formulating the hypothesis m&h: chapter 6 anthropomorphism?

Formulating the HypothesisFormulating the HypothesisM&H: Chapter 6M&H: Chapter 6

Anthropomorphism?Anthropomorphism?

Formulating the HypothesisFormulating the Hypothesis

Anthropomorphism? I think not!Anthropomorphism? I think not!

Tolyman’s control of Tolyman’s control of playing hide-and-seekplaying hide-and-seek

Objective observationObjective observation• High-pitch meowHigh-pitch meow• Dig claws into carpet and Dig claws into carpet and crouch down at doorwaycrouch down at doorway• Dart off and hide Dart off and hide • Jump out and meow when Jump out and meow when seeker gets close .seeker gets close .

Named after Edward Chace Named after Edward Chace Tolman who wrote Tolman who wrote Purposive Behavior in Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men (1960)Animals and Men (1960)

Bertrand Russell (1945)…Bertrand Russell (1945)…

““As a rule, the framing of hypotheses As a rule, the framing of hypotheses is the most difficult part of scientific is the most difficult part of scientific work and the part where great ability work and the part where great ability is indispensable. So far, no method is indispensable. So far, no method has been found which would make it has been found which would make it possible to invent hypotheses by rule” possible to invent hypotheses by rule” (p. 545).(p. 545).

Hypothesis…Hypothesis…

Nonscientific synonymsNonscientific synonyms The thesis or main idea of a studyThe thesis or main idea of a study Definition -a statement about a Definition -a statement about a

predicted relationship between at predicted relationship between at least two variablesleast two variables

Should fit the design of a studyShould fit the design of a study


Some nonexperimental designs that Some nonexperimental designs that do not restrict a subjects responses do not restrict a subjects responses do not typically include a hypothesis.do not typically include a hypothesis. PhenomenologyPhenomenology Case studiesCase studies Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation SurveysSurveys


Nonexperimental hypothesis Nonexperimental hypothesis – a – a statement of your prediction about statement of your prediction about how events, traits or behaviors are how events, traits or behaviors are relatedrelated

Not a statement about cause and Not a statement about cause and effecteffect

Designs – correlational and ex post Designs – correlational and ex post facto studiesfacto studies

Examples of Nonexperimental Examples of Nonexperimental Hypothesis…Hypothesis…

Variable X will be directly related to Variable X will be directly related to variable Yvariable Y

Variable X will be inversely related to Variable X will be inversely related to variable Yvariable Y

Subject variable – Males will score Subject variable – Males will score higher than females on variable Xhigher than females on variable X

Experimental Hypothesis…Experimental Hypothesis…

Predicts the effects of specific Predicts the effects of specific antecedent conditions on some antecedent conditions on some behavior that will be measuredbehavior that will be measured

Every experiment has at least one Every experiment has at least one hypothesishypothesis

Complicated experimental designs Complicated experimental designs that compare several treatments at that compare several treatments at the same time may test multiple the same time may test multiple hypotheseshypotheses

Experimental Hypotheses…Experimental Hypotheses…

Experimental Hypotheses…Experimental Hypotheses…

H1 H2 H3 H4

Plausible versus Improbable Plausible versus Improbable Explanations of behavior…Explanations of behavior…

Reading speed is affected byReading speed is affected by Style of textStyle of text Average reading speedAverage reading speed Outside noise Outside noise Room lightingRoom lighting Whether a person has eatenWhether a person has eaten Number of shrimp in the oceanNumber of shrimp in the ocean Number of people singing in TibetNumber of people singing in Tibet


Things far removed from the situation Things far removed from the situation are not likely to be causally relatedare not likely to be causally related

So forget So forget Number of shrimp in the oceanNumber of shrimp in the ocean Number of people singing in TibetNumber of people singing in Tibet


After limiting the number of possible After limiting the number of possible factors affecting the behavior it is time factors affecting the behavior it is time to state a hypothesisto state a hypothesis

Each hypothesis should meet certain Each hypothesis should meet certain basic criteriabasic criteria

Hypotheses must be:Hypotheses must be:

Synthetic statementsSynthetic statements TestableTestable FalsifiableFalsifiable ParsimoniousParsimonious FruitfulFruitful

Synthetic statements…Synthetic statements…

Some chance it is true or falseSome chance it is true or false ““Hungry students read slowly”Hungry students read slowly” Can be stated in the “If…then”Can be stated in the “If…then” If a student is hungry then… or If a student is hungry then… or If a student has eaten then…If a student has eaten then…

Nonsynthetic statements…Nonsynthetic statements…

Avoid at all costs:Avoid at all costs: Analytical statements – always trueAnalytical statements – always true Contradictory statements – always Contradictory statements – always

falsefalseI am not pregnant or I am pregnant, again

Yes means no and no means yes

Yes sometimes means no, and sometimes means yes.

Testable hypothesis…Testable hypothesis… The means for manipulating the The means for manipulating the

antecedent conditions and antecedent conditions and measuring the resulting behavior measuring the resulting behavior must existmust exist

Do dogs dream?Do dogs dream? IfIf dogs display muscle twitches dogs display muscle twitches

and vocalizations during sleep and vocalizations during sleep thenthen they must be dreaming they must be dreaming

No way to measure dreamingNo way to measure dreaming

Falsifiable statements…Falsifiable statements…

DisprovableDisprovable If you eat enough then you won’t be If you eat enough then you won’t be

hungryhungry How much is enough?How much is enough? ““Enough” is too ambiguousEnough” is too ambiguous Cannot be disprovedCannot be disproved Any failure to produce the predicted Any failure to produce the predicted

effect can be explained awayeffect can be explained away

Parsimonious statements…Parsimonious statements…

A simple hypothesis is preferred to a A simple hypothesis is preferred to a more complex onemore complex one

If you are hungry, then you will read If you are hungry, then you will read slower on a cold Wednesday in Juneslower on a cold Wednesday in June

Fruitful statements…Fruitful statements…

Lead to new studiesLead to new studies Difficult to know in advanceDifficult to know in advance e.g., Watson and Rayner’s, 1920 e.g., Watson and Rayner’s, 1920

Classical condition with little AlbertClassical condition with little Albert e.g., Morris, 1981 e.g., Morris, 1981

The Inductive Model…The Inductive Model…

Reasoning from specific cases to Reasoning from specific cases to more general principlesmore general principles

Often used in science and Often used in science and mathmaticsmathmatics

B.F. Skinner – operant conditionB.F. Skinner – operant conditionvariations in the way reinforcement variations in the way reinforcement was delivered or withheld led to was delivered or withheld led to general principles (e.g. extinction, general principles (e.g. extinction, PREE, spontaneous recovery).PREE, spontaneous recovery).

The Deductive Model…The Deductive Model…

Reasoning from general principles to Reasoning from general principles to make predictions about specific make predictions about specific instances.instances.

Basic tool of theory testingBasic tool of theory testing The “hippocampus as a cognitive The “hippocampus as a cognitive

map”map”

O’Keefe & Nadel’s (1978) theory has O’Keefe & Nadel’s (1978) theory has been tested extensively…been tested extensively…

http://cognitivemap.net/

Induction or deduction???Induction or deduction???

Combining Models…Combining Models…

Start off with induction to build a Start off with induction to build a theory theory O’Keefe & Nadel’s (1978) theory was O’Keefe & Nadel’s (1978) theory was

based on hundreds of studies based on hundreds of studies referenced in their bookreferenced in their book

Engage in deduction to test and Engage in deduction to test and reviserevise e.g., Hippocampus works together with e.g., Hippocampus works together with

other brain structures to build cognitive other brain structures to build cognitive mapsmaps

Serendipity…Serendipity… The knack of finding things The knack of finding things

that are not being sought.that are not being sought. Pavlov was studying Pavlov was studying

digestion when the dog’s digestion when the dog’s “psychic secretions” started “psychic secretions” started occurring before the occurring before the experiments.experiments.

Intuition…Intuition… Knowing without reasoningKnowing without reasoning e.g., a hunch or guesse.g., a hunch or guess Not necessarily unscientificNot necessarily unscientific Intuition may actually be based on Intuition may actually be based on

past experience that is just not past experience that is just not readily accessible to our conscious readily accessible to our conscious awareness. awareness.

E.g., behavior based on ‘habits’ are E.g., behavior based on ‘habits’ are quite logical, although they do not quite logical, although they do not produce conscious thoughtsproduce conscious thoughts

Counterstereotypic PerformanceCounterstereotypic Performance Is there a true gender difference in math Is there a true gender difference in math

abilityability Men and women college students that Men and women college students that

received a B grade in Calculusreceived a B grade in Calculus Were told of the controversial findings and Were told of the controversial findings and

that they were selected because of their that they were selected because of their strong background in math.strong background in math.

Different groups were given additional Different groups were given additional infromation: the test you will take has been infromation: the test you will take has been shown - 1) to produce gender differences shown - 1) to produce gender differences or 2)not to produce gender differencesor 2)not to produce gender differences

0

5

10

15

20

25M

ath

Sco

reMen

Women

No GenderDifference

GenderDifference

ResultsResults

How are you finding journal articles?How are you finding journal articles?

1.1.PsychInfo & Medline to RefWorksPsychInfo & Medline to RefWorks

2.2.Google scholarGoogle scholar

3.3.ResearcGateResearcGate

4.4.Interlibrary loan – Illiad - for books & Interlibrary loan – Illiad - for books & journal articlesjournal articles

5.5.website’s of authors (e.g., for vMWM try website’s of authors (e.g., for vMWM try Derek Hamilton at UNM)Derek Hamilton at UNM)

6.6.Ask a prof, e.g., I may be able to hook you Ask a prof, e.g., I may be able to hook you up…up…

formulating the hypothesis m&h: chapter 6 anthropomorphism?

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