Gender AttitudesGender Attitudes

OutlineOutline

Cultural approachesCultural approaches Why are attitudes changing in Central Why are attitudes changing in Central

Europe?Europe? Micro-level explanations of gender Micro-level explanations of gender

attitudesattitudes

The Modernization The Modernization Explanation Explanation

(Inglehart & Norris)(Inglehart & Norris) Industrialization brings women into the labor Industrialization brings women into the labor

marketmarket Educational opportunities rise for women and Educational opportunities rise for women and

they begin to participate in governmentthey begin to participate in government The postindustrial phase brings a shift toward The postindustrial phase brings a shift toward

greater gender equality as women rise in greater gender equality as women rise in management and gain political influencemanagement and gain political influence

Transition from survival to self-expression Transition from survival to self-expression values (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?)values (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?)

The Failure of The Failure of Modernization Theory to Modernization Theory to Explain this Shift in Central Explain this Shift in Central EuropeEurope High female employed existed already High female employed existed already

under the communist regimeunder the communist regime Women had rather equal access to Women had rather equal access to

education already under communist ruleeducation already under communist rule People did not have to worry about People did not have to worry about

survival except perhaps in Polandsurvival except perhaps in Poland

But not completely wrongBut not completely wrong

But it is true that women did not yet rise But it is true that women did not yet rise in management or politicsin management or politics

The industrial shift from an industrial to a The industrial shift from an industrial to a knowledge-based economy with a large knowledge-based economy with a large service sector was hindered by the service sector was hindered by the communist regimescommunist regimes

This does not seem sufficient to explain This does not seem sufficient to explain the changethe change

Cultural Differences?Cultural Differences? Pfau-Effinger: two countries can have similar Pfau-Effinger: two countries can have similar

policies, but peple will still use them differentlypolicies, but peple will still use them differently In some societies men are more likely to In some societies men are more likely to

choose father leaves than in others because choose father leaves than in others because they have different conceptions of the role of they have different conceptions of the role of the fatherthe father

Duncan: Gendered moral rationalities: what is Duncan: Gendered moral rationalities: what is morally rational is not always economically morally rational is not always economically rational, for example, women might refuse rational, for example, women might refuse daycare because it goes against their view of daycare because it goes against their view of what is “proper”what is “proper”

Hakim’s Preference Hakim’s Preference TheoryTheory

Individualization process means we Individualization process means we cannot group people of one country cannot group people of one country togethertogether

In modern society we have become more In modern society we have become more individualisticindividualistic

There are different groups in every There are different groups in every countrycountry

Hakims 3 GroupsHakims 3 Groups

Caring group: will want to stay at home Caring group: will want to stay at home regardless of policies (about 20% of the regardless of policies (about 20% of the population)population)

Career group: wants to have a career Career group: wants to have a career and is not interested in having children and is not interested in having children (about 20% of the population)(about 20% of the population)

Adaptive group: will choose work or Adaptive group: will choose work or career depending on incentivescareer depending on incentives

Implications of Implications of Preference TheoryPreference Theory

We cannot achieve gender equality because We cannot achieve gender equality because men do not want to change roles, only womenmen do not want to change roles, only women

In Sweden, despite policies encouring men to In Sweden, despite policies encouring men to stay at home, few do sostay at home, few do so

Only the adoptive group can be influenced by Only the adoptive group can be influenced by policiespolicies

The three groups have competing interests, The three groups have competing interests, while men all have the same interests,while men all have the same interests,

Thus, men can organize better around their Thus, men can organize better around their interestsinterests

CriticismsCriticisms

Men are stupid, but not as stupid as Hakim thinks, nor Men are stupid, but not as stupid as Hakim thinks, nor are they as homogeneous are they as homogeneous

In Sweden men In Sweden men areare beginning to take father leaves to beginning to take father leaves to a much greater extent (now they take over 20% of the a much greater extent (now they take over 20% of the total leave time and almost all fathers go on leave)total leave time and almost all fathers go on leave)

Gender equality is also in the interests of many men. Gender equality is also in the interests of many men. She just assumes men think the same, but does not She just assumes men think the same, but does not provide evidenceprovide evidence

Surveys show big differences among women in Surveys show big differences among women in different countriesdifferent countries

The largest group is adoptive, which means that The largest group is adoptive, which means that policies policies do in fact matter in fact matter

Attitudes Changing in Attitudes Changing in Central EuropeCentral Europe

Slowly beginning to support more gender Slowly beginning to support more gender equality at the theoretical levelequality at the theoretical level

Great support for more gender equality at Great support for more gender equality at the concrete daily levelthe concrete daily level

““Feminism” becoming more acceptableFeminism” becoming more acceptable

Theoretical level: Support Theoretical level: Support for Equal Gender Rolesfor Equal Gender Roles

% Disagreeing that men should work and women should stay home

020406080

100

PL Cz Sw FRG EUW

1994 2002

Concrete, Daily Level:Concrete, Daily Level:

0102030405060708090

100

CZ94 CZ02 PL94 PL02 S94 S02

Percentage of Women Supporting Gender Equality (ISSP)

home equality mother-child rel state support

Women’s organizationsWomen’s organizations

In Poland: 133 women's organizationsIn Poland: 133 women's organizations 50 consider themselves to be feminist (38%)50 consider themselves to be feminist (38%) 93 support gender equality (70%)93 support gender equality (70%) In CR: 49 organizationsIn CR: 49 organizations 6 show some support for feminism (6%)6 show some support for feminism (6%) 18 show support for gender equality (37%)18 show support for gender equality (37%) 1995 in CR: none openly supported gender 1995 in CR: none openly supported gender

equality, but 2 of 31 came closeequality, but 2 of 31 came close

Newspaper Articles in the Newspaper Articles in the CRCR

In MF there were 15 articles in 2007 In MF there were 15 articles in 2007 using the word “feminism”using the word “feminism”

Not negative anymore, but there is a Not negative anymore, but there is a defensive tone, the need to show defensive tone, the need to show feminists are not radicalfeminists are not radical

Typical to use the term, “I am a feminist, Typical to use the term, “I am a feminist, but not a radical feminist….”but not a radical feminist….”

Why this change?Why this change? The EU gave legitimacy with “gender The EU gave legitimacy with “gender

mainstreaming”mainstreaming” Czechs have more experience living and Czechs have more experience living and

studying in the Weststudying in the West The development of domestic gender studiesThe development of domestic gender studies Cooperation with Western and international Cooperation with Western and international

women’s organizationswomen’s organizations Can we call these openings of the political Can we call these openings of the political

opportunity structure?opportunity structure? Beliefs coming from communist legacy not as Beliefs coming from communist legacy not as

strong as other beliefs?strong as other beliefs?

Microlevel AnalysisMicrolevel Analysis

AgeAge ChurchChurch Degree of religiosityDegree of religiosity Educational LevelEducational Level GenderGender

AgeAge

Generational difference: younger people Generational difference: younger people have more post-modern valueshave more post-modern values

Today’s women have greater career Today’s women have greater career opportunitiesopportunities

Younger men are more interested in Younger men are more interested in spending time with their childrenspending time with their children

Church and Degree of Church and Degree of ReligiosityReligiosity

The Catholic Church has traditionally supported the The Catholic Church has traditionally supported the “nuclear family” and “traditional” roles“nuclear family” and “traditional” roles

But this traditional family only existed for a very short But this traditional family only existed for a very short time in our historytime in our history

In agricultural society women worked, as did children In agricultural society women worked, as did children and the family was extendedand the family was extended

Degree of religiosity is important (not in Wilcox’ article) Degree of religiosity is important (not in Wilcox’ article) because in a country like Poland, almost everyone is because in a country like Poland, almost everyone is Catholic, but not everyone is as religiousCatholic, but not everyone is as religious

In the USA evangelical pastors have been very In the USA evangelical pastors have been very conservativeconservative

In Poland the degree of religiosity is not significant in In Poland the degree of religiosity is not significant in explaining attitudesexplaining attitudes

Educational LevelEducational Level

Those with a higher education are more Those with a higher education are more supportive of gender equalitysupportive of gender equality

Women with higher education want equal Women with higher education want equal chanceschances

Men with higher education often chose Men with higher education often chose partners who are higher educated and partners who are higher educated and want to have careerswant to have careers

Educational levels are increasing, as is Educational levels are increasing, as is support for gender equalitysupport for gender equality

McDonald’s incoherence McDonald’s incoherence theorytheory

in the industrially advanced countries the in the industrially advanced countries the conflict between norms supporting high conflict between norms supporting high levels of gender equity in individual-levels of gender equity in individual-oriented social institutions (like education oriented social institutions (like education system and labor market) and sustained system and labor market) and sustained gender inequality in family-oriented social gender inequality in family-oriented social institutions (in caring and nurturing and institutions (in caring and nurturing and household maintenance) has caused household maintenance) has caused fertility rates to drop.fertility rates to drop.

Gender differencesGender differences

Women obviously have a greater Women obviously have a greater incentive to support equalityincentive to support equality

But in America more men than women But in America more men than women supported ERAsupported ERA

ConclusionsConclusions Attitudes toward gender equality are becoming Attitudes toward gender equality are becoming

more positive more positive This is partially due to post-modernization and This is partially due to post-modernization and

to the development of the international to the development of the international discoursediscourse

All micro factors point to an increase in support All micro factors point to an increase in support for gender equality (the new generation and for gender equality (the new generation and higher educated are more positives as are the higher educated are more positives as are the more secular)more secular)

Life is becoming increasingly more difficult for Life is becoming increasingly more difficult for men who want to oppress women and hate men who want to oppress women and hate their childrentheir children