French Revolution!!!

FranceFrance• France was geographically the largest country in

Europe, the wealthiest country, and had the largest population

• But, most of the country was agricultural and most people barely survived from day-to-day

• Many of the peasants owned no land and depended upon common land and employment by the wealthy landowners

• The rich people paid almost no taxes – they were exempt from the taille (land tax) and the corvée (labor tax)

• There was one national tax that everyone hated, the gabelle (salt tax)

• In addition, the nobility could tax peasants who used the village ovens, mills, or wine presses

• Without an adequate tax collection system the government was running deeper and deeper into debt

• One of the largest cost was the funding of the American Revolution – not because the French loved liberty or the United States – they hated the English

• The cost of French military also drained the economy• The cost of the monarchy was also a factor• The main cause of the revolution was financial

problems:The collected taxes paid:50% on the interest of the debt25% military6% Versailles

The Three EstatesThe Three Estates

Clergy

Nobles

Peasants

1% 1% 98%

Bourgeoisie - Artisans - Peasants

• In addition to the inadequate tax system and the financial payments, unemployment and inflation were also increasing

• Those who lost their jobs migrated to the cities• The textile industry also witnessed an enormous decline

in production, which increased unemployment and reduced revenues

• 1788 was a terrible harvest, especially the grape crop• As the financial crisis worsened so the nobility increased

pressure on the peasants to recoup their losses• The last major factor was the increasing population• The Revolution was caused by the financial crisis, but

the situation was not helped by political inefficiencies and/or long-accepted social practices

Louis XVILouis XVI• Old Regime (ancien regime)• Became king in 1774, aged 20, but he was not interested

in being king• He was an absolute monarch• Weak monarch• Most of the debt held by the nobles

Marie AntoinetteMarie Antoinette• Married Louis when he was 16• Sister of Austrian King Leopold II• Vivacious• Older• Give them cake (maybe?)

Pre-Revolutionary TroublesPre-Revolutionary Troubles• Louis tried to find a finance minister who could remedy

the situation Anne Robert Turgot was appointed controller general

• Turgot was sympathetic to the ideals of the Enlightenment, including free trade

• Turgot proposed six edicts, which, though radical in nature, promised some reform

• Louis agreed with Turgot and presented the edicts to the Parlement of Paris, but did not support Turgot against the nobles

• The members refused to change practices that had been in place for centuries and insisted the peasants should be responsible for the financial burden

• Louis wanting peace, fired Turgot• Next Louis appointed Jacques Necker, a Swiss banker

with a reputation as a financial genius• Over 5 years Necker realized there was little that could

be done so he altered the records to make things look better and then he resigned (before he was fired)

• In 1783 Necker was replaced by Charles Alexandre de Calonne who aggressively sought a solution

• He persuaded Louis to convene the Assembly of Notables (which had not met for over 150 years) in an attempt to by-pass the Paris Parlement

• De Calonne wanted the nobles to surrender some of their privileges to help the situation – they refused

• Louis was embarrassed that he had asked the nobles for concession that he believed should be given

• The nobles asserted they should not pay taxes• Calonne was replaced by Loménie de Brienne, the leader

of the opposition to Calonne• De Brienne took Calonne’s proposal to the Parlement of

Paris• De Brienne met similar opposition and was forced to

resign in 1788 – Necker was reappointed• The aristocracy united against the monarchy and

became a solid political unit• In 1789 the king agreed to convene the Estates General• The members from the three estates then united against

the king and shared ideas• This was the first act of the French Revolution

The Estates GeneralThe Estates General• The Estates General had not been called since Louis

XIII in 1614• The population was divided among the 3 Estates which

having the same number of representatives• First Estate – Clergy

Second Estate – NobilityThird Estate – the rest

• The king and Parlement agreed that voting should be by estate – not individuals

• In 1789 Abbé Sieyès wrote “What is the Third Estate? Everything.”

• Sieyès and others demanded more of a role for the Third Estate

The Three EstatesThe Three Estates

• Many of the priests in the First Estate and the liberal nobles in the Second Estates sympathized with the Third Estate

• Louis asked the Estates to make a list of grievances (cahiers de doléances)

• In 1789 about 1,000 representatives of the Third Estate traveled to Versailles

• The king welcomed the members of the First and Second Estates but ignored the Third Estate

• The Abbé Sieyès proposed the Third Estate be called the National Assembly because it really represented the people

• The First Estate now voted to join the Third• On June 20 rumors circulated that the king was going

to enforce measures to repress the Third Estate and representatives found their meeting hall had been locked for ‘repairs’

• The members moved to an indoor tennis court and swore an oath not to split until they had a new constitution and they demanded that the king’s authority be clearly defined

• The king responded by declaring the Third Estate invalid

• However the king also abolished the taille and corvée, and eliminated internal tariffs and tolls

• He also agreed to let them vote by individuals but only on matters that did not concern the constitution or ancient practices – it was not enough

The BastilleThe Bastille• By 1789 almost half the people needed relief

• People started to see more troops in Paris and there were rumors of a conspiracy of the nobles who wanted to profit from the food shortages and that the National Assembly would be squashed

• July 11, Louis exiled Necker, the people rioted

• July 14 1789 a large crowd of demonstrators marched to the old fortress – the Bastille, believing weapons and gunpowder were stored there

• They demanded entry but the commander of the guard refused

• The crowd stormed the Bastille only to find 7 prisoners

• The commander was beheaded and his head placed on a pike and carried around the city

• After a day of hunting Louis wrote in his diary “July 14: Nothing”

• Turned a political event into revolution• Chateaubriand, “The patricians began the Revolution,

the plebeians finished it”

The Great FearThe Great Fear• The peasants hoped that the Estates General would ease

their financial pressure• When news of the storming of the Bastille reached the

peasants they started to attack the châteaux of the nobility and destroyed tax files and property deeds

• Fearing reprisals by the nobles the peasants formed armed militias

• When news of the riots reached Paris the National Assembly was galvanized into action

• On August 4 the National Assembly abolished feudalism (later a clause protecting property was added)

• They also guaranteed freedom of worship and other sweeping reforms that abolished the practices of the ancien regime

• In August 1789 the National Assembly redefined the relationship between the king and the subjects

• Natural rights liberty, property securityfreedom from oppression innocent until proved

• Didn’t guarantee economic equality but it was intended to establish a constitutional monarchy (some ideas very similar to Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence)

• Article one: “All men are born free and equal” (no reference to women)

• It was clearly a product of the Enlightenment

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

RiotsRiots• The king, queen, and National Assembly were taken to

Paris• As the clergy and the nobility continued to resist the

revolutionary movement so the movement became even more radical and extreme

• Many nobles simply emigrated to other countries to avoid the conflict

• In Paris the National Assembly started to create a new Constitution to limit the power of the monarchy

• They proclaimed Louis to be the king of the French – not the king of France

• Church land was sold to raise money to relieve the debt, but it was sold to the nobles and the prosperous peasants

• The assembly printed paper money called assignats, which was backed by the value of the Church’s land

• However, because of a lack of public confidence the assignats lost their value

• The Assembly also issued the Civil Constitution of the French Clergy

• Made Church property, national property and forced the clergy to swear an oath of loyalty to the nation. Only half did.

• Pope Pius VI denounced the Declaration and the Civil Constitution

• As the clergy resisted so a counter-revolutionary movement evolved

• The Assembly created the Constitution of 1791The king could still direct foreign policyAll citizens were equal before the lawHereditary titles were abolishedGranted citizenship to Protestants and JewsOnly men paying taxes could voteEnded monopolies

• Critics like Marat and Danton claimed, in limiting the vote they simply replaced one bad system with another

• The Assembly also abolished slavery in France, but not in the colonies (led to the slave revolt on Hispaniola)

• Slavery was abolished in the colonies in 1794• Olympe de Gouges published The Rights of Women and

asked for equal rights for women• In June 1791 Louis and his family tried to escape to

Austria, “flight to Varennes” (Leopold was Marie’s brother)

• When Louis was captured at Varennes and returned to Paris public sentiment turned against him

• By September 1791 the National Assembly announced its work completed, Louis accepted the constitution

• The Assembly declared the Revolution over!

• Resistance to the revolution was increasing

• Political clubs started to form, especially in Paris

• Parisian revolutionaries became known as sans-culotte because they did not wear the fancy pants of the aristocracy

• By 1792 the Revolution had turned radical because of:a) a counter revolution led by the king, church, and Catholic peasantsb) economic, social, and political discontent among the peasants, artisans, and wage earners (sans-culottes)

• Louis made several concessions to the Assembly but he never intended to keep them

• The people still loved the king and blamed his ministers for the problems

• Leaders in Paris, Danton, Marat, and Robespierre abandoned the idea of a constitutional monarchy

• The country split as some wanted to restore the monarchy, others wanted to spread the revolution to other countries, and others wanted a more radical revolution

• In April 1792 France declared war on Austria and created the Second Revolution

• July 25, Brunswick Manifesto: Austria and Prussia promise revenge if the monarch is hurt

• Prussia joined Austria to create the First Coalition• The French were easily defeated, but the leaders of the

Coalition argued amongst themselves • Gradually the French the gained the upper hand and a

wave of patriotism swept the country

The Second RevolutionThe Second Revolution• The sans-culottes insisted it was the duty of the

government to protect them • Wanted the government to increase wages, fix prices,

and end shortages• They wanted to prevent extremes of wealth • Wanted a democratic republic liked the ideas of Thomas

Paine• In August 1792 they attacked the Tuileries Palace and

killed several hundred guards• The royal family was forced to flee and ask the

Assembly for protection

• The second phase was much more radical• By September Paris was in turmoil• “September Massacres” - slaughtered prison inmates

because of a rumor that they were planning to escape and attack the army from the rear

• On September 21st, 1792 France was declared a Republic

• The Assembly became the National Convention• The king was imprisoned by the National Convention

which was now dominated by the Jacobins• Louis was put on trial in December - executed by one

vote

• February 1, 1793 France declares war on Britain, Holland, Austria, and Prussia (later Spain)

• Revolutionaries divided into two groups: moderate Girondins, and the more radical Jacobins led by Robespierre and Danton

• Both advocated war

• In the spring France was pushed from Belgium

National Constitutional Convention

National Constitutional Convention

• In March a counter-revolution started especially in western France

• The Convention set aside the recently approved, new Constitution of 1793

• The Convention passed laws stating that insurgents could be tried in special courts without juries

• May 31 1793, the Commune, under sans-culottes pressure, has the Girondins arrested

• Sans-culotte emerge as the most powerful group in Paris

• Robespierre (disciple of Rousseau) formed the Committee of Public Safety to ensure success of the revolution

• Mandated economic controls, but too weak to enforce, except the price of bread

• Nationalized the war effort• Arrested thousands of suspected counter-revolutionaries

and expelled Girondins from the Convention• Robespierre wanted to create a Republic of Virtue• The Jacobins centralized the government and

implemented the Reign of Terror against those considered enemies of the state

Reign of TerrorReign of Terror• Leaders of the Girondins were executed including

Danton• Robespierre wanted to

install Enlightened philosophies - barbaric deaths

• Revolutionary courts tried enemies of the state

• Dictatorship• 40,000 executed, 300,000

imprisoned• Authorized Levée en masse

• Robespierre tried to dechristianize the country

• New calendar with no Christian holidays or Sundays - Sept. 1, 1792 was day one, year one.

• Each month had 30 days, with 10 day weeks

• Marie Antoinette beheaded Oct. 16, 1793

• June 1794 Robespierre introduced the cult of the Supreme Being in which the Republic acknowledged the existence of God

• Notre Dame cathedral became a ‘temple of reason’

• Alienated Catholics

Thermidorean ReactionThermidorean Reaction• Robespierre wanted an ideal democratic republic

without rich or poor• Through despotism and the guillotine he eliminated all

opposition• Robespierre was arrested by the Convention and tried

to commit suicide but failed• He was executed along with several hundred supporters

(July 28, 1794) by fearful middle class who really benefited from his removal

• Inflation increased, self-indulgence increased, people turned to religion, wealthy people benefited the most

• National Convention abolished economic controls and wrote a new constitution and abolished Jacobin clubs

The DirectoryThe Directory• In 1795 leadership passed to five Directors, but same

old leaders - people who had survived - dominated by bourgeoisie

• Less people participated in the political process• The Directory ended the Thermidorean reaction but it

did not fix the problems nor did it make life better/easier for the people

• The gap between the rich and poor widened – with an end to price controls the poor people could not afford to eat

• Most of the available food was conscripted for the army• Lowered prices, opened churches, alleviated hunger,

reorganized the tax system, won military victories, wrote a constitution which incorporated Belgium

• Napoleon was called on to suppress demonstrations in Paris, which he did with a “whiff of grapeshot”

• In 1795 Louis “XVII” died, the Count de Provence, brother of Louis, claimed to be Louis “XVIII” and promised never to negotiate or compromise

• Sieyès, one of the Directors, realized that the army was the strongest institution in France and that the country needed a strong leader, logically one who could command the army

• The obvious choice was the ambitious Napoleon Bonaparte

• 18 Brumaire three Directors, including Sieyès, staged a coup

• They annulled the elections, imposed censorship, and exiled troublemakers

• Napoleon was summoned back to Paris to ensure the success of the coup

• The Directory was over and the era of Napoleon was about to start

• When Napoleon staged the coup he almost failed and only succeeded because of the fast actions by his brother Lucien, who was president of the lower assembly

• Power was delegated to Napoleon and Sieyès• People had faith in Napoleon to restore order

Napoleon BonaparteNapoleon Bonaparte

• Napoleon had grown up during the Enlightenment• He believed he was freeing the people of Europe from

oppression• Because of the almost continual fighting and emigration

of many leading military figures, dynamic men like Napoleon rose through the ranks of the military

• At the start of the Revolution, Napoleon organized a National Guard on his native island of Corsica

• He joined the Jacobins and he successfully put down a royalist rebellion in Paris

• He married Josephine de Beauharnais, a lover of one of the Directors

• During the Directory, Napoleon became increasingly more powerful

• In 1796 Napoleon was appointed commander of the Army of Italy

• In 1796 he defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Lodi• The British had problems: social unrest, rebellion in

Ireland, cost of the war, naval mutinies and started talks with the French

• The French demanded more concessions and talk stopped

• October 1797 the Hapsburgs signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, which left only Britain at war

• November 1797 Napoleon returned to Paris a hero, and planned to invade Britain

• He persuaded the Directory to let him invade Egypt to cut Britain off from India

• August 1, 1798 Admiral Nelson annihilated the French fleet in the Battle of the Nile

• While in Egypt he was responsible for discovering the Rosetta Stone

• In Egypt he lost to the British but kept his reputation• December 1798, Tsar Paul I of Russia signed with

Britain to create the Second Coalition, later Austria and the Ottomans joined

• May 1799 Sieyes was elected a Director and started to plot against the government

• “confidence from below, power from above”• By December the Consulate ran the country and

Napoleon was in charge

The ConsulateThe Consulate

• The Consulate offered political stability, with Napoleon being the first Consul

• Napoleon offered King George III peace but Britain refused to negotiate

• June 1800 at Marengo he crushed the Austrians • 1801 Treaty of Luneville expanded French control over

Italy and western Germany • 1802 Peace Amiens with Britain restored peace to

Europe• Napoleon could now focus on France• Created a new administrative system run by prefects

who had far greater power than the intendants• The prefects maintained Napoleon’s control over the

whole country• Napoleon eliminated many newspapers which criticized

him

The Concordat of 1801The Concordat of 1801

• Napoleon wanted peace with the Catholic Church• He believed the Church should not have an institutional

role in the affairs of the state• Pope recognized the sale of church land and the right of

the government to appoint bishops• Pope gained an acknowledgment of Catholicism as the

main religion of France - but not state religion• Church was allowed to hold services, but state pays

salaries• This detached the Church from the monarchists• 1802 Organic Acts stated the state was supreme over

the church – the pope was not consulted• May have been the height of Napoleon’s career

• December 1800 assassination attempt• Duke d’Enghien ( a Bourbon) was the chief suspect• French troops arrested him, put him on trial and executed him• Fouché rounds up all suspects – Napoleon can now legally

eliminate all opposition• 1800 Bank of France created• 1801 government discusses Civil Codes• 1802 educational reform• 1802 issues amnesty to émigrés

a) swear an oath of loyaltyb) had no claim on lost property

• Old Regime was dead and most very happy• Consulate suggested Napoleon be made consul for life -

3,568,885 to 8,374• In 1802 Napoleon became “consul for life”• Napoleon created the Legion of Honor headed by

himself - with pay and privileges for a selected few - despite Constituent Assembly

• May 1803 Britain declares war on France• French troops prepare to invade Britain, sold Louisiana

to gain money (15c an acre)

• Civil Code of 1804 reasserted two principles of the Revolution:a) equality for all male citizensb) absolute security for wealth and property

• Very rationalistic:strengthened laws on property, religious toleration, equality before the law for all- except women, strengthened the rights of employers

• Dec. 1804 Pope Pius VII at Notre Dame Cathedral, attempts to crown Napoleon

• Napoleon crowns himself emperor• 1807 the Civil Codes became the Napoleonic Codes

• Alexander I of Russia sees himself as Napoleon’s eastern counterpart

• August 1805 Russia, Austria, Britain form the Third Coalition• At Ulm Napoleon defeats the Austrians but lost French-Spanish

fleet at Trafalgar• Defeated Austria at Austerlitz (favorite victory)• Treaty of Pressburg with Austria gave him full sovereignty over

Italy• 1806 forms the Confederation of the Rhine and dissolves the Holy

Roman Empire• 1806 Prussia joins the war against France

• Battles of Jena and Auerstädt, Prussia easily defeated• Napoleon declared Britain to be a “nation of

shopkeepers”• 1806 Berlin Decree closed continental ports to British

ships• 1807 Milan Decree - ships not complying would be

treated as hostile• President Jefferson - passes the Embargo Acts

Peninsular WarPeninsular War

• 1808 Napoleon forced the king of Spain to abdicate - Joseph becomes king

• Civil uprising forces Joseph to flee and Nap. has to send and army to help Joseph

• Nap. found himself in a guerrilla war against Spain (supported by Britain)

• Wellesley (Wellington) drove the French from Portugal• 1813 Napoleon forced from Spain• “It was the Spanish ulcer that ruined me”

• Friedland French defeated the Russians• Tsar signs the Treaty of Tilsit, Prussia lost half her

population and Russia accepted Napoleon’s control of Europe and promised to help blockade Britain

• Napoleon’s empire had three parts:i) The core - Franceii) dependent satellite kingdomsiii) independent, but allied states

• 1809 Austria rose against France but crushed at Battle of Wagram - Treaty of Schonbrunn

• But neither Russia nor France trusted the other• France had occupied Holland and not helped Russia fight the

Ottomans• Napoleon blamed Russia for the failure of the Continental System• June 24 1812 the Grande Armee invades Russia• Battle of Borodino, France win costly victory• September 14 he occupies Moscow• Five weeks later he retreats to France, only about 30,000 men

escaped• Prussia deserts France to join the Russians

• Austria joins the Grand Alliance - subsidized with British money

• Battle of the Nations France is defeated• Talks start about abdication• Allies could not all agree on terms• Problem was:

a) future of Napoleonb) borders of France

• November 1813 Frankfort Proposals were drawn up by Prussia, Russia, Austria, and agreed to by Britain: a)France would return to her natural borders; b) Napoleon would still be emperor; c) Prussia would be compensated

• Napoleon wanted better terms - so allies refused• March 9, 1814 Treaty of Chaumont created the Quadruple Alliance

to last for 20 years• Napoleon offered the Island of Elba• Napoleon was allowed to keep his title and a pension of 2m. francs a

year• The allies wanted to restore the Bourbon monarchy

• May 3 Napoleon abdicated, Louis XVIII became king of a constitutional monarchy

• May 30 “first’ Peace of Paris signed with plans for Congress in Vienna in September

The Hundred DaysThe Hundred Days

• One of the 4 great treaties of modern historya) Westphalia - 1648b) Utrecht - 1713c) Congress of Vienna - 1815d) Peace of Paris - 1919

• No European war until 1850s - Crimean• No major war until 1914• Until 1815 economic and political revolutions were usually

separate• After 1815 they fused into the “dual revolution” (Eric

Hobsbawn)

Main ObjectivesMain Objectives

e It’s job was to undo everything that Napoléon had done:

V Reduce France to its old boundaries her frontiers were pushed back to 1790 level.

V Restore as many of the old monarchies as possible that had lost their thrones during the Napoléonic era.

e Supported the resolution: There is always an alternative to conflict.

e It’s job was to undo everything that Napoléon had done:

V Reduce France to its old boundaries her frontiers were pushed back to 1790 level.

V Restore as many of the old monarchies as possible that had lost their thrones during the Napoléonic era.

e Supported the resolution: There is always an alternative to conflict.

Key Players at Vienna

Key Players at Vienna

The “Host”Prince Klemens von Metternich

(Aus.)

Foreign Minister, Viscount Castlereagh

(Br.)

Tsar Alexander I (Rus.)

King Frederick William III (Prus.)

Foreign Minister, Charles Maurice de Tallyrand

(Fr.)

Key Principles Established at Vienna

Key Principles Established at Vienna

V Balance of Power

V Legitimacy

V Compensation

V Balance of Power

V Legitimacy

V Compensatione Coalition forces would occupy

France for 3-5 years.

e France would have to pay an indemnity of 700,000,000 francs.

e Coalition forces would occupy France for 3-5 years.

e France would have to pay an indemnity of 700,000,000 francs.

V France was deprived of all territory conquered by Napoléon.

V Russia was given most of Duchy of Warsaw (Poland).

V Prussia was given half of Saxony, parts of Poland, and other German territories.

V A Germanic Confederation of 30+ states (including Prussia) was created from the previous 300, under Austrian rule.

V Austria was given back territory it had lost recently, plus more in Germany and Italy.

V The House of Orange was given the Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands to rule.

Changes Made at Vienna (1)Changes Made at Vienna (1)

Changes Made at Vienna (2)Changes Made at Vienna (2)V Norway and Sweden were joined.V The neutrality of Switzerland was

guaranteed.V Hanover was enlarged, and made a

kingdom.V Britain was given Cape Colony, South

Africa, and various other colonies in Africa and Asia.

V Sardinia was given Piedmont, Nice, Savoy, and Genoa.

V The Bourbon Ferdinand I was restored in the Two Sicilies.

V The Duchy of Parma was given to Marie Louise.

V The slave trade was condemned (at British urging).

V Freedom of navigation was guaranteed for many rivers.

• Second Treaty of Parisa) Fat old Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XIV) restored againb) France lost territory - 1790c) Indemnity of 700 million francsd) Army of occupation (150,000) for five years

• The Quadruple Alliance agreed to meet periodically to discuss events

• Marked the start of the European “congress system”

• January 1815, Austria, Great Britain, and France signed a secret agreement against Russia and Prussia

• Fear of war caused Russia and Prussia to reduce their demands

• 1815 Austria, Prussia, and Russia create the Holy Alliance against the dual revolution based on Christian principles, to lend support to protect religion, peace, and justice

• Austria was both a German state and the most important province in an empire of many nationalities

• Germany was the main language• The Habsburgs needed the German middle-class to support him• Metternich kept the Magyar nobles loyal by fear of a lower-class

uprising• Prussia and Austria both feared Russia, especially in the Balkans• Britain gradually withdrew from European affairs

Congress SystemCongress System

• The aim of the Congress of Vienna was to keep the peace in Europe with two policies:a) the balance of powerb) returning the monarchy to power

• Balance of power was to ensure that any one nation did not become too powerful and threaten the stability of the continent

• Restoring the monarch would provide governments with an air of legitimacy

• Many thought the problems caused by France were because of a failure of these two principles

• In reality the Congress of Vienna worked – there were some minor wars – the first being the Crimean War in the 1850s and three wars involving German unification, but no major war until the outbreak of World War I in 1914

• In the early 19th century the traditional dangerous power in Europe was France (At the end of the century people would shift their attention from France to Germany)

• One of the goals of the Congress was to ensure that France was surrounded by strong states or there was a buffer between France and her potential enemies

• One big question was the issue of Poland

PolandPoland• Poland had been partitioned by Russia, Austria, and

Prussia in 1795• Tsar Alexander I’s troops occupied much of Poland and

they wanted the rest to enlarge his Russian empire• Britain, France, and Austria all feared Russian and

Prussian expansion into Europe so they formed an alliance against Russia and Prussia

• The Congress of Poland was created from land seized by Austria and Prussia – but it was a Russian protectorate with the tsar on the Polish throne

• Prussia received land on the Rhine to act as a buffer against possible French aggression

• In 1815 the Congress created the German Confederation