Table of Contents

Matter and Chemical Bonding_______________________________3Structure of matter______________________________________________________3

Atom________________________________________________________________3Element______________________________________________________________3Compound____________________________________________________________3Group (columns)_______________________________________________________3Period (rows)__________________________________________________________3Drawing structures______________________________________________________3Molecule_____________________________________________________________3BOFINCH____________________________________________________________3

Periodic Law____________________________________________________________4Atomic size___________________________________________________________4Ionization energy_______________________________________________________4Electron Affinity_______________________________________________________4Electronegativity_______________________________________________________4Electropositivity________________________________________________________4

Octet rule______________________________________________________________4Cations_______________________________________________________________4Anions_______________________________________________________________4Isotopes______________________________________________________________4

Bonds__________________________________________________________________5Ionic bonding__________________________________________________________5Covalent bonding_______________________________________________________5Polarity of molecules____________________________________________________5

Reactions_______________________________________________________________5Metals and alloys_______________________________________________________5Metal reactivity series___________________________________________________6

Quantities in Chemical Reactions_________________________7Basic Concepts__________________________________________________________7

Mole_________________________________________________________________7Avogadro’s Number____________________________________________________7Molar mass____________________________________________________________7Law of definite proportions_______________________________________________7Stoichiometry__________________________________________________________7Percentage yield________________________________________________________7Empirical and Molecular formulas_________________________________________7Molar volume__________________________________________________________7Limiting reactant_______________________________________________________7General Problem_______________________________________________________8Empirical Formula Problem______________________________________________8Molecular Formula Problem______________________________________________8

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Limiting and Excess Reactant Problem______________________________________9

Formulas_______________________________________________________________9

Solution and Solubility_______________________________________10General terms__________________________________________________________10

Water as a solvent_____________________________________________________10Concentration of a solution______________________________________________10Solute_______________________________________________________________10Polar Solvent_________________________________________________________10Solution_____________________________________________________________10

Acids and Bases________________________________________________________10

Formulas______________________________________________________________11

Gases and Atmospheric Chemistry______________________12Standard conditions_____________________________________________________12

Laws and Formulas_____________________________________________________12Boyle’s Law__________________________________________________________12Charles’ Law_________________________________________________________12Gay-Lussac’s Law_____________________________________________________12Combined gas Law____________________________________________________12Dalton’s law of partial pressure___________________________________________12Ideal Gas Law________________________________________________________13

Hydrocarbons and Energy__________________________________14Types of alkanes______________________________________________________14Types of alkenes______________________________________________________14Type of alkynes_______________________________________________________15Naming hydrocarbons__________________________________________________15Naming branches______________________________________________________15Isomers______________________________________________________________16Cyclos______________________________________________________________16Combustion__________________________________________________________16Endothermic and Exothermic reactions_____________________________________16

Types of Calorimeters___________________________________________________17Calorimeter__________________________________________________________17Bomb calorimeter_____________________________________________________17Enthalpy_____________________________________________________________17Calorimeter Problem___________________________________________________17

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Matter and Chemical BondingStructure of matter

AtomSmallest particle of an element

ElementComposed of only one type of atom

CompoundMixture of two or more elements (NaCl)

Group (columns)Elements in a group share similar chemical and physical properties

Period (rows)Elements in a period have the same number of energy shell

Drawing structures

Bohr Diagram Lewis Diagram Lewis Diagram

MoleculeCombination of two more atoms of the same element

BOFINCH

3

A (mass number, the number of protons and neutrons [mass number - electrons])

E (the element)

Z (atomic number, the number of protons)

H2S

Periodic Law

Atomic size As we go down a group, the size of the atom’s increase As we go across a period (left to right), the size of the atom decreases

Ionization energy Ionization energy is the minimum amount of energy required to completely

remove an electron from a gaseous atom Ionization energy deceases down a group Ionization energy increases as we go across a period (left to right)

Electron Affinity Electron affinity is how much the element wants an electron Electron Affinity deceases down a group Electron Affinity increases as we go across a period (left to right)

Electronegativity The tendency for an atom to attract electrons to itself Electronegativity decreases down a group Electronegativity increases across a period (left to right)

Electropositivity The tendency for an atom to lose an electron Electropositivity increases down a group Electropositivity decreases across a period (left to right)

Octet rule

Cations Metals for cations (positive ion) Cations are smaller than the atom they represent

Anions Non-metals for anions (negative ion) Anions are bigger than the atom the represent

Isotopes Isotopes are made up of the same atomic number but different mass

number (number of neutrons)

The saying B O F I N C HThe molecules Br2 O2 F2 I2 N2 Cl2 H2

State Liquid Gas Gas Solid Gas Gas Gas

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Bonds

Ionic bondingIonic bonding occurs when a metal transfers one or more electrons to a non-metal (in an effort to obtain a stable valence shell)

Properties Usually solid and have high melting and boiling points Usually conducts heat and electricity when in solution

Covalent bondingCovalent bonding occurs when two or more non-metal share electrons (in an effort to obtain a stable valence shell)

Properties Usually do not conduct electricity or heat as a solid Usually do not dissolve in water

Polarity of molecules If the Electronegativity is low, it is a non-metal If the Electronegativity is high, it is a metal

Reactions Synthesis: A + B → C (like cooking, many ingredients but only one result) Decomposition: C → A + B Single displacement: A + BC → B + AC (the cations moves) Double displacement: AB + CD → CB + AD (the cations moves) Complete combustion: A + O2→ CO2 + H2O Incomplete combustion: A + O2 → CO2 + H2O + CO + C Neutralisation acid + base → salt + water (acids have H; bases have OH) No Reaction: A + B → No Reaction (in certain cases, the cations may not

be able to move; to find out when, observe the metal reactivity series)

Metals and alloysMetals Solids are malleable and

ductile Conductors of heat + electricity

High melting and boiling point As you go down a group, the

elements become more metallic

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3.3 1.7 0.9 0

IONIC POLAR COVALENT COVALENT

1.7 = ionic

0.9 = covalent

AlloysCombinations of 2 or more metals (examples: steal or brass)Rarely found in nature because metals normally require some sort of man-made chemical reaction

Metal reactivity seriesElement Displacement in reactionsLi Able to move H2 from H2OK Able to move H2 from H2OBa Able to move H2 from H2OCa Able to move H2 from H2ONa Able to move H2 from H2OMg Able to move H2 from acidsAl Able to move H2 from acidsZn Able to move H2 from acidsCr Able to move H2 from acidsFe Able to move H2 from acidsCd Able to move H2 from acidsCo Able to move H2 from acidsNi Able to move H2 from acidsSn Able to move H2 from acidsPb Able to move H2 from acidsH Able to move H2 from acidsCu Able to move H2 from acidsHg Able to move H2 from acidsAg Able to move H2 from acidsPt Able to move H2 from acids

Least reactive

Most reactive

Quantities in Chemical ReactionsBasic Concepts

Mole The number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12Number of moles = n

Avogadro’s NumberThe number of atoms (or molecules) in one mole of a substance6.02 × 1023

Molar massThe mass of one mole of a substance (element or compound)Molar Mass = MrMr = add the mass of every element in the compoundDo not count the coefficient

Unit =

Law of definite proportionsA compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass

StoichiometryThe study of quantitative (measurable) relationships of the reactants and products in balanced chemical reactions.

Percentage yieldMeasure the effectiveness of the experiment.

Empirical and Molecular formulasEmpirical formula: Simplest form of atoms

Molar volumeThe volume occupied by 1 mole of any gas @ STP is 22.4L (called molar volume)

Limiting reactantA reactant completely consumed in a chemical reaction

Excess reactant

Empirical formula Molecular formulaH2O H2OHO H2O2

The reactants that are left behind in a chemical reaction

Problems

General Problem1 mole of CO2 is equal to

a) 6.02 × 1023 moleculesb) 2 moles of Oc) 1 moles of Cd) 44.0095 grams e) 22.4 L @ STPf) 31.9988 grams of Og) 12.0107 grams of C

Empirical Formula ProblemA compound consists of 72.2% Mg (Magnesium), 27.8% N (Nitrogen). What is the empirical formula? The Molar Masses:

1. n (Mg) = 24.3050 2. n (N) =14.0067

Elements % Mass (g) Divide by small Multiply till whole

Mg 72.2 72.2 2.97

N 27.8 27.8 1.98

Answer: Mg3N2

Molecular Formula Problem

If the molar mass of the compound is 100.9 , what is the molecular formula?

Empirical formula = Mg3N2

Empirical mass

Molecular formula = (Empirical Formula) X

X

Limiting and Excess Reactant ProblemSilver nitrate and sodium phosphate have reacted in equal amounts of 200 grams each. What is the limiting reactant?

Steps Sodium nitrate Sodium phosphateChemical 3AgNo3 Na3Po4

Mass (g) 200g 200g

Molar Mass169.87 163.94

Ratio moles1.18 mol 1.22 moles

Divide by coefficients0.392 1.22

Answer: Limiting reactant is Sodium nitrate

Formulas

[N = number of atoms, ions or formula units]

Answer: Mg3N2

X

Solution and SolubilityGeneral terms

The smaller the particle size, the faster the reaction The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction

Water as a solventWater is able to dissolve other substances. There is hardly a substance known which has not been identified in solution in water.

Concentration of a solution How much solute and solvent there is. A solution can be concentrated or dilute.

SoluteThe substance to be dissolved

Polar SolventThe substance doing the dissolving the dissolving

SolutionA homogenous mixture composed of two or more substances

Acids and BasesAcids Bases

Ph [potential hydrogen] is under 7 Ph [potential hydrogen] is over 7H+ ion OH- ionAcid + Phenolphthalein = colourless Base + Phenolphthalein = pinkHCl; H2So4; H3Po4 NaOH; LiOH

SupersaturatedBarely anything dissolved

Saturated A couple are not dissolved

Unsaturated Completely dissolved

Formulas

Gases and Atmospheric Chemistry

Standard conditions0°C = 273 K1 atm = 101.352 kPa = 101,325 Pa = 760 Hg = 760 torr1L = 1000 ml = 1000 cm3 = 1dm3

Temperature is always in Kelvin and is represented by a capital “T”

Laws and Formulas

Boyle’s Law Pressure and volume are inversely proportionate when temperature is at a

constant If pressure increases, volume decreases [temperature is constant]

Charles’ Law Volume and temperature are proportionate when pressure is at a constant If volume increases, temperature increases [pressure is constant]

Gay-Lussac’s Law Pressure and temperature are proportionate when volume is at a constant If pressure increases, temperature increases [volume is constant]

Combined gas Law The ratio between the pressure-volume product and the temperature of a

system remains constant

Dalton’s law of partial pressure The sum of the individual pressures of all the gases that make up a mixture

is equal to the total pressure

The partial pressure of each gas is equal to the mole fraction of each gas multiplied by the total pressure

Ideal Gas Law

P= pressure in atmosphereV=volume [litres]n=Number of moles of gasR=Universal Gas Constant 0.0821 Litres x atmosphere / moles x KelvinT=Temperature [Kelvin]

Hydrocarbons and Energy

Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only hydrogen and carbon. There are three types: alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.

1) Alkanes: their general formula is CnH2n+2 → single bond2) Alkenes: their general formula is CnH2n → double bond3) Alkynes: their general formula is CnH2n-2 → triple bond

Types of alkanesNumber of Carbon atoms Name

1 Methane2 Ethane3 Propane4 Butane5 Pentane6 Hexane7 Heptane8 Octane9 Nonane

Alkanes have single bonds only. Diagrams of alkanes are:

Methane (CH4) Ethane (C2H6)

CH3 CH3

Structural Condensed

Types of alkenes Number of Carbon atoms Name

1 Methene2 Ethene3 Propene4 Butene5 Pentene6 Hexene7 Heptene8 Octene9 Nonene

Alkenes have double bonds as well as single bonds. When naming alkenes, it is important to number the carbon atoms, giving the double bond the lowest number:

prop-1-ene: pent-2-ene:

__

Type of alkynes

Number of Carbon atoms Name1 Methyne2 Ethyne3 Propyne4 Butyne5 Pentyne6 Hexyne7 Heptyne8 Octyne9 Nonyne

Alkynes have triple bonds as well as single bonds. When naming alkynes, as with alkenes, it is important to number carbon atoms, giving the triple bond the lowest number:

pent-3-yne: but-1-yne:

Naming hydrocarbons1) Find the largest continuous chain.2) Identify the branches of the longest chain.3) Name the branches.4) If there are 2 or more branches, the carbon closest to the branch gets the lowest

number.5) Branches of the same type use prefixes. Commas are used between numbers and

hyphens between numbers and letters. 6) If there is more than one type of branch, name the branches in alphabetical order.7) If there is more than one chain that could be the main chain, select the chain with

the most branches attached.

Naming branchesNumber of Carbon atoms Name

1 Methy2 Ethyl3 Propyl4 Butyl5 Pentyl6 Hexyl7 Heptyl8 Octyl9 Nonyl

The prefixes for when there are more than one branch of the same type are:Number of branches Prefix

1 -2 Di3 Tri4 Tetra5 Penta6 Hexa7 Hepta8 Octa9 Nona

Isomers Isomers organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas Butane 2-methyl Propane

CyclosCycloalkanes are hydrocarbons that form geometric shapes when drawn out into their structural diagrams. There are also cycloalkenes and cycloakynes. The same rules apply.

Cyclobutane: Cyclopentene: Cyclopropene:

CombustionComplete combustion of alkanes equations are: CnHn+ O2= CO2+ H2O. Incomplete combustion of alkanes equations are: CnHn+ O2= CO2+ H2O + CO+ C

Endothermic and Exothermic reactionsEndothermic reactions absorb heat (energy) [cold]. Examples are dissolving a chemical in water (a medical cold pack) and any reaction where a bond is broken. Exothermic reactions release heat (energy) [hot]. Examples are combustion equations and any reaction where a bond is made.

They have the same number of carbons and hydrogen’s (molecular formula), but they have different configurations (structural formulas)

Types of Calorimeters

CalorimeterA calorimeter measures energy change

Q=m c Δt

Q is the heat content (thermal energy) m is the massc is the specific heat capacity Δt is the temperature change

Bomb calorimeterBomb calorimeters measure energy change much more accurately that the calorimeter. They are also much more expensive.

Q= C Δt

Q is the heat content (thermal energy) C is the heat capacity Δt is the temperature change

Enthalpy

Problems

Calorimeter Problem

100g of water (c = 4.184 ) are placed in a calorimeter. The heat of

the water is measured to be 15.6 °C. 0.568 g of calcium is added to the water, and a chemical reaction takes place. The final temperature of the solution is 26.3°C. How much heat is released per mole of calcium?

For this question, you will use the following formulas:

Q is measured in Joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ).m is measured in grams (g).

c is measured in

Δt is measured in °C.

Q is measured in Joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ).

C is measured in

Δt is measured in °C.

“n” can change depending on the question

In this case it is n because the question asks how much heat is released per mole of calcium

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Answer:

-315903 Joules are released per mole