models of passivity and studies indicate that the media may influence perceptions of one’s own virginity or first media may influence perceptions of one’s own virginity or first sexual experience. sexual experience.

• Interpersonally, girls’ relationships with other girls are affected, Interpersonally, girls’ relationships with other girls are affected, as such relationships can become policing grounds where girls as such relationships can become policing grounds where girls support or reject other girls for reasons having to do with support or reject other girls for reasons having to do with conformity to a narrow beauty ideal that involves a sexualized conformity to a narrow beauty ideal that involves a sexualized presentation or competition for boys’ attention. presentation or competition for boys’ attention.

• Girls’ relationships with boys and men are affected in that Girls’ relationships with boys and men are affected in that exposure to sexualizing and objectifying media has been shown exposure to sexualizing and objectifying media has been shown to relate to girls' and boys’ views on dating, the sexual to relate to girls' and boys’ views on dating, the sexual harassment of girls by boys, and attitudes toward sexual harassment of girls by boys, and attitudes toward sexual violence.” violence.”

• In your groups discuss the following In your groups discuss the following questions, questions,

• What are beauty pageants about? What What are beauty pageants about? What does it say about what the culture values? does it say about what the culture values?

What messages do beauty pageants send What messages do beauty pageants send to girls ? Why don’t boys participate in to girls ? Why don’t boys participate in beauty pageants? beauty pageants?

What in your view are the short and long What in your view are the short and long term effects of the sexualization of girls on term effects of the sexualization of girls on their psychological well being?their psychological well being?

Why is the Little Miss Sunshine clip ironic? Why is the Little Miss Sunshine clip ironic?