FOUNDATION ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Second Edition

Edited by

HSAI-VANG FANG Ph.D.

Professor of Civil Engineering and Director, Geotechnical Engineering Division, Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University

~ Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

ISBN 978-1-4757-5273-1 ISBN 978-1-4757-5271-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-5271-7

Copyright © 1991 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Van Nostrand Reinhold in 1991 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1991

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 89-70490 ISBN 978-1-4757-5273-1

AII rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems-without written permission of the publisher.

16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Foundation engineering handbook / edited by Hsai-Yang Fang. - 2nd ed. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-4757-5273-1 1. Foundations-Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Soil mechanics­

-Handbooks, manuals, etc. 1. Fang, Hsai-Yang. TA775.F675 1990 624.1 '5-dc20

89-70490 CIP

To

G. M. Cornfield H. Bolton Seed

Aleksandar S. Vesil: Hans F. Winterkorn

for their pioneering work

CONTENTS

Preface xv List of Contributors xvii

1 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONS AND SAMPLING John Lowe III and Philip F. Zaccheo

1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Planning an Exploration Program 1.3 Reconnaissance Investigations 2 1.4 Explorations for Preliminary Design 6 1.5 Explorations for Detailed Design 8 1.6 Geophysical Explorations 8 1.7 Soundings and Probings 12 1.8 Boring Methods 14 1.9 Excavation Methods for Exploration 29 1.10 Groundwater Investigations 30 1.11 Test Grouting 37 1.12 Representative but Disturbed Samples 37 1.13 Undisturbed Samples 43 1.14 In Situ Soil Testing in Boreholes 51 1.15 Rock Coring 53 1.16 Miscellaneous Exploratory Techniques 59 1.17 Preservation, Shipment. and Storage of Samples 61 1.18 Logs of Subsurface Explorations 64 1.19 Contracting and Supervising Exploratory Programs 68 1 .20 Subsurface Explorations Reports 69

2 SAMPLING AND PREPARATION OF MARINE SEDIMENTS Ronald C. Chaney

2.1 Introduction 72 2.2 Offshore/Nearshore Soil Samples 75 2.3 Handling, Wrapping, and Labeling 80 2.4 Storage 82 2.5 Preparation of Soil Samples 83 2.6 Laboratory versus In-Situ Properties 84

3 SOIL TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS Hans F. Winterkorn and Hsai-Yang Fang

3.1 Definition of Soil 88 3.2 Description and Identification of Soils 88 3.3 Rocks and Their Classification 92 3.4 Physical Properties Employed in Engineering Classifications of Soil Materials 99 3.5 Soil Classification Systems 102 3.6 Soil Types by Deposition or Other Special Features 109

vii

viii Contents

3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14

The Structure of Noncohesive Soil Systems 115 The Structure of Cohesive Soils 119 Capillarity and Conduction Phenomena 125 Effect of Temperature on Engineering Properties of Soils Densification (Compaction) 131 Consolidation 132 Shear Strength 134 In-Situ Measurements of Soil Properties 138

4 BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS Wai-Fah Chen and William O. McCarron

4.1 Introduction 144 4.2 Methods of Analysis 144 4.3 Soil Governing Parameters 145 4.4 Bearing Capacity by the Upper-Bound Method 145 4.5 Bearing Capacity by the Lower-Bound Method 150

129

4.6 Footing Depth and Shape and Inclined and Eccentric Loads 152 4.7 Footing Shape, Depth, and Inclination Effects 154 4.8 Nonhomogeneous Foundations and Anisotropic Strength 154 4.9 Influence of Groundwater Table 156 4.10 Comments on Bearing Capacity Solutions 157 4.11 Sliding Stability of Gravity Structures 157 4.12 Choice of Safety Factor 158 4.13 Example Problems 159 4.14 Numerical Evaluation of Bearing Capacity 161

5 STRESS DISTRIBUTION AND SETTLEMENT OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS Robert D. Holtz

5.1 Introduction 166 5.2 Settlement of Shallow Foundations 167 5.3 Applicability of the Theory of Elasticity to Calculation of Stresses and Displacements in Earth Masses 169 5.4 Calculation of Initial Distortion Settlements 170 5.5 Distortion Settlement of Granular Soils 177 5.6 Calculation of Stress Distributions 185 5.7 Consolidation Settlements 192 5.8 Secondary Compression Settlements 209 5.9 Tolerable Criteria 212 5.10 Foundation Treatment Alternates 216

6 EARTH PRESSURES G. W. Clough and J. M. Duncan

6.1 At- Rest Lateral Pressures 224 6.2 Active and Passive Lateral Earth Pressures 224 6.3 Soil-Structure Interaction for Unmoving Walls 228 6.4 Earth Pressures due to Surface Loads 229 6.5 Earth Pressures due to Compaction 230 6.6 Relation Between Earth Pressures and Wall Movements 232 6.7 Earth Pressures for Design 234

7 DEWATERING AND GROUNDWATER CONTROL J. Patrick Powers

7.1 Impact of Groundwater on Construction 236 7.2 Design of Structures Below the Water Table 236

7.3 Methods of Groundwater Control 236 7.4 Field Pumping Tests 239 7.5 Design of Predrainage Systems 241 7.6 Managing Groundwater Control 244 7.7 Disputes over Groundwater Control 245 7.8 Cost of Groundwater Control 245 7.9 Undesirable Side-Effects of Dewatering 246 7.10 Permanent Dewatering Systems 246 7.11 Ground Freezing 247

8 COMPACTED FILL Jack W. Hilf

8.1 Introduction 249 8.2 Soil Compaction 249 8.3 Compaction Equipment 273 8.4 Control of Compaction 294 8.5 Miscellaneous Problems in Compaction 309

9 SOIL STABILIZATION AND GROUTING Hans F. Winterkorn and Sibel Pamukcu

9.1 Introduction 317 9.2 Principle of Soil Stabilization 317 9.3 Methods of Soil Stabilization 318 9.4 Stabilization of Soils with Granular Skeleton 319 9.5 Chemical Stabilization 324 9.6 Cement Stabilization 328 9.7 Lime Stabilization 337 9.8 Ash and Slag Stabilization 344 9.9 Bituminous Stabilization 346 9.10 Thermal and Electrokinetic Stabilization 349 9.11 Construction 351 9.12 Grouting Principles 353 9.13 Grouting Techniques 354 9.14 Planning of the Grouting Project 358 9.15 The Grouting Process 363 9.16 Control of Grouts and Grouting Operations 368 9.17 Examples of Applications of Grouting 369

10 STABILITY OF EARTH SLOPES Hsai-Yang Fang and George K. Mikroudis

10.1 Introduction 379 10.2 Factors Affecting Slope Stability Analysis 379 10.3 Factor of Safety 380 10.4 Slope Stability Analysis Procedure: Limit Equilibrium Methods 381 10.5 Slope Stability Analysis Procedure: Limit Analysis Methods 395 10.6 Methods Considering Seismic Effects 399 10.7 Slope Stability in Soils Presenting Special Problems 404 10.8 Computer-Aided and Expert Systems for Slope Stability Analysis 406

11 LANDSLIDES Bengt B. Broms and Kai S. Wong

11.1 Introduction 410 11.2 Causes of Landslides 411 11.3 Consequences of Landslides 415

Contents ix

x Contents

11.4 Slope Movements Preceding Landslides 415 11.5 Classification 417 11.6 Investigations for Landslides 425 11.7 Analysis of Landslides 427 11.8 Instrumentation 432 11.9 Methods of Correcting Landslides 435

12 RETAINING STRUCTURES AND EXCAVATIONS Thomas D. Dismuke

12.1 Introduction 447 12.2 Restrained Retaining Structures 447 12.3 Gravity Structures 478 12.4 Cantilever Retaining Walls 503 12.5 Special Structures 504 12.6 Sheet Piling and H-Piles 507

13 PILE FOUNDATIONS Bengt H. Fellenius

13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.15 13.16

Introduction and Background 511 Aspects for General Consideration 512 The Shaft Resistance 513 Toe Resistance 516 Capacity Determined from In-Situ Field Testing 517 Installation Considerations 517 Residual Compression 517 The Neutral Plane 518 Capacity of a Pile Group 520 Summary of Design Procedure for Capacity and Strength Settlement of Pile Foundations 521 Static Testing of Piles 524 Pile Dynamics 529 Horizontally Loaded Piles 531 Seismic Design of Lateral Pile Behavior 533 Design Example 533

14 DRILLED SHAFT FOUNDATIONS Fred H. Kulhawy

14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11

Introduction 537 General Behavior Patterns 537 Axial Compression Capacity 538 Drained Axial Compression Capacity 539 Undrained Axial Compression Capacity 545 Axial Uplift Capacity 548 Belled Shafts 549 Compression and Uplift Displacements 549 Other Site and Loading Conditions 550 Closing Comments on Design 551 Pertinent Standards and Specifications 551

15 FOUNDATION VIBRATIONS George Gazetas

15.1 Introduction 553

520

15.2 Machine Foundation Vibrations: Statement of the Problem 553

15.3 Soil Moduli and Damping-Field and Laboratory Testing Procedures 555 15.4 Harmonic Vibration of Block Foundations: Definition and Use of Impedances (Dynamic "Springs" and

"Dashpots") 564 15.5 Computing Dynamic Impedances: Tables and Charts for Dynamic "Springs" and "Dashpots" 569

16 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS ON SOIL-FOUNDATION SYSTEMS Part I: Prior to 1975 H. Bolton Seed

16.1 Introduction 594 16.2 Influence of Soil Conditions on Shaking Intensity and Associated Structural Damage 597 16.3 I nfluence of Soil Conditions on Ground Settlement 614 16.4 Influence of Soil Conditions on Liquefaction Potential 614 16.5 Influence of Soil Conditions on Landslides 619

Part II: From 1975 to 1989 Ronald C. Chaney and Sibel Pamukcu

16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.11

Introduction 623 Influence of Soil Conditions on Ground Settlement 624 Influence of Soil Conditions on Liquefaction Potential 628 Influence of Soil Conditions on Landslides 635 Behavior of Clays and Silts During Cyclic Loading 653 Remedy of Earthquake Damage on Soil-Foundation Systems

17 FOUNDATION PROBLEMS IN EARTHQUAKE REGIONS Leonardo Zeevaert

17.1 Introduction 673 17.2 Irrotational Seismic Waves 673 17.3 Shear Seismic Waves 675 17.4 Case History 677

18 OFFSHORE STRUCTURE FOUNDATIONS Ronald C. Chaney and Kenneth R. Demars

18.1 Introduction 679 18.2 Loading on Foundations 684 18.3 Pile Structures in Marine Environment 684 18.4 Gravity Platforms 702 18.5 Anchor Uplift Capacity 712 18.6 Pipelines 716 18.7 Jack-Up Platforms 723 18.8 Hydraulic Filled Islands 727

19 FOUNDATIONS IN COLD REGIONS Arvind Phukan

19.1 Introduction 735 19.2 Frozen Soils: Phases and Temperature Profile 735 19.3 Design Approach 737 19.4 Design Considerations 738 19.5 Shallow Foundations 742 19.6 Pile Foundations 745

661

Contents xi

xii Contents

20 GEOTECHNICS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE CONTROL SYSTEMS Jeffrey C. Evans

20.1 Introduction 750 20.2 Soil-Waste Interactions 750 20.3 Permeability and Compatibility Testing 752 20.4 Hazardous Waste Control Systems 760 20.5 Covers and Liners 762 20.6 Vertical Barrier Systems and Cutoff Walls 765 20.7 General Guidance 775

21 REINFORCED EARTH F. Schlosser and M. Bastick

21.1 Introduction 778 21.2 Principle and Advantages of Reinforced Earth 778 21.3 History and Development 779 21.4 Behavior of Reinforced Earth 780 21.5 Design Methods 786 21.6 Material Specifications 790 21.7 Effects of Water and Dynamic Loading 791 21.8 Applications 792

22 GEOSYNTHETICS IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING Robert M. Koerner

22.1 Introduction 796 22.2 Geotextiles 796 22.3 Geogrids 800 22.4 Geonets 802 22.5 Geomembranes 804 22.6 Geocomposites 810

23 DEEP COMPACTION OF GRANULAR SOILS Bengt B. Broms

23.1 Introduction 814 23.2 Vibration Methods 815 23.3 Displacement Methods 821 23.4 Loading Methods 827 23.5 Control Methods 828 23.6 Cost Comparisons 829

24 STABILIZATION OF SOIL WITH LIME COLUMNS Bengt B. Broms

24.1 Introduction 833 24.2 Principle of the Lime Column Method 837 24.3 Applications of the Lime Column Method 847 24.4 Laboratory and Field Investigations 850 24.5 Control Methods 852 24.6 Schedule for Design and Construction 853

25 DURABILITY AND PROTECTION OF FOUNDATIONS Thomas D. Dismuke

25.1 Introduction 856 25.2 Facility Function and Failure Criteria 857

25.3 Properties of Construction Materials, Soil, and Water 857 25.4 Site Data 861 25.5 Behavior of Materials in Soil and Water 863 25.6 Evaluation of Site Data 864 25.7 Protection of Foundations 865

26 GROUND ANCHORS AND SOIL NAILS IN RETAINING STRUCTURES lIan Juran and Victor Elias

26.1 Introduction 868 26.2 Principles, Historical Development, and Fields of Application 868 26.3 Technology, Construction Process, and Structural Elements 871 26.4 Soil-Inclusion Interaction: Pull-Out Capacity Estimates 877 26.5 Application Criteria: Advantages and Limitations 883 26.6 Feasibility Evaluation 884 26.7 Short- and Long-Term Performance of Anchors and Nails 884 26.8 Durability Considerations 889 26.9 Design of Anchored Walls and Nailed Soil-Retaining Structures 890 26.10 Technological Development and Research Needs 902

APPENDIX 907

INDEX 911

Contents xiii

PREFACE

More than ten years have passed since the first edition was published. During that period there have been a substantial number of changes in geotechnical engineering, especially in the applications of foundation engineering.

As the world population increases, more land is needed and many soil deposits previously deemed unsuitable for residential housing or other construction projects are now being used. Such areas include problematic soil regions, mining subsidence areas, and sanitary landfills. To overcome the problems associated with these natural or man-made soil deposits, new and improved methods of analysis, design, and implementation are needed in foundation construction. As society develops and living standards rise, tall buildings, transportation facilities, and industrial complexes are increasingly being built. Because of the heavy design loads and the complicated environments, the traditional design concepts, construction materials, methods, and equipment also need improvement. Further, recent energy and material shortages have caused additional burdens on the engineering profession and brought about the need to seek alternative or cost-saving methods for foundation design and construction.

Rapid and extensive developments in techniques of foundation analysis and design continue to occur. Some of the major developments that have already significantly influenced the instruction and design practice in the foundation engineering profession include the extensive work on computer-aided design techniques for analyzing the stress distribution of soil foundation-structure systems, a new understanding of the behavior and strength of soil under various loads, and improved understanding of the response of various types of superstructures to time-dependent loading and to foundation structures. New knowledge of the interaction between foundations and their environments, such as erosion, subsidence, hazardous and toxic wastes, and earthquakes has also been developed.

The second edition attempts to update the material in view of the developments cited above. The applications will also be expanded to cover such subjects as landfills, cold regions, and offshore foundations, and foundation techniques which include reinforced earth, nails / anchors, and geosynthetics.

In the framework of the second edition, the authors present concisely the basic principles and material parameters pertinent to each subject and illustrate with practical examples the engineering application ofthese principles within the limitations set by the material parameters. The original style and philosophy of the individual authors has been retained as much as possible.

The primary purpose of this handbook is to serve the practicing engineer. It can also be used as a textbook in applied geotechnical engineering. With the updating of some chapters and the addition of new chapters, this book will also be useful in conjunction with design in other areas, such as offshore/nearshore structures, hazardous waste control systems, transportation facilities, and structural engineering, to name just a few.

The editor expresses his thanks to all those who have generously given advice and encouragement in the preparation of this handbook. Thanks are also due to Ms. Eleanor Nothelfer for her general aid in preparing the manuscript.

Hsai-Yang Fang

xv

LIST OF CONTRI BUTORS

Bastick, M. Terre Armee International, Paris, France

Broms, Bengt B. Professor of Civil Engineering, Nanyang Technological Institute, Singapore

Chaney, Ronald C. Professor and Director, Fred Telonicher Marine Laboratory, Humboldt State University, Trinidad, CA

Chen, Wai-Fah Professor and Head, Structural Engineering Department, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN

Clough, G. W. Professor and Head, Department of Civil Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, V A

Demars, Kenneth R. Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT

Dismuke, Thomas D. Senior Consultant, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Bethlehem, PA

Duncan, J. M. University Distinguished Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, V A

Elias, Victor V. Elias and Associates, P. A. Consulting Engineers

Evans, Jeffrey C. Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA

Fang, Hsai-Yang Professor and Director, Geotechnical Engineering Division, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA

Fellenius, Bengt H. Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada

Gazetas, George Professor of Soil Mechanics, National Technical University of Greece, Athens, Greece and State University of New York, Buffalo, NY

Hilf, Jack W. Consulting Engineer, Aurora, CO

Holtz, Robert D. Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA

Juran, IIan Professor and Head, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Brooklyn Polytechnic University, NY

Koerner, Robert M. Bowman Professor of Civil Engineering and Director, Geosynthetic Research Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA

Ku I hawy, Fred H. Professor of Geotechnical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY

Lowe, John'" Consulting Engineer, Yonkers, NY

McCarron, William O. Senior Research Engineer, Amoco Production Co., Tulsa, OK

Mikroudis, George K. President, AVANSE Ltd., Athens, Greece

Pamukcu, Sibel Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA

Phukan, Arvind Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Alaska at Anchorage, Anchorage, AL

Powers, J. Patrick Consultant, AQUON Ground Water Engineering, Hackettstown, NJ

Schlosser, F. Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees, Paris, France

Seed, H. Bolton Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA

Winterkorn, Hans F. Professor of Civil Engineering and Geophysics-Emeritus, Princeton University, NJ

Wong, Kai S. Associate Professor, Nanyang Technological Institute, Singapore

Zaccheo, Philip F. Consultant, Ebasco Services Inc., New York, NY

Zeevaert, Leonardo Professor of Civil Engineering, Emeritus, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico, D.F.

xvii