Foucault’s history Foucault’s history of the subject.of the subject.

LectureLecture

ThreeThree

Background.Background.

► Early 1600s philosophy of Rene Descartes. ‘Cogito Early 1600s philosophy of Rene Descartes. ‘Cogito Ergo Sum’.Ergo Sum’.

► Before the age of serious secularisation - he Before the age of serious secularisation - he concluded that God must have given us all a Cogito.concluded that God must have given us all a Cogito.

► Image of human subjectivity as an Image of human subjectivity as an immaterialimmaterial, , fixed, unitary thing that we are born with, and that fixed, unitary thing that we are born with, and that stays with us throughout our lives.stays with us throughout our lives.

► Huge impact on the way that we conceive of Huge impact on the way that we conceive of ourselves. ourselves.

► 100 years later Materialist, empiricist philosophers 100 years later Materialist, empiricist philosophers (Hume, Mettrie, Diderot) argue that the human (Hume, Mettrie, Diderot) argue that the human mind is a product of experience, and a mind is a product of experience, and a materialmaterial thing made of brain matter, not an immaterial, thing made of brain matter, not an immaterial, fixed unitary thing that we are born with.fixed unitary thing that we are born with.

Subjectivity in SociologySubjectivity in Sociology

►Early sociology neglects history of the Early sociology neglects history of the subject.subject.

► Exception is Durkheim- ‘modern Exception is Durkheim- ‘modern subject a product of ideas and values subject a product of ideas and values of modern individualism’. of modern individualism’.

► Individual rights and justice. Individual rights and justice. ► Indivudual and ‘division of labour’.Indivudual and ‘division of labour’.

Foucault and Subjectivity.Foucault and Subjectivity.► A History and Critique of A History and Critique of

Reason.Reason.► Foucault in this tradition. Foucault in this tradition. ► Examines historical Examines historical

circumstances that gave circumstances that gave rise to the modern type of rise to the modern type of person.person.

► Madness, Punishment, Madness, Punishment, Government, and Sexuality Government, and Sexuality and subjectivity. and subjectivity.

► Linked to his history of the Linked to his history of the subject is a history and subject is a history and critique of reason. critique of reason.

► Critique of the Critique of the ‘Enlightenment’‘Enlightenment’

Subjectivity and Rationality- Subjectivity and Rationality- Learned or Innate?Learned or Innate?

► Reason and rationality Reason and rationality objectifying, measuring, objectifying, measuring, calculating, and judging - calculating, and judging - truth, morality and truth, morality and beauty. beauty.

► According to Kant, these According to Kant, these faculties are innate they faculties are innate they are what defines us as are what defines us as human.human.

► Foucault denies the Foucault denies the innateness of the subject.innateness of the subject.

► He gives it a history. He gives it a history.

What is important about What is important about History?History?

► The history of all societies is The history of all societies is the history of forms of the history of forms of power. power.

► The subject and rationality The subject and rationality have a history - it is itself have a history - it is itself part of the history of power. part of the history of power.

► Enlightenment ideals Enlightenment ideals equate reason and equate reason and knowledge with human knowledge with human freedom. freedom.

► Foucault argues that Foucault argues that knowledge is directly linked knowledge is directly linked to power. to power.

Madness and Civilisation Madness and Civilisation 11

► Late 1950s - the history Late 1950s - the history of madness and of madness and psychiatry. psychiatry.

► Examines the Examines the emergence of the emergence of the modern rational subjectmodern rational subject

► We assume that We assume that madness/insanity - pre-madness/insanity - pre-existed psychiatric existed psychiatric knowledge.knowledge.

► For Foucault -madness For Foucault -madness has a recent history- has a recent history- tied to the construction tied to the construction of the rational subject.of the rational subject.

Madness and Civilisation 2Madness and Civilisation 2

► Modern rational subjectivity Modern rational subjectivity created was by locking created was by locking away all of those people away all of those people who displayed ways of who displayed ways of thinking and forms of thinking and forms of behaviour which did not behaviour which did not accord with the notions of accord with the notions of rational subjectivity which rational subjectivity which were developing in the 17th were developing in the 17th and 18th century.and 18th century.

► The Great Confinement. The Great Confinement. ► Modern subjectivity was Modern subjectivity was

created by material things created by material things done to people. done to people.

► By 1656 1 in every 100 By 1656 1 in every 100 Parisians was confined.Parisians was confined.

The Great FearThe Great Fear► The Great Fear. The Great Fear. ► A double fear. A double fear. ► A fear of irrationality A fear of irrationality

‘outside’ and ‘inside’ the ‘outside’ and ‘inside’ the self.self.

► Collective anxiety- has Collective anxiety- has an affective dimension.an affective dimension.

► The consequence of The The consequence of The Great Fear- demands for Great Fear- demands for order, regulation, order, regulation, categorisation and categorisation and segregation, for regimes segregation, for regimes of cure and control.of cure and control.

Consequences.Consequences.

► Creation of outsiders - in particular criminals Creation of outsiders - in particular criminals and the insane.and the insane.

► Creation of discourse, categories, treatments, Creation of discourse, categories, treatments, regimes, expertise and experts of psychiatry.regimes, expertise and experts of psychiatry.

► Expert regimes to order, understand, Expert regimes to order, understand, categorise, analyse, discipline, record, categorise, analyse, discipline, record, experiment upon –experiment upon –

► Irrationality and deviance made visible and Irrationality and deviance made visible and no longer scary. no longer scary.

► Projects of objectification all fed into of Projects of objectification all fed into of criminology, psychiatry and medicine, criminology, psychiatry and medicine, pedagogy, anthropology. pedagogy, anthropology.

Knowledge as a new form of Knowledge as a new form of power.power.

► Knowledge, for Foucault, Knowledge, for Foucault, doesn’t develop in a doesn’t develop in a vacuum. vacuum.

► Inextricably linked to Inextricably linked to emergence of emergence of institutions. institutions.

► Knowledges involve Knowledges involve doing things with doing things with bodies. bodies.

► They invade the self-They invade the self-determination of the determination of the individual body. individual body.

► Power of rational expert Power of rational expert invades/ moulds/ shapes invades/ moulds/ shapes the individual bodythe individual body

GovernmentalityGovernmentality► GovernmentalityGovernmentality (in (in The Foucault EffectThe Foucault Effect edited by edited by

Burchill et al)Burchill et al)► Power of the rational expert also invades the social body. Power of the rational expert also invades the social body. ► Prior to mid 17th century (same time as Great Prior to mid 17th century (same time as Great

Confinement) unusual to find people talking or writing Confinement) unusual to find people talking or writing about government or governing.about government or governing.

► In Hobbes & Machievelli – imposing and maintaining In Hobbes & Machievelli – imposing and maintaining sovereignty- the sheer imposition of power. - little sovereignty- the sheer imposition of power. - little concern with the governing of a population of people - concern with the governing of a population of people - for their own good .for their own good .

► By end of the 17th century political philosophy has By end of the 17th century political philosophy has changed. changed.

► Now about governing populations. Now about governing populations. ► Concept of population in this form quite new.Concept of population in this form quite new.► Governmentality - the process of objectification and Governmentality - the process of objectification and

rationalisation - applied to the whole of the population.rationalisation - applied to the whole of the population.

Governmentality, Science, Governmentality, Science, Knowledge and Power.Knowledge and Power.

► Statistics - make it possible Statistics - make it possible to think in an entirely new to think in an entirely new way .way .

► Government impossible Government impossible without statistics. without statistics.

► Counting, classifying and Counting, classifying and recording of people recording of people

► People and populations a People and populations a new object of analysis and new object of analysis and manipulation. manipulation.

► Sociology can be conceived Sociology can be conceived of as part of this tradition. of as part of this tradition.

► For Foucault the state is not For Foucault the state is not a thing - a single centre of a thing - a single centre of power- it is the accumulation power- it is the accumulation of many centres of of many centres of governmental expertise. governmental expertise.

SexualitySexuality

► Sexuality is produced Sexuality is produced within discourse.within discourse.

► It has a worrying It has a worrying relationship to reason. relationship to reason.

► Therefore it had to be Therefore it had to be understood, quantified, understood, quantified, examined and examined and controlled. controlled.

► A whole disciplinary A whole disciplinary principle is developed principle is developed out of this. out of this.

The “confession” and the The “confession” and the “gaze”.“gaze”.

► The two organising principles of modern discipline and The two organising principles of modern discipline and self-discipline.self-discipline.

► The discourse of induces us into self-examination and The discourse of induces us into self-examination and confession. confession.

► So that we might be normalised yet again. So that we might be normalised yet again. ► Psychoanalysis an example of the modern confessional Psychoanalysis an example of the modern confessional

discipline. discipline. ► Sexuality as a series of categories was invented by Sexuality as a series of categories was invented by

human beings. human beings. ► Heterosexual, homosexual, sexual pervert - invented in Heterosexual, homosexual, sexual pervert - invented in

the 19th century. the 19th century. ► The idea of sexual identity- invented by psychiatrists, The idea of sexual identity- invented by psychiatrists,

doctors, and sexologists in the 19th century.doctors, and sexologists in the 19th century.► For Foucault even 20th Century sexuality subject to For Foucault even 20th Century sexuality subject to

processes of normalisation. processes of normalisation.

Technologies of the Self.Technologies of the Self.► Normalisation through Normalisation through

sexuality -one aspect of a sexuality -one aspect of a wider process that wider process that Foucault calls the Foucault calls the development of development of “technologies of the self”.“technologies of the self”.

► Great projects of Great projects of objectification, objectification, knowledge and knowledge and normalisation normalisation turned turned inwardsinwards into a project of into a project of self mastery, self self mastery, self discipline and self control.discipline and self control.

► A “technology of the A “technology of the self”.self”.

An historical shift in the An historical shift in the nature of social identities.nature of social identities.

►Pre-modern identities emphasise Pre-modern identities emphasise membership of collectivities membership of collectivities

►Modern forms of identity emphasise Modern forms of identity emphasise the importance of the subjects ability the importance of the subjects ability to articulate and reflect upon private to articulate and reflect upon private experience.experience.

Discipline and PunishDiscipline and Punish

► Examines the birth Examines the birth of the modern of the modern prisonprison

► Links to disciplinary Links to disciplinary regimes in modern regimes in modern societiessocieties

► Panoptican model Panoptican model applied to whole of applied to whole of societysociety

The PanopticanThe Panoptican

► Model for ideal prisonModel for ideal prison► Central watchtowerCentral watchtower► Guards can look out but Guards can look out but

inmates cannot look in.inmates cannot look in.► The feeling of being The feeling of being

observed produces self observed produces self regulating behaviour regulating behaviour among inmates.among inmates.

► Applies this principle to Applies this principle to the whole of society with the whole of society with his concepts of his concepts of discipline, self-discipline discipline, self-discipline and the gaze.and the gaze.

The Paradox of Disciplinary The Paradox of Disciplinary regimes.regimes.

Discipline is an exercise of power, but it is only Discipline is an exercise of power, but it is only discipline that can make us free/autonomous. It is discipline that can make us free/autonomous. It is through discipline that we become people who can through discipline that we become people who can

read and write and think about our situation.read and write and think about our situation.► Once your body has been disciplined - you are often Once your body has been disciplined - you are often

‘more free’. ‘more free’. ► Self-discipline can grant us greater freedom.Self-discipline can grant us greater freedom.► Self-reflection, self-control, and self-discipline, and Self-reflection, self-control, and self-discipline, and

technologies of the self in general - are actually the technologies of the self in general - are actually the route to the autonomous self - because they are route to the autonomous self - because they are what actually what actually create create our inner life. our inner life.

► Self-discipline trains our bodies and nervous systems Self-discipline trains our bodies and nervous systems to a point where we can produce and create what we to a point where we can produce and create what we want to create on the basis of our own volition.want to create on the basis of our own volition.

So What about Identity?So What about Identity?

►Foucault rejects the view that individuals Foucault rejects the view that individuals have a ‘real’, fixed identity or inner have a ‘real’, fixed identity or inner ‘essence’ within themselves.‘essence’ within themselves.

►This is just a way of talking about the This is just a way of talking about the self- a discourse.self- a discourse.

► Identity is communicated to others Identity is communicated to others through interaction but it is not a fixed through interaction but it is not a fixed thing.thing.

► Identities are shifting.Identities are shifting.► Identities are constructions.Identities are constructions.

Issues & Questions Raised Issues & Questions Raised by reading Foucault.by reading Foucault.

► Are we merely products of an exercise of power Are we merely products of an exercise of power that don’t always recognise? that don’t always recognise?

► Are we better off for this discipline? Are we better off for this discipline? ► Power is not just something that represses. Power is not just something that represses. ► Power produces things, it produces the insane, Power produces things, it produces the insane,

it produces, the delinquent, it produces it produces, the delinquent, it produces sexuality, and it produces the ‘free’, ‘rational’ sexuality, and it produces the ‘free’, ‘rational’ subject.subject.

► The Enlightenment linkage between The Enlightenment linkage between knowledge, removal of power, and knowledge, removal of power, and emancipation - that runs through German emancipation - that runs through German Idealism, Marxism, the Frankfurt School and so Idealism, Marxism, the Frankfurt School and so on - is broken. on - is broken.