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Contents

Preface to the Fourth Edition xixPreface to the Third Edition xxiiiPreface to the Second Edition xxviiPreface to the First Edition xxixForeword to the First Edition xxxiAbout the Author xxxiii

Part I Design: Theory and Practice 1

1 An Overview of Gas Turbines 3Gas Turbine Cycle in the Combined Cycle or Cogeneration Mode 3Gas Turbine Performance 6Gas Turbine Design Considerations 11Categories of Gas Turbines 15

Frame Type Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines 16Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbines 30Industrial-Type Gas Turbines 39Small Gas Turbines 42Vehicular Gas Turbines 44Microturbines 50

Major Gas Turbine Components 51Compressors 51Regenerators/Recuperators 57Fuel Type 59Combustors 61Environmental Effects 62

Turbine Expander Section 76Radial-Inflow Turbine 76Mixed-Flow Turbine 77Axial-Flow Turbines 78

Materials 80Coatings 83Gas Turbine Heat Recovery 83Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems 85

Instrumentation and Controls 87

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vi Contents

2 Theoretical and Actual Cycle Analyses 89The Brayton Cycle 89Regeneration Effect 92Increasing the Work Output of the Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine 95

Intercooling and Reheating Effects 95Actual Cycle Analysis 98

The Simple Cycle 98The Split-Shaft Simple Cycle 100The Regenerative Cycle 101The Inter-cooled Simple Cycle 102The Reheat Cycle 103The Inter-cooled Regenerative Reheat Cycle 105The Steam Injection Cycle 105The Evaporative Regenerative Cycle 109The Brayton–Rankine Cycle 110

Summation of Cycle Analysis 113A General Overview of Combined-Cycle Plants 114

Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycle 121Power Augmentation 122

Inlet Cooling 122Injection of Compressed Air, Steam, or Water 124

Inlet Cooling Techniques 124Evaporative Cooling of the Turbine 124Refrigerated Inlets for the Gas Turbines 125Combination of Evaporative and Refrigerated Inlet Systems 127Thermal Energy Storage Systems 128

Injection of Compressed Air, Steam, or Water for Increasing Power 128Mid-Compressor Flashing of Water 128Injection of Humidified and Heated Compressed Air 129Combination of Evaporative Cooling and Steam Injection 131

Summation of the Power Augmentation Systems 132Bibliography 137

3 Compressor and Turbine Performance Characteristics 139Aerothermodynamics of Turbomachinery 139

Ideal Gas 140Dry- and Wet-bulb Temperatures 144Optical and Radiation Pyrometers 148Ideal Gas Laws 149Compressibility Effect 150

Aerothermal Equations 153Continuity Equation 153Momentum Equation 154Energy Equation 156

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Contents vii

Efficiencies 157Adiabatic Thermal Efficiency 158Polytropic Efficiency 161

Dimensional Analysis 163Compressor Performance Characteristics 166

Turbine Performance Characteristics 167Gas Turbine Performance Computation 167

Bibliography 176

4 Performance and Mechanical Standards 177Major Variables for a Gas Turbine Application 177

Type of Application 177Plant Location and Site Configuration 179Plant Type 180Gas Turbine Size and Efficiency 180Type of Fuel 180Enclosures 183Plant Operation Mode: Base or Peaking 184Start-Up Techniques 184

Performance Standards 184ASME PTC 19.1: Test Uncertainty 185ASME PTC 19.3: Part 3: Temperature Measurement

Instruments and Apparatus 185ASME PTC 19.5: Flow Measurement, Published 2004 186PTC 19.10: Flue and Exhaust Gas Analyses, Part 10 187ASME PTC 19.11: Steam and Water Sampling, Conditioning,

and Analysis in the Power Cycle 187ASME PTC 19.23: Guidance Manual for Model Testing, Published 1980 188ASME PTC 46: Performance Test Code on Overall Plant Performance,

Published January 1, 1996 188Object and Scope 188

Performance Test Code on Gas Turbines 190ASME PTC 22, Published 2006 190ASME Measurement of Exhaust Emissions from Stationary

Gas Turbine Engines B133.9, Published 1994 190ASME PTC 36 Measurement of Industrial Sound (ASME B133.8),

Published 2004 191Mechanical Parameters 191

ASME B 133.2 Basic Gas Turbines, Published 1977(Reaffirmed: 1997) 192

ASME B133.3 Procurement Standard for Gas Turbine AuxiliaryEquipment, Published 1981 (Reaffirmed 1994) 192

ASME B133.4 Gas Turbine Control and Protection Systems,Published 1978 (Reaffirmed: 1997) 192

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viii Contents

ASME B133.5 Procurement Standard for Gas Turbine ElectricalEquipment, Published 1978 (Reaffirmed: 1994) 193

ASME B 133.7M Gas Turbine Fuels, Published 1985(Reaffirmed: 1992) 193

ASME B133.8 Gas Turbine Installation Sound Emissions,Published 1977 (Reaffirmed: 1989) 193

ASME B133.9 Measurement of Exhaust Emissions fromStationary Gas Turbine Engines, Published: 1994 193

API Std 616 Gas Turbines for the Petroleum, Chemical, andGas Industry Services, Fourth Edition, August 1998 194

API Std 613 Special Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum, Chemical,and Gas Industry Services, Fourth Edition, June 1995 194

API Std 614 Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing, and Control-Oil Systemsand Auxiliaries for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas IndustryServices, Fourth Edition, April 1999 194

API Std 618, Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical,and Gas Industry Services, Fourth Edition, June 1995 195

API Std 619, Rotary-Type Positive Displacement Compressorsfor Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, ThirdEdition, June 1997 195

ANSI/API Std 670 Vibration, Axial-Position, andBearing-Temperature Monitoring Systems, Third Edition,November 1993 195

API Std 671, Special Purpose Couplings for Petroleum, Chemical,and Gas Industry Services, Third Edition, October 1998 195

API Std 677, General-Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum,Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, Second Edition, July 1997(Reaffirmed: March 2000) 196

Application of the Mechanical Standards to the Gas Turbine 196Gears 203Lubrication Systems 205Vibration Measurements 206Specifications 208

5 Rotor Dynamics 215Mathematical Analysis 215

Undamped Free System 217Damped System 218Forced Vibrations 222Design Considerations 224

Application to Rotating Machines 226Rigid Supports 226Flexible Supports 228

Critical Speed Calculations for Rotor Bearing Systems 230

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Contents ix

Electromechanical Systems and Analogies 232Forces Acting on a Rotor-Bearing System 233Rotor-Bearing System Instabilities 236Self-Excited Instabilities 239

Campbell Diagram 244Bibliography 250

Part II Major Components 251

6 Centrifugal Compressors 253Centrifugal Compressor Components 254

Inlet Guide Vanes 260Impeller 262Inducer 264Centrifugal Section of an Impeller 267Causes of Slip in an Impeller 269Stodola Slip Factor 272Stanitz Slip Factor 273Diffusers 274Scroll or Volute 275

Centrifugal Compressor Performance 278Rotor Losses 279Stator Losses 281

Compressor Surge 283Effects of Gas Composition 289External Causes and Effects of Surge 290Surge Detection and Control 291

Process Centrifugal Compressors 292Compressor Configuration 295Impeller Fabrication 298

Bibliography 299

7 Axial-Flow Compressors 303Introduction 303Blade and Cascade Nomenclature 306Elementary Airfoil Theory 309Laminar-Flow Airfoils 311Energy Increase 313Velocity Triangles 313Degree of Reaction 315Radial Equilibrium 319Diffusion Factor 320The Incidence Rule 321The Deviation Rule 323

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x Contents

Compressor Operation Characteristics 328Compressor Surge 328

Compressor Choke 331Compressor Stall 331Individual Blade Stall 332Rotating Stall 332Stall Flutter 333

Compressor Performance Parameters 337Performance Losses in an Axial-Flow Compressor 340New Developments in Axial-Flow Compressors 342Axial-Flow Compressor Research 344

Cascade Tests 345Blade Profile 345

Compressor Blade Material 351Acknowledgments 354Bibliography 355

8 Radial-Inflow Turbines 357Hydraulic Radial-Inflow Turbines 357Radial-Inflow Turbines for Gas Applications 358

Turbine Configurations 361Thermodynamic and Aerodynamic Theory 368Turbine Design Considerations 374Performance of a Radial-Inflow Turbine 376Losses in a Radial-Inflow Turbine 380Radial-Inflow Turbine Applications 381Bibliography 383

9 Axial-Flow Turbines 385Turbine Geometry 385Thermodynamic and Aerodynamic Theory 387

Utilization Factor 391Degree of Reaction 391Work Factor 392

Velocity Diagrams 393Zero-Exit Swirl Diagram 393Impulse Diagram 394Symmetrical Diagram 394

Impulse Turbine 394Turbine Blade Cooling Concepts 401

Convection Cooling 405Impingement Cooling 405Film Cooling 405Transpiration Cooling 405Water/Steam Cooling 405

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Contents xi

Turbine Blade Cooling Design 406Convection and Impingement Cooling/Strut Insert Design 406Film and Convection Cooling Design 406Transpiration Cooling Design 408Multiple Small-Hole Design 408Water-Cooled Turbine Blades 410Steam-Cooled Turbine Blades 412Cooled-Turbine Aerodynamics 412Turbine Losses 420

Bibliography 425

10 Combustors 427Gas Turbine Combustors 427Typical Combustor Arrangements 429

Can-Annular and Annular Combustors 429Silo-Type Combustors 431Combustion in Combustors 431The Diffusion-Type Combustor 432

Air-Pollution Problems in a Diffusion Combustor 443Smoke 443Oxides of Nitrogen 443NOx Prevention 445

Diffusion Combustor Design 448The Diffusion Combustor 448

Flame Stabilization 452Combustion and Dilution 452Film Cooling of the Liner 453Fuel Atomization and Ignition 453The Dry Low Emission Combustors 455

Primary 467Lean–Lean 468Premix Transfer 468Piloted Premix 468Premix 469Tertiary Full-Speed No Load (FSNL) 469

Silo-Type Combustors 477Operation of DLN/DLE Combustors 479Catalytic Combustion and Combustors 481

Features of Catalytic Combustion 481Catalytic Combustor Design 483

Preburner 484Main Fuel Injector 484Catalytic Reactor 484

Transition Pieces 487

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xii Contents

Part III Materials, Fuel Technology, and Fuel Systems 491

11 Materials 493General Metallurgical Behaviors in Gas Turbines 496

Creep and Rupture 496Ductility and Fracture 497Cyclic Fatigue 498Thermal Fatigue 498Corrosion 499

Gas Turbine Materials 503Turbine Wheel Alloys 505

Compressor Blades 507Forgings and Non-destructive Testing 508

Ceramics 508Coatings 509

Shroud Coatings 513Future Coatings 513

Bibliography 514

12 Fuels 515Fuel Specifications 519Fuel Properties 521

Liquid Fuels 521Liquid Fuel Handling and Treatment 523Heavy Fuels 531Fuel Gas Handling and Treatment 535Equipment for Removal of Particulates and Liquids from Fuel Gas Systems 540Fuel Heating 542Cleaning of Turbine Components 543

Hot Section Wash 544Compressor Washing 545

Fuel Economics 546Operating Experience 548Heat Tracing of Piping Systems 549Types of Heat-Tracing Systems 550

Stream Tracing Systems 550Electric Tracing 551

Storage of Liquids 552Atmospheric Tanks 552Elevated Tanks 552Open Tanks 552Fixed Roof Tanks 552Floating Roof Tanks 552Pressure Tanks 553

Bibliography 553

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Contents xiii

Part IV Auxiliary Components and Accessories 555

13 Bearings and Seals 557Bearings 557

Rolling Bearings 557Journal Bearings 563

Bearing Design Principles 565Tilting-Pad Journal Bearings 569Bearing Materials 572Bearing and Shaft Instabilities 573Thrust Bearings 573Factors Affecting Thrust-Bearing Design 577Thrust-Bearing Power Loss 578Seals 578Non-contacting Seals 579

Labyrinth Seals 579Ring (Bushing) Seals 583

Mechanical (Face) Seals 585Mechanical Seal Selection and Application 589

Product 590Additional Product Considerations 592Seal Environment 592Seal Arrangement Considerations 593Equipment 593Secondary Packing 593Seal-Face Combinations 593Seal Gland Plate 593Main Seal Body 594

Seal Systems 594Associated Oil System 595Dry Gas Seals 596

Tandem Dry Gas Seals 599Tandem Dry Gas Seal with Labyrinth 599Double Gas Seals 600Operating Range of Dry Gas Seals 600Dry Gas Seal Materials 601Dry Gas Seal Systems 601Dry Gas Seal Degradation 601

Bibliography 603

14 Gears 605Gear Types 607Factors Affecting Gear Design 608

Pressure Angle 609Helix Angle 611

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xiv Contents

Tooth Hardness 612Scuffing 613Gear Accuracy 613Types of Bearings 614Service Factor 614Gear Housings 615Lubrication 615

Manufacturing Processes 616Hobbing 616Hobbing and Shaving 616Hobbing and Lapping 618Grinding 618

Gear Rating 619Gear Noise 619Installation and Initial Operation 620Gear Failures 622Acknowledgement 624Bibliography 625

Part V Installation, Operation, and Maintenance 627

15 Lubrication 629Basic Oil System 629

Lubrication Oil System 629Seal Oil System 634

Lubrication Management Program 636Lubricant Selection 637Oil Contamination 637Filter Selection 638Cleaning and Flushing 640Oil Sampling and Testing 641

Oil Analysis Tests 641Test Profiles 646Gearboxes 646Clean Oil Systems 647Coupling Lubrication 648Bibliography 649

16 Spectrum Analysis 651Vibration Measurement 656

Displacement Transducers 657Velocity Transducers 657Acceleration Transducers 658Dynamic Pressure Transducers 658

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Contents xv

Taping Data 659Interpretation of Vibration Spectra 660Subsynchronous Vibration Analysis Using RTA 664Synchronous and Harmonic Spectra 668Bibliography 672

17 Balancing 675Rotor Imbalance 675Balancing Procedures 680

Orbital Balancing 681Modal Balancing 682Multiplane Balancing (Influence Coefficient Method) 683

Application of Balancing Techniques 686User’s Guide for Multiplane Balancing 688Bibliography 690

18 Couplings and Alignment 693Gear Couplings 695

Oil-Filled Couplings 698Grease-Packed Couplings 699Continuously Lubricated Couplings 699Gear Coupling Failure Modes 700

Metal Diaphragm Couplings 701Metal Disc Couplings 704Turbomachinery Uprates 705Curvic Couplings 709Shaft Alignment 710

The Shaft Alignment Procedure 711Bibliography 718

19 Control Systems and Instrumentation 721Control Systems 721

Start-up Sequence 728Condition Monitoring Systems 730

Requirements for an Effective Diagnostic System 732Monitoring Software 733Implementation of a Condition Monitoring System 735

Plant Power Optimization 736Online Optimization Process 737

Life Cycle Costs 739Diagnostic System Components and Functions 741Data Inputs 741Instrumentation Requirements 741Typical Instrumentation (Minimum Requirements for Each Machine) 742Desirable Instrumentation (Optional) 742

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xvi Contents

Criteria for the Collection of Aerothermal Data 742Pressure Drop in Filter System 745Temperature and Pressure Measurement for Compressors

and Turbines 745Temperature Measurement 746

Thermocouples 746Resistive Thermal Detectors 747Pyrometers 747

Pressure Measurement 748Vibration Measurement 748

Vibration Instrumentation Selection 750Selection of Systems for Analyses of Vibration Data 750

Auxiliary System Monitoring 751Fuel System 751Torque Measurement 752Baseline for Machinery 752Data Trending 754

The Gas Turbine 756Identification of Losses 759Compressor Aerothermal Characteristics and Compressor Surge 759

Failure Diagnostics 760Compressor Analysis 760Combustor Analysis 761Turbine Analysis 762Turbine Efficiency 764

Mechanical Problem Diagnostics 765Data Retrieval 767

Summary 767Bibliography 768

20 Gas Turbine Performance Test 769Introduction 769Performance Codes 770Flow Straighteners 771

Pressure Measurement 771Temperature Measurement 774Flow Measurement 775

Gas Turbine Test 777Gas Turbine 778

Air Inlet Filter Module 779Compressor Module 779Combustor Module 780Expander Module 781Life Cycle Consideration of Various Critical Hot Section Components 782

Performance Curves 782

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Contents xvii

Performance Computations 782General Governing Equations 783Gas Turbine Performance Calculation 786

Gas Turbine Performance Calculations 792Correction Factors for Gas Turbines 793Vibration Measurement 796

Rotor Dynamics 796Vibration Measurements 796

Emission Measurements 797Emissions 797

Plant Losses 800Bibliography 802

21 Maintenance Techniques 803Philosophy of Maintenance 803

Maximization of Equipment Efficiency and Effectiveness 805Organization Structures for a Performance-Based Total Productive

Maintenance Program 807Implementation of a Performance-Based Total Productive

Maintenance 808Maintenance Department Requirements 810

Training of Personnel 810I. Type of Personnel 810II. Types of Training 811

Tools and Shop Equipment 814Spare Parts Inventory 814Condition and Life Assessment 815Availability and Reliability 815Redesign for Higher Machinery Reliability 817

Gas Turbine Start-up 819Redesign for Higher Machinery Reliability 821

Advanced Gas Turbines 821Axial-Flow Compressor 822Dry Low NOx Combustors 823Axial-Flow Turbine 826Maintenance Scheduling 827Maintenance Communications 829Inspection 831

Long-Term Service Agreements 833Borescope Inspection 835

Maintenance of Gas Turbine Components 841Compressors 843Compressor Cleaning 850Compressor Water Wash 851Different Wash Systems 853

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xviii Contents

On-Line Wash Cleaning System 853Off-Line Crank Wash Cleaning System 853On-Line and Off-Line Water Wash Fluids 856Off-Line Crank Wash Procedure 857Combustors 858Turbines 861

Rejuvenation of Used Turbine Blades 866Rotor Dynamic System Characteristics 869Bearing Maintenance 870

Clearance Checks 877Thrust-Bearing Failure 877

Coupling Maintenance 880Repair and Rehabilitation of Turbomachinery Foundations 880

Installation Defects 881Increasing Mass and Rigidity 882

Bibliography 883

22 Case Histories 885Axial-Flow Compressors 886Combustion Systems 897

Transition Piece 902Axial-Flow Turbines 902

Appendix: Equivalent Units 923Index 929