form ans style ppt

8/3/2019 Form Ans Style Ppt.

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Form and Style

Writing is easy. All you do is stare at a blank sheet of paper until drops of blood form on your

forehead. --- Gene Fowler

Your papers are to adhere to the form and stylerequired for the Journal of Chemistry, requirementsthat are shared by many journals in the chemicalsciences.

To make a paper readable Print or type using a 12 point standard font, such as

Times, Geneva, Bookman, Helvetica, etc.

Text should be double spaced on 8 1/2" x 11" paper

with 1 inch margins, single sided Number pages consecutively

Start each new section on a new page

Adhere to recommended page limits


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Mistakes to avoid

Placing a heading at the bottom of a page with

the following text on the next page (insert a

page break!)

Dividing a table or figure - confine eachfigure/table to a single page

Submitting a paper with pages out of order


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In all sections of your paper

Use normal prose including articles ("a","the," etc.)

Stay focused on the research topic of thepaper

Use paragraphs to separate each importantpoint (except for the abstract)

Indent the first line of each paragraph

Present your points in logical order Use present tense to report well accepted

facts - for example, 'the grass is green'


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Title Page

Include the name(s) and address(es) of allauthors, and date submitted. "Biology lab #1"

would not be an informative title, for example.


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Abstract

The summary should be two hundred wordsor less.

Main Goal

An abstract is a concise single paragraphsummary of completed work or work in

progress. In a minute or less a reader can

learn the rationale behind the study, general

approach to the problem, pertinent results,and important conclusions or new questions.


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Writing an abstract

Write your summary after the rest of thepaper is completed. After all, how can you

summarize something that is not yet written?

Economy of words is important throughoutany paper, but especially in an abstract.

Use complete sentences and do not sacrifice

readability for brevity.

Keep it concise by wording sentences so that

they serve more than one purpose.


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For example, "In order to learn the role of

protein synthesis in early development of thesea urchin, newly fertilized embryos were

pulse-labeled with tritiated leucine, to provide

a time course of changes in synthetic rate, as

measured by total counts per minute (cpm)."

This sentence provides the overall question,

methods, and type of analysis, all in one

sentence. The writer can now go directly tosummarizing the results.


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Style

Single paragraph, and concise

As a summary of work done, it is always writtenin past tense

An abstract should stand on its own, and notrefer to any other part of the paper such as a

figure or table

Focus on summarizing results - limit backgroundinformation to a sentence or two, if absolutelynecessary

What you report in an abstract must beconsistent with what you reported in the paper


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Corrrect spelling, clarity of sentences and

phrases, and proper reporting of quantities(proper units, significant figures) are just as

important in an abstract as they are anywhere

else


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Introduction

should not exceed two pages (double spaced,typed).

The purpose of an introduction is to acquaint

the reader with the rationale behind the work,with the intention of defending it. It places

your work in a theoretical context, and

enables the reader to understand and

appreciate your objectives


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Writing the Introduction

Describe the importance (significance) of the study -

why was this worth doing in the first place? Provide a

broad context.

Defend the model - why did you use thi

sparticularorganism orsystem?What are its advantages? You

might comment on itssuitability from a theoretical

point of view as well as indicate practical reasons for

using it.


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Provide a rationale. State your specific

hypothesis(es) or objective(s), and describethe reasoning that led you to select them.

Very briefly describe the experimental design

and how it accomplished the stated

objectives.


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Materials andMethods

There is no specific page limit, but a keyconcept is to keep this section as concise as

you possibly can. People will want to read this

material selectively. The reader may only be

interested in one formula or part of a

procedure. Materials and methods may be

reported under separate subheadings within

this section or can be incorporated together.


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It is not to be a step by step description of

everything you did, nor is a methods section aset of instructions. In particular, it is not

supposed to tell a story. By the way, your

notebook should contain all of the

information that you need for this section.


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Writing a materials and methods section

Materials:

Describe materials separately only if the studyis so complicated that it saves space this way.

Include specialized chemicals, biological

materials, and any equipment or supplies thatare not commonly found in laboratories.

Do not include commonly found supplies suchas test tubes, pipet tips, beakers, etc., orstandard lab equipment such as centrifuges,spectrophotometers, pipettors, etc.


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If use of a specific type of equipment, a specific

enzyme, or a culture from a particular supplier iscritical to the success of the experiment, then itand the source should be singled out, otherwiseno.

Materials may be reported in a separateparagraph or else they may be identified along

with your procedures.

In biosciences we frequently work with solutions

- refer to them by name and describe completely,including concentrations of all reagents, and pHof aqueous solutions, solvent if non-aqueous.


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Methods:

Report the methodology (not details of eachprocedure that employed the samemethodology)

Describe the methodology completely, includingsuch specifics as temperatures, incubation times,

etc. To be concise, present methods under headings

devoted to specific procedures or groups ofprocedures

Generalize - report how procedures were done,not how they were specifically performed on aparticular day.


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For example, report "samples were diluted to

a final concentration of 2 mg/ml protein;"don't report that "135 microliters of sampleone was diluted with 330 microliters of bufferto make the protein concentration 2 mg/ml."

Always think about what would be relevant toan investigator at another institution, workingon his/her own project.

If well documented procedures were used,

report the procedure by name, perhaps withreference, and that's all.


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For example, the Bradford assay is well

known. You need not report the procedure infull - just that you used a Bradford assay to

estimate protein concentration, and identify

what you used as a standard. The same is true

for the SDS-PAGE method, and many other

well known procedures in biology and

biochemistry.


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Style:

It is awkward or impossible to use active voicewhen documenting methods without using first

person, which would focus the reader's

attention on the investigator rather than thework. Therefore when writing up the methods

most authors use third person passive voice.

Use normal prose in this and in every other

section of the paper avoid informal lists, and

use complete sentences.


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What to avoid

Materials and methods are not a set ofinstructions.

Omit all explanatory information and

background - save it for the discussion. Omit information that is irrelevant to a third

party, such as what color ice bucket you used,

or which individual logged in the data.


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Results

The page length of this section is set by theamount and types of data to be reported.

Continue to be concise, using figures and tables,

if appropriate, to present results most effectively.

See recommendations for content, below. General intent

The purpose of a results section is to present and

illustrate your findings. Make this section acompletely objective report of the results, and

save all interpretation for the discussion.


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Writing a results section

IM

PORTANT: You must clearly distinguish materialthat would normally be included in a researcharticle from any raw data or other appendixmaterial that would not be published. In fact,such material should not be submitted at allunless requested by the instructor.

Content

Summarize your findings in text and illustrate

them, if appropriate, with figures and tables. In text, describe each of your results, pointing the

reader to observations that are most relevant.


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Provide a context, such as by describing the

question that was addressed by making aparticular observation.

Describe results of control experiments and

include observations that are not presented in

a formal figure or table, if appropriate.

Analyze your data, then prepare the analyzed

(converted) data in the form of a figure

(graph), table, or in text form.


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What to avoid

Do not discuss or interpret your results, reportbackground information, or attempt to explain

anything.

Never include raw data or intermediate

calculations in a research paper.

Do not present the same data more than once.

Text should complement any figures or tables,

not repeat the same information. Please do not confuse figures with tables - there

is a difference.


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Style

As

always

, us

e pas

t tens

e when you refer to yourresults, and put everything in a logical order.

In text, refer to each figure as "figure 1," "figure2," etc. ; number your tables as well (see thereference text for details)

Place figures and tables, properly numbered, inorder at the end of the report (clearly distinguishthem from any other material such as raw data,standard curves, etc.)

If you prefer, you may place your figures andtables appropriately within the text of your resultssection.


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Figures and tables

Either place figures and tables within the text of the

result, or include them in the back of the report(following Literature Cited) - do one or the other

If you place figures and tables at the end of the report,make sure they are clearly distinguished from anyattached appendix materials, such as raw data

Regardless of placement, each figure must benumbered consecutively and complete with caption(caption goes under the figure)

Regardless of placement, each table must be titled,

numbered consecutively and complete with heading(title with description goes above the table)

Each figure and table must be sufficiently completethat it could stand on its own, separate from text


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Discussion

Journal guidelines vary. Space is so valuable inthe Journal of Biological Chemistry, that

authors are asked to restrict discussions to

four pages or less, double spaced, typed. That

works out to one printed page. While you are

learning to write effectively, the limit will be

extended to five typed pages. If you practice

economy of words, that should be plenty ofspace within which to say all that you need to

say.


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General intent

The objective here is to provide an interpretationof your results and support for all of yourconclusions, using evidence from yourexperiment and generally accepted knowledge, ifappropriate. The significance of findings should

be clearly described.Writing a discussion

Interpret your data in the discussion inappropriate depth. This means that when you

explain a phenomenon you must describemechanisms that may account for theobservation


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If your results differ from your expectations,

explain why that may have happened If your results agree, then describe the theory

that the evidence supported. It is neverappropriate to simply state that the data

agreed with expectations, and let it drop atthat.

Decide if each hypothesis is supported,

rejected, or if you cannot make a decision withconfidence. Do not simply dismiss a study orpart of a study as "inconclusive."


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Research papers are not accepted if the work

is incomplete. Draw what conclusions you canbased upon the results that you have, and

treat the study as a finished work

You may suggest future directions, such as

how the experiment might be modified to

accomplish another objective.

Explain all of your observations as much as

possible,focusing on mechanisms.


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Decide if the experimental design adequatelyaddressed the hypothesis, and whether or not itwas properly controlled.

Try to offer alternative explanations if reasonablealternatives exist.

One experiment will not answer an overallquestion, so keeping the big picture in mind,where do you go next? The best studies open upnew avenues of research. What questions

remain? Recommendations for specific papers will provide

additional suggestions.


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Style:

When you refer to information, distinguish data generated by your

own studies from published information or from informationobtained from other students (verb tense is an important tool foraccomplishing that purpose).

Refer to work done by specific individuals (including yourself) inpast tense.

Refer to generally accepted facts and principles in present tense.

For example, "Doofus, in a 1989 survey,foundthat anemia in bassethounds was correlatedwith advanced age. Anemia is a condition inwhich there is insufficient hemoglobin in the blood."

The biggest mistake that students make in discussions is to presenta superficial interpretation that more or less re-states the results. Itis necessary to suggest whyresults came out as they did, focusing

on the mechanisms behind the observations


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Anemia is a condition in which there is

insufficient hemoglobin in the blood." The biggest mistake that students make in

discussions is to present a superficial

interpretation that more or less re-states the

results. It is necessary to suggest whyresults

came out as they did, focusing on the

mechanisms behind the observations


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Literature Cited

List all literature cited in your paper, in

alphabetical order, by first author. In a proper

research paper, only primary literature is used

(original research articles authored by theoriginal investigators). Be cautious about using

web sites as references - anyone can put just

about anything on a web site, and you have no

sure way of knowing if it is truth or fiction.


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If you are citing an on line journal, use the

journal citation (name, volume, year, pagenumbers). Some of your papers may not

require references, and if that is the case

simply state that "no references were

consulted."


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What is Ethics? Why is it important?

What comes out of your mind when we say ethics?

Ethics

rules for distinguishing between right and wrong

e.g. Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have

them do unto you")Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm"), a

Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill..."), or a

wise aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius.

most common way of defining "ethics": norms forconduct that distinguish between acceptable and

unacceptable behavior.


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Where do we learn or acquire this ethical norms?

home, at school, in church, or in other socialsettings

acquire our sense of right and wrong duringchildhood, moral development occurs throughoutlife and human beings pass through differentstages of growth as they mature.

Ethical norms are so ubiquitous that one mightbe tempted to regard them as simple

commonsense. On the other hand, if morality were nothing more

than commonsense,


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then why are there so many ethical disputes

and issues in our society? One plausible explanation of these

disagreements is that all people recognize

some common ethical norms but different

individuals interpret, apply, and balance these

norms in different ways in light of their own

values and life experiences.


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Most societies also have legal rules that

govern behavior, but ethical norms tend to bebroader and more informal than laws.

Although most societies use laws to enforce

widely accepted moral standards and ethical

and legal rules use similar concepts, it is

important to remember that ethics and law

are not the same. An action may be legal but

unethical or illegal but ethical.


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We can also use ethical concepts and

principles to criticize, evaluate, propose, orinterpret laws. Indeed, in the last century,

many social reformers urged citizens to

disobey laws in order to protest what they

regarded as immoral or unjust laws. Peaceful

civil disobedience is an ethical way of

expressing political viewpoints.


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Others defines 'ethics' focuses on the

disciplines that study standards of conduct,such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology,

or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist"

is someone who studies ethical standards in

medicine. One may also define ethics as a

method, procedure, or perspective for

deciding how to act and for analyzing complex

problems and issues.


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For instance, in considering a complex issue

like global warming, one may take aneconomic, ecological, political, or ethical

perspective on the problem. While an

economist might examine the cost and

benefits of various policies related to global

warming, an environmental ethicist could

examine the ethical values and principles at

stake.


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Many different disciplines, institutions, and

professions have norms for behavior that suittheir particular aims and goals. These norms

also help members of the discipline to

coordinate their actions or activities and toestablish the public's trust of the discipline.

For instance, ethical norms govern conduct in

medicine, law, engineering, and business.


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Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of

research and apply to people who conductscientific research or other scholarly or

creative activities. There is even a specialized

discipline, research ethics, which studies thesenorms.


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Importance of Ethics in Research

First, norms promote the aims ofresearch,

such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of

error. For example, prohibitions against

fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresentingresearch data promote the truth and avoid

error.


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Second, since research often involves a great

deal of cooperation and coordination amongmany different people in different disciplines

and institutions, ethical standards promote

the values that ar

e essential to collabor

ativework, such as trust, accountability, mutual

respect, and fairness.


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Most researchers want to receive credit for

their contributions and do not want to havetheir ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.

Third, many of the ethical norms help to

ensure that researchers can be held

accountable to the public.


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For example, many ethical norms in research,

such as guidelines for authorship, copyrightand patenting policies, data sharing policies,

and confidentiality rules in peer review, are

designed to protect intellectual property

interests while encouraging collaboration.


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Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that

researcher

scan

be held accountable to the public.

For instance, federal policies on research

misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human subjects

protections, and animal care and use are necessary in

order to make sure that researchers who are fundedby public money can be held accountable to the

public.

Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build

public support for research. People more likely tofund research project if they can trust the quality and

integrity of research.


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Finally, many of the norms of research

promote a variety of other important moraland social values, such as social responsibility,

human rights, animal welfare, compliance

with the law, and health and safety. Ethical

lapses in research can significantly harmhuman and animal subjects, students, and the

public


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For example, a researcher who fabricates data

in a clinical trial may harm or even killpatients, and a researcher who fails to abide

by regulations and guidelines relating to

radiation or biological safety may jeopardize

his health and safety or the health and safetyof staff and students.


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Codes and Policies forResearch Ethics

Given the importance of ethics for theconduct of research, it should come as no

surprise that many different professional

associations, government agencies, and

universities have adopted specific codes,rules, and policies relating to research ethics.


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Many government agencies, such as the

NationalInstitutes of Health (N

IH), theNational Science Foundation (NSF), the Food

and Drug Administration (FDA), the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and

the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) haveethics rules for funded researchers.


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Other influential research ethics policies

include the Uniform Requirements forManuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals

(International Committee ofMedical Journal

Editors), the Chemist's Code of Conduct

(American Chemical Society), Code of Ethics(American Society for Clinical Laboratory

Science)


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Ethical Principles of Psychologists (American

Psychological Association), Statements onEthics and Professional Responsibility

(American Anthropological Association),

Statement on Professional Ethics (American

Association of University Professors), the

Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of

Helsinki (World Medical Association).


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The following is a rough and general summary ofsome ethicalprincipals that various codes address*:

Honesty

Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly reportdata, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do notfabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues,granting agencies, or the public.

Objectivity

Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, datainterpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing,expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity isexpected or required. Avoid or minimize bias orself-deception.

Disclo

se per

sonal or financial intere

sts

that may affect research.


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Integrity

Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive forconsistency of thought and action.

Carefulness

Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and criticallyexamine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep goodrecords of research activities, such as data collection, researchdesign, and correspondence with agencies or journals.

Openness

Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticismand new ideas.


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Responsible Mentoring

Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote theirwelfare and allow them to make their own decisions.

Respect for colleagues

Respect your colleague

sand treat them fairly.

Social Responsibility

Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social

harms through research, public education, and advocacy.


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Non-Discrimination

Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the

basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are notrelated to their scientific competence and integrity.

Competence

Maintain and improve your own professional competence

and expertise through lifelong education and learning; takesteps to promote competence in science as a whole.

Legality

Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and

governmental policies.


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Animal Care

Show proper respect and care for animals whenusing them in research. Do not conductunnecessary or poorly designed animalexperiments.

Human Subjects Protection When conducting research on human subjects,

minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits;respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy;

take special precautions with vulnerablepopulations; and strive to distribute the benefitsand burdens of research fairly.


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Ethical Decision Making in Research

Although codes, policies, and principals are very

important and useful, like any set of rules, they

do not cover every situation, they often conflict,

and they require considerable interpretation. It is

therefore important for researchers to learn howto interpret, assess, and apply various research

rules and how to make decisions and to act in

various situations. The vast majority of decisions

involve the straightforward application of ethicalrules. For example, consider the following case,


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Case 1:

The research protocol for a study of a drug on

hypertension requires the administration of thedrug at different doses to 50 laboratory mice,with chemical and behavioral tests to determinetoxic effects. Tom has almost finished theexperiment for Dr. Q. He has only 5 mice left totest. However, he really wants to finish his workin time to go to Florida on spring break with hisfriends, who are leaving tonight. He has injectedthe drug in all 50 mice but has not completed all

of the tests. He therefore decides to extrapolatefrom the 45 completed results to produce the 5additional results.


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Many different research ethics policies would hold thatTom has acted unethically by fabricating data. If thisstudy were sponsored by a federal agency, such as theNIH, his actions would constitute a form ofresearchmisconduct, which the government defines as"fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism" (or FFP).Actions that nearly all researchers classify as unethicalare viewed as misconduct. It is important to remember,however, that misconduct occurs only whenresearchers intend to deceive: honest errors related tosloppiness, poor record keeping, miscalculations, bias,self-deception, and even negligence do not constitutemisconduct. Also, reasonable disagreements aboutresearch methods, procedures, and interpretations donot constitute research misconduct. Consider thefollowing case:


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Case 2:

Dr. T has just discovered a mathematical error in a paper

that has been accepted for publication in a journal. Theerror does not affect the overall results of his research, butit is potentially misleading. The journal has just gone topress, so it is too late to catch the error before it appears inprint. In order to avoid embarrassment, Dr. T decides toignore the error.

Dr. T's error is not misconduct nor is his decision to take noaction to correct the error. Most researchers, as well asmany different policies and codes, including ECU's policies,would say that Dr. T should tell the journal about the errorand consider publishing a correction or errata. Failing to

publish a correction would be unethical because it wouldviolate norms relating to honesty and objectivity inresearch.


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There are many other activities that the government does not define as"misconduct" but which are still regarded by most researchers asunethical. These are called "other deviations" from acceptable researchpractices and include:

Publishing the same paper in two different journals without telling theeditors

Submitting the same paper to different journals without telling the editors

Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in order tomake sure that you are the sole inventor

Including a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a favor eventhough the colleague did not make a serious contribution to the paper

Discussing with your colleagues confidential data from a paper that youare reviewing for a journal

Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing your reasons in paper

Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order to enhance thesignificance of your research

Bypassing the peer review process and announcing your results through apress conference without giving peers adequate information to reviewyour work


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Conducting a review of the literature that fails to acknowledge thecontributions of other people in the field or relevant prior work

Stretching the truth on a grant application in order to convince reviewers

that your project will make a significant contribution to the field Stretching the truth on a job application or curriculum vita

Giving the same research project to two graduate students in order to seewho can do it the fastest

Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or post-doctoral students

Failing to keep good research records

Failing to maintain research data for a reasonable period of time Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of

author's submission

Promising a student a better grade for sexual favors

Using a racist epithet in the laboratory

Making significant deviations from the research protocol approved by yourinstitution's Animal Care and Use Committee or Institutional Review Boardfor Human Subjects Research without telling the committee or the board

Not reporting an adverse event in a human research experiment

Wasting animals in research


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Exposing students and staff to biological risks inviolation of your institution's biosafety rules

Rejecting a manuscript for publication without evenreading it

Sabotaging someone's work

Stealing supplies, books, or data

Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn out Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or

computer programs

Owning over $10,000 in stock in a company thatsponsors your research and not disclosing this financial

interest Deliberately overestimating the clinical significance of a

new drug in order to obtain economic benefits


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Promoting Ethical Conduct in Science

Many of you may be wondering why you arerequired to have training in research ethics.

You may believe that you are highly ethical

and know the difference between right and

wrong. You would never fabricate or falsify

data or plagiarize. Indeed, you also may

believe that most of your colleagues are highly

ethical and that there is no ethics problem inresearch.


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If you feel this way, relax. No one is accusing youof acting unethically. Indeed, the best evidence

we have shows that misconduct is a very rareoccurrence in research, although there isconsiderable variation among various estimates.The rate of misconduct has been estimated to be

as low as 0.01% of researchers per year (based onconfirmed cases of misconduct in federallyfunded research) to as high as 1% of researchersper year (based on self-reports of misconduct on

anonymous surveys). See Shamoo and Resnik(2009), cited above.


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Clearly, it would be useful to have more data

on this topic, but so far there is no evidence

that science has become ethically corrupt.

However, even if misconduct is rare, it can

have a tremendous impact on research.


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Consider an analogy with crime: it does not

take many murders or rapes in a town toerode the community's sense of trust and

increase the community's fear and paranoia.

The same is true with the most serious crimes

in science, i.e. fabrication, falsification, andplagiarism.


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However, most of the crimes committed in

science probably are not tantamount to

murder or rape, but ethically significant

misdeeds that are classified by the

government as 'deviations.' Moreover, there

are many situations in research that posegenuine ethical dilemmas.


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Will training and education in research ethics

help reduce the rate of misconduct in science?

It is too early to tell. The answer to this

question depends, in part, on how one

understands the causes of misconduct. There

are two main theories about why researcherscommit misconduct. According to the "bad

apple" theory, most scientists are highly

ethical. Only researchers who are morally

corrupt, economically desperate, or

psychologically disturbed commit misconduct.


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Moreover, only a fool would commit

misconduct because science's peer reviewsystem and self-correcting mechanisms will

eventually catch those who try to cheat the

system. In any case, a course in research ethics

will have little impact on "bad apples," one

might argue.


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According to the "stressful" or "imperfect"

environment theory, misconduct occursbecause various institutional pressures,

incentives, and constraints encourage people

to commit misconduct, such as pressures to

publish or obtain grants or contracts, careerambitions, the pursuit of profit or fame, poor

supervision of students and trainees, and poor

oversight of researchers.


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Moreover, defenders of the stressful

environment theory point out that science's

peer review system is far from perfect andthat it is relatively easy to cheat the system.

Erroneous or fraudulent research often enters

the public record without being detected foryears.


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Misconduct probably results from

environmental and individual causes, i.e.when people who are morally weak, ignorant,

or insensitive are placed in stressful or

imperfect environments. In any case, a course

in research ethics is useful in helping toprevent deviations from norms even if it does

not prevent misconduct.


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Many of the deviations that occur in research

may occur because researchers simple do notknow or have never thought seriously about

some of the ethical norms of research.


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For example, some unethical authorship

practices probably reflect years of tradition in

the research community that have not been

questioned seriously until recently. If the

director of a lab is named as an author on

every paper that comes from his lab, even ifhe does not make a significant contribution,

what could be wrong with that? That's just the

way it's done, one might argue.


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If a drug company uses ghostwriters to write

papers "authored" by its physician-employees,what's wrong about this practice? Ghost

writers help write all sorts of books these

days, so what's wrong with using ghostwriters

in research?


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Another example where there may be some

ignorance or mistaken traditions is conflicts ofinterest in research. A researcher may think

that a "normal" or "traditional" financial

relationship, such as accepting stock or a

consulting fee from a drug company thatsponsors her research, raises no serious

ethical issues


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. Or perhaps a university administrator sees no

ethical problem in taking a large gift withstrings attached from a pharmaceutical

company. Maybe a physician thinks that it is

perfectly appropriate to receive a $300

finders fee for referring patients into a clinicaltrial.


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If "deviations" from ethical conduct occur in

research as a result of ignorance or a failure to

reflect critically on problematic traditions,then a course in research ethics may help

reduce the rate of serious deviations by

improving the researcher's understanding ofethics and by sensitizing him or her to the

issues.

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Finally, training in research ethics should be able to helpresearchers grapple with ethical dilemmas by introducingresearchers to important concepts, tools, principles, and

methods that can be useful in resolving these dilemmas. Infact, the issues have become so important that the NIH andNSF have mandated training in research ethics for graduatestudents.

David B. Resnik, JD, Ph.D.

(http://www.niehs.nih.govhttp://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/bioethicist.cfm)

Bioethicist and NIEHS IRB ChairTel (919) 541-5658Fax (919) [email protected]

http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis/

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