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Issue 93 / May - June 2013
http://sound.fountainmagazine.com/93/1500.mp3
Questioning Techniques and Wait Time
Alpaslan Sahin
Socrates is the first known philosopher to have used questioning in a systematic way
with an ethical purpose in mind. Famous Socratic dialogue takes place between
Socrates and Meno in which they discuss human virtuewhether or not it can be
taught, whether it is shared by all human beings, and whether it is one quality or
many. Socrates is recognized for his uncompromising search for and devotion to
truth. His devotion eventually cost him his life (Socrates 2011). In his method,
Socrates used a sequence of questions to help an individual or a group to determine
their underlying beliefs and the level of their knowledge. The Socratic Method was
developed to urge one to examine his own beliefs and the validity of such beliefs
("Socrates" 2011). He asked questions such as: what is virtue? What is justice? What is
it that makes an action good? What is the end of human existence? It is possible to
see his level of dedication to use the questioning method in one of his sayings as
well: "I know you won't believe me, but the highest form of Human Excellence is to
question oneself and others" ("Socrates" 2011, "Socratic method," para. 2). We do not
know if Socrates was officially the first person using questioning techniques but
there are many fields one can see the form of questioning specific to him such as
sermons, TV shows, education, law and so on. This article will discuss the use of
questioning techniques and wait time particularly in education due to its significance
and common use.
A question can be defined as any sentence that has an interrogative form or function
(Cotton 1988). Asking and answering questions are among the most common human
behaviors we experience in many different areas of our lives (Samson, Syrowsky,
Weinstein, & Walberg 1987). For instance, as mentioned in Sahin and Kulm (2008)s
study, questions have been used for many purposes such as provoking students and
making them listen carefully, analyzing their thoughts and thinking critically.
Moreover, the questioning method serves to initiate discussion and review material.
Unsurprisingly, research has found that classroom talks are dominated by teachers
questions (Redfield & Rousseau 1981). Indeed, teachers use anywhere from 35 to 50
percent of their instructional time posing questions (Cotton 1998). Thus questioning
is a common and pivotal teaching skill which needs special attention for maximum
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benefit. Additionally, the type of questions teachers ask and how often these
questions are posed to students also needs examining.
Question types
The questioning method has been a well-studied topic in education for centuries
because it has been thought to be a good measure of a teacher's quality (Stevens
1912). Therefore, a number of studies have taken place to examine the types of
questions asked by teachers. Even though different categorizations have been set out
in various researches, it is possible to see that there are several types of questions
studied most and these include: higher-order, open-ended, divergent, evaluative,
lower-order, factual, convergent, closed, and procedural questions. But when looked
at these questions closely, it is possible to group them under two categories, probing
and factual, based on the answers you expect from your students. The first group of
categorization might include higher-order, open-ended, divergent, and evaluative
question types under probing since all those question types require students to think
deeply, provide wider responses, and justify answers. Indeed, Sahin and Kulm (2008)
found that probing question was like the first group of question types requiring the
following:
Asking students to explain or elaborate on their thoughts
Asking students to use prior knowledge and apply it to the current problem or
idea
Asking students to justify or prove their ideas (p. 3).
Examples of probing questions include:
1. How do you know that these fractions, 3/7 and 9/21, are equivalent?
2. Why do you agree with your friend?
3. How do you know that your answer is right?
4. What if you were in his shoes, what would you do to stop him from stealing?
5. If you were the President of the United States, would you liberate Libya? Why or
why not?
The second group consists of lower-order, convergent, closed, and procedural
questions that require students to recall specific facts and provide short answers.
Sahin and Kulms (2008) study described indicators of factual questions which was
very similar to the second group of questions:
Asking students for a specific fact or definition (Vacc 1993)
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Asking students for an answer to an exercise
Asking students to provide the next step in a procedure.
Examples of factual questions include:
1. What is the definition of a ratio?
2. When is the Independence Day of America?
3. What do you get when you divide 16 by 4?
4. Do you agree with him?
5. How many blue chocolate candies do you have in your M&M bag?
In practice, 60 to 80 percent of teachers questions are factual and around 20 percent
of them are probing questions according to Cotton (1998). So it is important for
teachers to be knowledgeable about those questions types.
How to develop questioning skills
Cotton (1998) found that teachers questioning method was the second most used
teaching skill after lecturing in K-12 education. This is an interesting finding because
even though it is used widely in teaching, research shows that teachers receive little
training on how to ask, what to ask, and when to ask questions and how much time
they need to wait after they pose a question. For instance, Sahin (2011) found that
training or workshops on questioning was not a common practice in Texas. Four
teachers said that they never took a course or a workshop specifically focusing onquestioning and wait time. Interestingly, they said that they still used different
questions to teach what they teach. When they were asked how they developed their
questioning skills, they attributed it to watching and observing a good teacher as the
number one technique to learn how to ask questions.
Another common method to learn how to pose questions is going out in the field and
working in a classroom with real teachers and students as described by a middle
grades mathematics teacher:
When I was an undergraduate, the time in the classroom, the classroom experience,
going out in the field, being in the classroom with actual teachers and helping them
out, seeing how they are doing it. You pick up things and you get exposed to
different strategies in the classroom. So, I think, having the exposure in the
classrooms is very beneficial because you are taught a lot with a lecture at A&M or at
any college but real life exposure out in the classrooms with real kids, what kind of
questions kids are asking and how they are responding to the questions, I think, is
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very helpful (Sahin 2011, 39).
Also the importance of workshops on questioning techniques and wait time cannot
be ignored since teachers tend to and are encouraged to attend workshops regularly
to grow and become better teachers. But Sahins findings illustrate that teachers
cannot locate a specific workshop on questioning. There was only one teacher who
said that she attended a workshop on teachers questioning method in her fifteen
years of teaching. So, trainings or workshops on different teaching skills should be
organized and teachers should be highly encouraged to attend a certain number of
professional development workshops each school year.
Wait time
Questions and wait time are two sides of the same coin. As a coin cannot be valid
without one of the sides, questioning techniques will not be successful without
sufficient wait time. More precisely, you may ask quality and timely questions to
your students but it will not extract learning unless you provide them with enough
time to absorb and process the question and produce an answer. Cotton (1998), in her
review on questioning and wait time, defined wait time as the amount of time the
teacher allows to elapse after he/she has posed a question and before a student
begins to speak (p. 5). Interestingly, research shows that the average wait time
teachers allow students to generate response is one second or less (Rowe 1974).
Naturally, no one can expect students to understand a question, process it, and
formulate a response in such a short period of time.Increasing a wait time of three or more seconds is an immense improvement for
better responses and eventually for more effective student learning. Studies such as
Cazden (2001) have revealed that three or more seconds of wait time help students
give longer responses, provide better responses with more evidence of learning,
further elaboration, encourage more questioning, and added engagement with
increased student-to-student and student-to-teacher interactions. This is why it is
crucial for teachers to go through trainings to develop proper wait time habits
encouraging further student learning.
The use of questioning skills in daily life
Scholars, religious leaders, and/or prophets can be categorized as teachers as well
since they are in a position to communicate to people certain things by lecturing,
preaching, or posing questions. In that sense, Socrates was not alone in his use of
questioning techniques to teach something or convince someone about a
misunderstood value. The following story presents an excellent example of a well-
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constructed questioning method with enough wait time. In the story, Turkish scholar
Said Nursi talks about how wrong or exaggerated fear can make ones life
unbearable:
An important man (may Gods mercy be upon him) was afraid to travel by boat. One
evening, we went to Galata bridge to take the ferry to Eyup. He did not want to get
on, saying that he feared he would drown. When I asked him how many boats were
in the Golden Horn, he replied that there might be as many as one thousand. When I
asked him how many boats sank each year, he replied usually one or two, and
sometimes none. I made this analogy: Since a year has 365 days, your chance of
drowning is 1:365,000. Why does such a small chance scare you? I asked: How
much longer do you expect to live? He answered: Maybe 10 years; I am old
already. I continued: As there are 3,650 days in 10 years, your chance of dying
today is 1:3,650. But since we do not know when we will die, you could die at any
time. So repent and weep! Write your last will and testament! Seeing the truth in my
words, he got on the boat even though trembling. (Nursi 2007, 401-2)
In the example, Nursi uses a series of questions to help a person overcome his fear of
boarding a boat. In this example, Nursi achieved a couple of things through
questioning: first, he asked a series of (factual) questions to help the person
determine his underlying beliefs about death. Nursi formulated this information in
such a way to show the man how small the possibility of a boat sinking was through
a set of factual questions. He posed each question cleverly and effectively to help theperson realize how his feelings of death were exaggerated. Also, Nursi gave his
addressee enough time to think about the questions, use prior knowledge and apply
it to a current problem or situation. He did not rush him to give answers. Moreover,
the information Nursi obtained was not something that his addressee did not know,
rather it was a tool to help the person overcome his fear of death when boarding a
boat. In a short period of time, Nursi persuaded the person that his fear was needless
through the use of a questioning technique combined with adequate wait time. As
Myhill and Dunkin (2002) stated, Just like a good barrister, a good teacher knowshow to use questions for maximum impact (p. 8).
In conclusion, teachers questioning skills are one of the primary and most influential
set of pedagogical skills in use in classrooms. Therefore, teachers should be trained in
order for them to become knowledgeable about what to ask and how to ask.
Additionally, teachers should know that they should wait at least three seconds after
posing a question for more effective student responses and understanding. Teachers
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questioning skills and wait time should complement each other for better outcome.
Colleges, districts, and schools should seek ways to improve both prospective and in-
service teachers questioning skills.
Issue 90 / November - December 2012
http://sound.fountainmagazine.com/90/1423.mp3
Advanced Placement Phenomenon
Alpaslan Sahin
Two national news magazines, U.S. News and Newsweek, annually publish lists of
America's Best High Schools. While Newsweek takes the total Advanced Placement
(AP), International Baccalaureate (IB), or Cambridge (AICE) tests given at a school
each year and divides it by the number of graduating students (Newsweek, 2010); U.S.
News & World Report calculates its rankings based on the number of AP courses
offered and exams taken compared to the number of students graduating (Mores,
2009).
If you are involved in an educational system either as an educator or the parent of a
high school student, then you might be familiar with the important role of AP courses
in the life of high school students across the United States. AP courses also play
important roles for high school students in other countries because AP courses are
offered at all International schools opened by the United States. For instance, according
to the 7th AP Report to the Nation, "universities in more than 60 countries recognize
AP Exam scores in the admission process and/or award credit and placement for
qualifying scores" (College Board, 2011, p. b). In other words, students enrolled in AP
courses in any of those countries can earn college credit the same way they would do
in the United States. So this is not a local phenomenon at all. Naturally, any parent or
educator might wonder what the history of AP courses is, and what their benefits and
roles are for high school students.
I have worked as an AP Coordinator and Guidance Counselor for a public school for
more than three years. Unsurprisingly, many middle and high school parents have
asked me numerous questions regarding the AP program. The following interview,
which took place between one of the parents who had a daughter at the school and
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myself, should help the reader develop a good understanding of AP programs and
their benefits for both parents and students.
Q: What is the Advanced Placement program?
A: The AP Program was created by the US College Board in 1955 with the motto
"Connecting Students to College Success." The AP program aims to prepare students
for an academically demanding college experience. "Advanced Placement is a
curricular option for academically superior tenth, eleventh, and twelfth-grade
students. Naturally, courses offered in the program are more demanding in terms of
time and intellectual skills than corresponding courses in the regular high school
curriculum" (Postsecondary Educational Planning Commission, 1988, p. 4). Initially,
AP courses began as a program for elite private school students to take college-level
course while still in high school. This way, outstanding students could begin college
with already earned credits needed for freshman year, which potentially would help
them graduate college earlier.
Q: What is the role of the College Board regarding AP courses?
A: AP courses are developed and maintained by a non-profit organization, the US
College Board, founded in 1900. This organization provides training for AP teachers,
provides curriculum resources for both teachers and students of AP courses, and
supports universities as they define their policies regarding AP grades, and develops
and coordinates the administration of annual AP examinations. According to the US
College Board, the AP program offers more than 30 different courses as of 2010. In2009, nearly 1.7 million students worldwide took 2.9 million AP exams.
Q: Are AP takers increasing or decreasing?
A: According to the recent data released in the 7th AP Report to the Nation, the
number of seniors taking at least one AP course and scoring 3 or more on AP exams
has increased significantly (College Board, 2011, see Table I). The increases are due to
growing awareness of the program, obvious benefits of taking AP courses, and the
significant role of AP courses in the college admission process (Reichard & Keirn,1999). Moreover, the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) offers states substantial federal
funding, $24 million annually, to expand AP programs in underserved populations
(Manzo, 2005).
Table 1
More students are succeeding on AP Exams today than exams in 2001 (College Board,
2011)
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Q: Are AP classes smaller than regular classes?
A: Since only academically outstanding students are accepted into AP classes, they are
to be smaller, usually less than 15, as opposed to regular classrooms with 25 to 35
students. For instance, smaller schools like charter schools, might provide better
opportunities for AP students in terms of class size because their student population is
usually smaller than local public schools. Therefore, as is the case in my school, it is not
a surprise to see AP classes with as low as 2 or 3 students per course. On the other
hand, smaller schools may not offer as many AP courses as other public schools due to
its student size.
Q: What about teacher quality? Do better teachers teach AP classes?
A: Yes, it is likely that AP teachers have either better training than other regular course
teachers or more years of teaching experience, with higher degrees in subject areas.
Moreover, AP teachers receive annual trainings in the subject they teach which is
organized by the College Board. For example, I attended one of those trainings when I
was assigned to teach AP Calculus in 2009. In trainings, you learn how to teach the
course and they provide you with lots of resources to teach your course in depth.
Conclusively, I believe that AP teachers may be better prepared in their content area as
opposed to non-AP teachers.
Q: Can my daughter graduate early from college if she takes AP courses?A: Yes, taking AP courses in high school will enable your daughter to realize her goal
of graduating early from college because students can pursue college level studies
while still in high school. That means AP students can transfer their high school credits
to college and can replace them with their required college classes thus eliminating
some freshman courses and graduating early. As a result, AP courses have become
very popular among parents. They want their children to take as many AP courses as
they can take. But taking an AP course is not enough to earn a corresponding college
credit.
Q: What else should my daughter do in order for her to earn college credit?
A: For that purpose, students are required to take the AP exams administered annually
in May prepared by the Educational Testing Service located in Princeton, New Jersey.
This is where AP teachers, parents, and students' decide if students should take the AP
exams of the courses they are taking. They usually look at students first semester
performances in those classes. If students do not perform well in those classes, they are
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either recommended to continue taking the AP courses but not to take the exams or
drop the course before first semester ends and start taking regular classes of the same
course. AP exams consist of a multiple-choice section and a free response section.
College professors and AP teachers score the open-ended questions once a year in
June. The results of the multiple-choice and free response sections are combined to
determine a composite score and then converted to a 5-point scale: 5 being extremely
well qualified; 4, well qualified; 3, qualified; 2, possibly qualified; and 1, no
recommendation.
Q: Do all colleges give credits for AP courses?
A: As common practice, more than thirty five hundred colleges give college credit to
test scores 3 and above. Although this is still a common practice in almost all colleges,
some universities and colleges have recently started to limit credits by requiring either
a 4 or 5 exam score. For example, the University of Pennsylvania is very strict in
awarding the AP Calculus credit and MIT is requiring its students to re-take a college
introductory chemistry course at their institution regardless of their AP Chemistry
scores while they are all still accepting other AP courses (Manzo, 2005).
Q: Do having AP courses on my daughter's transcript increase her chance in college
admission?
A: The use of AP courses in the admission process began after the 1980s. At first, only
highly selective colleges and universities considered AP courses to make fine
distinctions among the increasing number of applicants (Reichard & Keirn, 1999).Today, AP and honors courses receive special consideration by almost all selective
colleges and universities in the admissions decision. The way AP scores are used may
vary from one institution to another. For example, the University of California
recalculates an applicant's high-school grade-point average (HSGPA) by giving
additional "bonus points" for approved AP courses while others do not recalculate but
accept the school's weighted HSGPA. Regardless of how colleges evaluate students'
AP courses, yes, having AP courses on a transcript puts a student in a more
advantageous position as compared to non-AP students in admission decisions. Once,I remember a parent who was evaluating all the high schools in her district in terms of
their AP offerings to enroll her son. When she was asked why she was doing so, she
said it was because colleges look at the number of APs on an applicant's transcript to
make an admission decision. As a high school counselor, I know that this is a common
practice among upper middle-class parents to ensure their children get a college
admission. Thus, this puts great pressure on schools to expand their AP offerings.
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Q: Then, can I say that I will pay less tuition and save time?
A: Yes, indeed, taking AP courses in high school will save the student and parent, both
time and money. As of today, skipping an introductory course in college could
translate to an average of $3,000 per course. For example, one of my students took 9 AP
courses while she was in high school. It is equivalent to almost a year of time and
$27,000 money. Why would a reasonable parent and/or student miss this great
opportunity?
Q: But I am afraid that my daughter may not graduate from a college because many
high school students are not ready for college challenges both in terms of academics
and in life?
A: Yes, you are right to have such concerns because Lewis (2010) reports that just 56
percent of those who enroll in a four-year college earn a bachelor's degree. The number
one reason why the rate is low is because students are mostly unprepared for the
college experience. On the other hand, research has revealed that students who pass
AP exams are more likely to graduate college on time (College Board, 2011). For
example, in a study sponsored by the College Board, it was found that taking AP
courses in high school and passing the exams appear to help students perform better in
college classes and graduate on time. They analyzed four incoming classes at the
University of Texas from 1998 to 2001 by looking at their ten individual AP subjects.
These researchers reported that, "AP Credit students consistently outperformed non-
AP students of similar academic ability in all college outcome measures" (Keng &
Dodd, 2008, p. 1). Thus, taking AP courses and passing its exams usually put studentsone step ahead of their non-AP counterparts.
Moreover, according to Dillon's (1986) study, completion of AP courses convey to
colleges that students who have taken AP classes have developed scientific inquiry,
reasoning, problem solving, and analysis methods. In other words, they are more
ready for college challenges. As a result, it is not surprising to see that academically
prepared high school students are not only more successful in academic work in
college, but they are often more self-confident, have increased aspirations and "fit-in"more easily into college. This is true because AP students are exposed to the academic
rigor, expectations, and autonomy, which are usually linked with the content and
rationale of college curriculum. For instance, Syracuse University found that students
with AP credits showed as high as a 96% first-year retention rate while the national
average was 79% (Miller, 1994). Therefore, taking and completing AP courses help
students have a smoother transition from high school to college in terms of both
curriculum and lifestyle.
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Q: My last concern is about my daughter's senior year. I know from my oldest son who
didn't study much and skipped his classes a lot. Therefore, he barely passed his classes
and graduated. Thus, he did not get an admission to a 4-year college. Can my daughter
really take AP exams during her senior year?
A: All high school counselors know that "senioritis" is a disease and that it is
contagious and there's no vaccination or cure for it. Delicath (1998) found trends in AP
courses as they deal with high school seniors. Delicath stated that AP classes help solve
the problem of "senioritis," defined as senior-year boredom among capable high school
students who complete most of their graduation requirements by the end of their
junior year. The good news is that the seniors who enroll in AP courses often remain
more focused and attached to learning than their non-AP counterparts. Thus, seniors
overcome their stresses and last year boredom.
In conclusion, in light of all its benefits, I would strongly suggest all high school
administrators and counselors to be more knowledgeable about AP and try to create a
very strong AP program at their schools so they can send more students to four-year
colleges. Also, having a strong AP program at schools prevents students from
dropping out due to financial reasons, first generation fear, and so on. Therefore, it
should be the goal and duty of all high school teachers and counselors to inform and
prepare their capable students to benefits from this great opportunity.
Alpaslan Sahin, PhD from Texas A&M University, College Station TX, is a schooladministrator. His research area is Mathematics Education.
Issue 94 / July - August 2013http://sound.fountainmagazine.com/94/1511.mp3
On Language and ManSeyfi Agirel
Whata curious thing speech is! The tongue is so serviceable a member (taking all sorts of
shapes just as it is wanted) the teeth, the lips, the roof of the mouth, all ready to help; and so
heap up the sound of the voice into the solid bits which we call consonants, and make room for
the curiously shaped breathings which we call vowels!
Oliver Wendell Holmes
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The human language is different from the other species. While other animal
communication systems is designed to meet their basic needswhich are necessary to
develop survival strategies so that they can play their role in the ecosystemthe
human language has many additional facets which are absent in animals. We tell
stories, share ideas, exchange information, explain how to repair a flat tire, give advice,
ask the meaning of life, teach physics, tell a lie and so on. There are good reasons for
believing that a special relationship exists between human language and what makes
the human brain different from other mammals. (1)
How do people acquire language? What was the first language spoken on earth? These
and many other questions have occupied the minds of people for centuries. Hence,
language-related experiments date back to ancient times. The earliest experiments
were a type of language deprivation experiments in which infants were isolated from
their society to prevent any possible language contact. The experiment usually lasted
two years when the babbling stage was over. The first known experiment, which is
also cited as the first instance of using the experimental method in the study of social
phenomena, took place in Egypt. Pharaoh Psammetichus believed that Egyptians were
the most ancient race. In order to prove his hypothesis, he ordered two infants to be
brought up by a mute shepherd. He was curious to know which word the children
would articulate first. After two years, the children spoke the word becos which meant
bread in Phrygian. He admitted that Phrygians preceded them in antiquity. (2) A
more recent experiment took place in India in the sixteenth century. Sultan Akbar
believed that people learnt to speak by listening to one another. He ordered twoinfants and a mute nurse to be placed in one house. At the end of the experiment, the
babies failed to develop any language. This proved the validity of his hypothesis. He
was not the first to establish a link between language and society. Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
proposed that language was innate, that infants were born with the ability to speak,
and that language learning can take place in a society. (3) Rumi mentions a story about
an infant in his Mathnawi. A female tiger takes care of the infant. When the child
reaches age two, a fairy comes and teaches language and manners. The tale in
Mathnawi indicates that the socio-cognitive aspect of language was well-known by thepeople who lived centuries ago, and not a new phenomenon established by
contemporary linguists.
The above historical examples are related to the cognitive and social aspect of the
language.When we say that language is unique to humans, the first thing that comes to
mind is the cognitive aspect of language. However, the uniqueness of language is not
merely confined to cognition. There are other features of language which can be
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considered unique to humans. Anatomical, neurological and physiological aspects
make human language unique. This paper will focus on the anatomy of speech organs
and more importantly on the vocal tract.
Lungs, larynx, tongue, teeth, and lips make up the major speech organs of the body.
Location of the spinal cord also has a contribution to speech. The enlarged region of
the spinal cord is responsible for the voluntary control of breathing required by speech
production. (4) There is a delicate design in the order of the speech organs in the
human anatomy. They operate in such a harmonious way that any mismatch or
anatomical deformation of these organs will have a serious effect on speech
production. Therefore, the anatomical order of speech organs has a great role in their
functionality. If the larynx were located above its present location in the throat, it
would restrict vocalization and would not be useful for speech. Although humans
share speech organs with primates, just like it shares many other organs, no primate
can come up with language. Primates do not possess enough cognitive abilities to
speak like a human being. In fact, cognition is one aspect of the issue as mentioned
above. However, there is another thing that needs to be taken into consideration and
that is the anatomy of the vocal tract which is different in both humans and primates.
In order to produce human-like speech, a human-like vocal tract is needed.
The human vocal tract is unique to humans. The vocal tract can be viewed as an
acoustic tube extending from the larynx to the lips. It is the main source of the
resonances responsible for shaping the spectral envelope of the speech signal. Theshape of the vocal tract (or more accurately its area of function) at any point in time is
the most important determinant of the speech frequencies of the (oral) cavity. (5) The
vocal tract can be divided into two parts: Supralaryngeal Vocal Tract in the vertical
dimension and Supralaryngeal Vocal Tract in the horizontal dimension. SVTh includes
the oral cavity while SVTv includes the throat, pharynx, behind the tongue and above
the larynx. Interestingly, these two vertical and horizontal vocal tracts form a right
angle. They are approximately equal in length giving them a 1:1 proportion. The length
and the shape of the vocal tract is highly important in the formation of speech. (6)Vowels like [i], [u] and [a] can only be produced with the current anatomy of the
human vocal tract. These letters exist in almost all languages.
Cognitive scientist Philip Lieberman stated that the primate vocal tract is different
from the adult humans. Humans have a 1:1 ratio of vocal tract in the horizontal and
vertical dimension. However, primates have longer proportion in the horizontal
dimension. They have a relatively smaller tongue and oral cavity. The anatomical
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restrictions do not allow them to produce [i], [u] and [a] vowels. However, in the first
half of the twentieth century, linguists spent great efforts to train apes to speak like a
human being. After hours of laboratory training, some apes managed to learn a few
words. They uttered these words with a raspy pronunciation. Basically, the human
language experience of apes did not last long. The vocal tract of chimps may not
provide the articulators with enough degrees of freedom to articulate human speech
sounds. (8)
The position of the larynx is highly critical. The change in the position of the larynx
allows us to independently vary the area of the oral and pharyngeal tubes and to
create a broad variety of vocal tract shapes and formant patterns, thus expanding our
phonetic repertoire. (5) Human larynx is simpler in structure than that of other
primates. This is another advantage on the human side since air can move freely
through the nose and the mouth without being stopped by other appendages. The
other major anatomical difference between man and primate is the fact that human
beings have descended larynxes whereas the primates have their larynx situated above
the throat. Human infants also share a similar vocal tract distribution with primates.
This position of the larynx serves a vital function for the infant. The larynx works like a
seal blocking the nasal cavity. The infant can breathe while he or she is enjoying the
mothers milk. The milk goes directly to the esophagus through the mouth. The air
goes to the trachea through the nasal cavity and the larynx. This anatomical structure
allows the infant to suckle and breathe at the same time.
Speech organs inside the oral cavity such as tongue and teeth have great contribution
in the formation of the speech. In her book, The Articulate Mammal, Jean Aitchison
explains how human teeth are unusual compared to those of animals:
They are even in height, and form an unbroken barrier. They are upright, not slanting
outwards, and the top and bottom set meet. Such regularity is surprising it is
certainly not needed for eating. Yet evenly spaced, equal-sized teeth which touch one
another are valuable for the articulation of a number of sounds, S, F, and V, forexample, as well as SH (as in shut), TH (as in thin) and several others. Human lips
have muscles which are considerably more developed and show more intricate
interlacing than those in the lips of other primates. The mouth is relatively small, and
can be opened and shut rapidly. This makes it simple to pronounce sounds such as P
and B, which require a total stoppage of the airstream with the lips, followed by a
sudden release of pressure as the mouth is opened. The human tongue is thick,
muscular and mobile, as opposed to the long, thin tongues of monkeys. The advantage
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of a thick tongue is that the size of the mouth cavity can be varied allowing a range of
vowels to be pronounced. It seems, then, that humans are naturally geared to produce
a number of different sounds rapidly and in a controlled manner. (10)
In the light of comparative anatomy, it has become clear that every possible
configuration is made at an anatomical level to make humans speak. The design of the
vocal tract and the position of the speech organs tell us that the Creator wished for
humans to speak:(Having brought him into existence, God) taught Adam the names,
all of them. Then (in order to clarify the supremacy of humankind and the wisdom in
their being created and made vicegerent on the earth), He presented them (the things
and beings, whose names had been taught to Adam, with their names) to the angels,
and said, Now tell Me the names of these (Al-Baqarah, 2:31).
In a nutshell, human beings without language would serve no purpose in the universe.
In order to read and understand what the Creator wants from them, language serves
as a means of communication between human beings and their Creator.
Seyfi Agirel is a PhD candidate in Linguistics at Hacettepe University, Ankara. He is
also a lecturer at Turgut Ozal University.
Issue 76 / July - August 2010
http://sound.fountainmagazine.com/76/1159.mp3
Mother Tongue: The Language of Heart and Mind
Hurisa Guvercin
Today we are all witnessing an aspect of globalization which is the increasing
movement of people from one country to another for different purposes, such as
education, desire for a better life, the need for employment, escape from conflicts
between groups including oppression of one group by another, or natural disasters.
Whatever the reason, while such phenomenon may have a lot of benefits, living in
another country affects ones mother tongue. In my article I want to discuss why
parents and educators should support children learning and retaining their native
language. As a parent living far from my native country I have often experienced the
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fear that my children would not learn their mother language well. As an English as a
Second Language (ESL) teacher I have strongly encouraged my ESL students to
develop literacy in their mother tongue and to take pride in their culture and the
country they originated in.
Every language spoken in the world represents a special culture, melody, color, and
asset and to everyone the mother language is certainly one of the most precious
treasures in our lives. Its a duty and responsibility to preserve it and pass it down
from generation to generation. Whether we are urged by necessity or because of other
reasons, learning another language brings a lot of advantages in our life. A new
language opens a new window in our world view and makes us more aware, open-
minded, and respectful to other cultures, lifestyles, customs and beliefs. Moreover,
knowing another language has been proven to contribute to helping us understand our
mother tongue better. However, much research indicates that most children eventually
learn a second, or even more, languages to a native-like fluency level, what immigrant
families are not often aware of is that many of their children are at risk of losing their
mother tongue.
Mother language for emotional and mental growth
Mother language has a very powerful impact in the formation of the individual. Our
first language, the beautiful sounds of which one hears and gets familiar with before
being born while in the womb, has such an important role in shaping our thoughts and
emotions. A childs psychological and personality development will depend upon
what has been conveyed through the mother tongue. With this in mind, aspsychologists say, it matters tremendously that language expressions and vocabulary
are chosen with care when we talk to children. A childs first comprehension of the
world around him, the learning of concepts and skills, and his perception of existence,
starts with the language that is first taught to him, his mother tongue. In the same
manner, a child expresses his first feelings, his happiness, fears, and his first words
through his mother tongue. Mother language has such an important role in framing
our thinking, emotions and spiritual world, because the most important stage of our
life, childhood, is spent in its imprints. A strong bond between a child and his parents(especially mother) is established by virtue of love, compassion, body language, and
also through the most important one, which is the verbal language. When a person
speaks their mother tongue, a direct connection establishes between heart, brain and
tongue. Our personality, character, modesty, shyness, defects, our skills, and all other
hidden characteristics become truly revealed through the mother tongue because the
sound of the mother tongue in the ear and its meaning in the heart give us trust and
confidence. If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If
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you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart, says Nelson Mandela. I came
across an interesting article in support of the above. A study was carried out on fifteen
Italian interpreters who were working for the European Union and translating in
English and Italian. The interpreters were all extremely fluent in English. The study
revealed surprising differences in brain activity when the subjects were shown words
in their native language versus in other languages they spoke. About 170 milliseconds
after a word was shown, the researchers recorded a peak in electrical activity in the left
side of the brain, in an area that recognizes letters as part of words before their
meaning is interpreted. These brain waves had much higher amplitude when the word
was in Italian, the language the interpreters had learned before age five. The findings
show how differently the brain absorbs and recalls languages learned in early
childhood and later in life, said Alice Mado Proverbio, a professor of cognitive
electrophysiology at the Milano-Bicocca University in Milan. Proverbio attributed the
differences to the fact that the brain absorbs the mother tongue at a time when it is also
storing early visual, acoustic, emotional and other nonlinguistic knowledge. This
means that the native language triggers a series of associations within the brain that
show up as increased electrical activity. Our mother tongue is the language we use to
think, dream and feel emotion, Proverbio said.
Mother tongue is an indicator of cultural identity
A child connects to his parents, family, relatives, culture, history, identity and religion
through his mother tongue. Native language links the child with the culture of the
society the child comes from and shapes his identity. A lot of children from immigrantfamilies, who dont know their native language well, are at a crossroads of identity
crisis. When a child doesnt know his language well we cannot say that he will be
nurtured with his culture properly for the fact that the relationship between language
and culture is deeply rooted. Mother tongue is one of the most powerful tools used to
preserve and convey culture and cultural ties. Children who are unaware of their
culture, their language, and their history will lose confidence in themselves, the family,
society and the nation to which they belong and will have no other option then seeking
an alternate identity. A child will identify himself with the language and culture heknows best. For this reason, the attitudes and beliefs of immigrant parents are so
important in this aspect. If they want to prevent this from happening they should find
ways to help their children maintain and improve their mother language without
neglecting to give affirmative messages and keeping positive attitudes about other
cultures. We must not also forget that we live in a multicultural society and we should
teach our children to learn about other cultures and respect them as well.
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Mother tongue provides the basis for learning another language
Jim Cummins also underscores the importance of preserving mother tongue:
Children who come to school with a strong foundation in their mother tongue
develop stronger literacy abilities in the language used at school. When parents or
caregivers are able to spend time with their children and tell stories or discuss issues
with them in a way that develops their mother tongue vocabulary and concepts,
children come to school well prepared to learn the language of their immigrant
country and succeed educationally.
The ability to converse in a language is developed through the mother tongue. The
child will get familiarized with the nuances of a language, how to learn it and use it,
and this will enable him or her to learn other languages as well. A strong foundation in
their first language will contribute to learning another language and help them
develop stronger literacy skills in the school language, because childrens literacy
knowledge and abilities transfer across languages from mother tongue to the language
the child is learning at school. When children continue to develop their abilities in two
or more languages throughout their primary school years they gain a deeper
understanding of language and gradually acquire knowledge about how it can be
manipulated and applied in different ways. They explore the similarities and
differences between languages. Unfortunately, for many bilingual children who have
little mother tongue support at home, once they start school their mother tongue is
gradually replaced by the majority or dominantly used language, especially in the
early school years. Some parents and educators believe that in order for children tolearn a second language quickly and succeed at school children should use the
majority language not only at school, but even at home. In fact the opposite is true.
Children can learn two or more languages at the same time. We know children who
learn to speak fluently two or three languages in some countries where more than one
language are spoken. Researches show that children from immigrant families learn the
social majority language in the early years at school very quickly, although it takes
longer to learn academic language, and can lose their ability to use their mother
tongues easily. They can lose it even in the home context if the mother language is notused constantly at home or among peers of the same community. They may retain
comprehension, but will use the majority language with siblings, friends, and parents.
Unfortunately, I often see kids from the same minority community speak the majority
language instead of their mother tongue among themselves, even when they are
outside school. Preferring second language to first language most often occurs because
children do not know how to express themselves fluently in their mother tongue in
certain contexts and situations. They lack vocabulary and literal expressions in the
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mother tongue and find it easier to express themselves in the majority language. As
children grow up, parents see the linguistic gap between them and their children has
widened and leading to an emotional disconnection.
How to promote mother tongue
Keeping mother tongue in a foreign country does not happen spontaneously. Instead,
it is an achievement that requires commitment and determination, especially from the
family. Parents must establish a strong home language policy and make consistent
efforts to help their children develop good literacy skills in their first language.
Here are some ideas about how parents can promote learning mother tongue:
-The first step parents should take is make children love mother tongue by finding
ways that motivate and encourage its learning.
-Leave second language to the outside world and speak to children only in your
mother tongue at home.
-Devote time each day to reading and writing in mother tongue with children until
they become able to read and write it independently.
-Tell stories and discuss interesting topics such as your childhood-children love to hear
about parents childhoods-your home country celebrations, because this will develop
both their oral and vocabulary skills.
-Have books and multimedia for children in the home language.
- Provide a reward system and make learning mother language competitive amongchildren.
-Watch TV series or favorite cartoons with them in the target language.
-Listen to songs in mother tongue.
-Send children to centers that offer courses and other types of learning in your
language.
-Provide contexts where children can use home language such as visits to country of
origin, organize picnics, cultural events, or celebrations with families from the same
community.-Have them keep journals in home language.
-Communicate your expectations about your home language to your childs teachers.
As professionals, they can encourage and support your child in keeping and
developing their home language in many ways.
Hurisa Guvercin is an ESL and Special Education Teacher, currently living in New Jersey.
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Issue 91 / January - February 2013
http://sound.fountainmagazine.com/91/1456.mp3
Little Professor Syndrome
Safiye Arslan
Autismand its milder cousin Aspergersaffects 1 in 150 children across
the US. Speculation goes that people like Albert Einstein, Benjamin Franklin,
Leonardo da Vinci,
William Shakespeare and Ibn al-Haytham had this so-called littleprofessors
syndrome.
Our hearts are broken today said the President Obama after the school shooting in
Connecticut on December 14, 2012. These words reflected most concisely the emotions
all of us felt that tragic day, as our minds and hearts failed to grasp how possibly this
could have happened, how come a seemingly human being could go this much lower
than the wildest beasts. One of the ideas that was proposed to explain this murky
situation was that the gunman had an Aspergers syndrome, which was immediately
refused by experts. "First and foremost, our thoughts go out to the families," says Lisa
Goring, vice president of family services for Autism Speaks. "We are all searching foranswers, but it can be so irresponsible to label autism as the cause of this because we
endanger totally innocent kids" (1). This article aims to explain what the Aspergers
Syndrome is about in an effort to save especially kids with this syndrome from another
stigma that they have to deal with on top of so many other things.
Thirty years ago, only 4 or 5 Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) cases were reported per
10,000 people. Today, however, approximately 1 in 150 children across the U.S. is
diagnosed with it; so chances are, you know someone affected either directly or
indirectly by these disorders (2). This being the case, the debates, advocacy, andawareness activities are on the rise. Individuals with ASD show abnormal social
interactions, language difficulties, repetitive or restrictive behaviors, and special
interests. ASD includes Autism, Pervasive Developmental Disorder and Aspergers
Syndrome (3).
Aspergers syndrome was first recognized by HansAsperger in 1944 and the term was
popularized by English psychiatrist, Lorna Wing, in 1981. The incidence of this
syndrome is not well established, but experts in population studies estimate that two
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out of every 10,000 children have the disorder. It is more common in boys. They are
three to four times more likely than girls to have Aspergers syndrome (ninds.nih.gov).
However, the prevalence in females might be lower because of the fundamental lack of
awareness of what Aspergers Syndrome looks like in females. A female with
Aspergers Syndrome might be considered as shy, quiet, perfect at school, tomboyish,
moody, overly competitive, aloof, Gothic, depressed, anxious, or a perfectionist
(disabled-world.com).
It is always challenging for people with Aspergers to lead a normal life in spite of it
because this disorder makes it hard to develop social and conversational skills.
Affected people display socially and emotionally inappropriate behavior, limited facial
expressions, body gestures and inability to recognize nonverbal signals. They lack
interest in other people; however, they are obsessively interested in unusual and
specific subjects. In addition, they prefer to follow repetitive routines or rituals because
they cannot cope with unexpected changes.
Children with Aspergers Syndrome
A child with Aspergers syndrome may have the listed signs and symptoms
(kidshealth.org):
inappropriate or minimal social interactions
conversations almost always revolving around self rather than others
scripted, robotic, or repetitive speech
lack of common sense
problems with reading, math, or writing skills
obsession with complex topics such as patterns or music average to below-average nonverbal cognitive abilities, though verbal cognitive
abilities are usually average to above-average
awkward movements
odd behaviors or mannerisms
lack of eye contact
Parents usually sense there is something abnormal about a child with Aspergers by
the time of his or her third birthday, and some children may exhibit symptoms as early
as infancy. Their early language skills retain but motor development delays (forexample, crawling or walking late, clumsiness) are sometimes the first indicator of the
disorder (ninds.nih.gov).
Hans Asperger called the children with these behaviors little professors because they
could talk continuously and in great detail about their favorite subjects. These little
professors may have an amazing ability to recall dates, names, and events. One parent
laughs about how her ten-year-old knew the scientific name of everyday thingsfrom
the sugar in the kitchen to the trees in the backyard. He would keep discussing things
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using the scientific classification (yourlittleprofessor.com).
Most children with Aspergers syndrome have difficulty interacting with their peers
due to the problems in understanding figurative language and tendency to use
language literally. Children with this syndrome do not recognize non-literal language
that includes humor, irony, and teasing. They struggle just to understand common
social cues so they are mostly loners and may display odd behaviors. A child with
Aspergers, for example, may spend hours each day preoccupied with counting cars
passing on the street or watching only the weather channel on television. Children
with Aspergers syndrome are also at risk for other psychiatric problems including
depression, attention deficit disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive
disorder (aacap.org).
While the more obvious symptoms of autism are usually at their most florid in early
childhood, the symptoms of Aspergers syndrome may only become noticeable with
the social and functional demands of adolescence (autism.net.au). Luke Jackson, a
thirteen-year-old boy with Aspergers Syndrome from England, wrote a book named
Freaks, Geeks and Aspergers Syndrome: A User Guide to Adolescence. He wrote this
informative, sincere and entertaining book about complicated topics such as bullying,
friendships, when and how to tell others about Aspergers syndrome, school problems,
dating, relationships and morality (4).
The idea that every child with Aspergers syndrome is a potential genius can put
excessive pressure on a child with Aspergers syndrome (yourlittleprofessor.com).
Luke Jackson, for example, complains that he is always watching television about high
functioning autistic people who can do things like play the piano brilliantly withouttaking lessons, draw detailed renditions of buildings they had only seen once or add
numbers in their heads like Rain Man. I find these television programs depressing,
he says. I got all the nerdiness and freakishness but none of the genius.
Seeing a child struggle socially and emotionally can be particularly heartbreaking for
parents. Children who had seemed to be developing in normal and delightful ways
suddenly retreat into their own world, excluding their loving moms and dads in the
process after being diagnosed with ASDs. Learning more about ASDs can help parents
take charge of their child again and find treatments and therapies that work(specialchildren.about.com). In some states, expanded services are available through
public school programs. The most valuable service might be parent in-home training
with a behavior specialist sponsored by the school. Moreover, parent education and
skill building groups organized by some hospitals or health centers can be helpful for
parents of youth with ASDs.
Speculations about famous people with Aspergers Syndrome
There are many famous people for whom there is a lot of speculation that they had
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Aspergers Syndrome (5 and 6), such as Albert Einstein, Benjamin Franklin, Leonardo
da Vinci, William Shakespeare and Ibn al-Haytham. We may never know for sure if all
these people have been affected by Aspergers syndrome. However, most of the listed
geniuses focused on something which interested them and their works were not
disrupted by the everyday interactions that take up so much time for the rest of us.
This might be the key factor behind all their great inventions. Then we can think of
their Aspergers syndrome as a blessing for humanity, because it does give certain
strengths and brilliance to these scientists or pioneers that others do not have. In brief,
Aspergers syndrome is not a handicap, but rather a collection of strengths and
challenges. If Aspergers individuals are supported as they explore their capabilities,
they can build on their strengths; they can even be the most successful people in
history.