ford-firestone--archived versdion.doc

8/18/2019 Ford-Firestone--archived versdion.doc

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Journal of Business Ethics Volume 56(2005): 185-204.

Reprinted in Case Studies in Business Ethics, 5 ed., edited by Al Gini, renti!e "#ll, 2005.This is an author archive of the final manuscript version. Citations of this article should be to the JOBE version.

Radials, Rollovers and Responsibility:An Eamination of the !ord"!irestone Case

Robert $o%%le

&ep#rtment o' iloopy #nd Reli%ion*entr#l +i!i%#n nierity

+ount le##nt, + 4885/

R.$o%%le!mi!.edu

#nd

niel . #lmer

&ep#rtment o' iloopy

ent 3t#te nierity-rumbull *#mpu

414 +#onin% Ae., $..#rren, 7" 4448-1//8

(0) 65-8/11

dp#lmer19ent.edu

Abstract

n Au%ut o' 2000, iretone e;e!utie initi#ted te e!ond l#r%et tire re!#ll in .3. itory.+#ny o' te re!#lled tire #d been int#lled # ori%in#l '#!tory e role in ti !#e # been =idely #!9no=led%ed, ord e;e!utie #e

m#n#%ed to de'le!t mu! o' te #ttention #=#y 'rom temele, m#inly by !l#imin% t#t te

iretone tire =ere not it produ!t, #nd tere'ore not it reponibility. n ti p#per, =e

e;#mine te e;tent to =i! ord !#n be eld mor#lly reponible 'or te in!ident #t iue. no doin%, =e deelop #n #ppro#! 'or determinin% =en #n item i # produ!t in it o=n ri%t, #

oppoed to # !omponent o' #noter produ!t. e #r%ue t#t u! #n #n#lyi not only proide #

better undert#ndin% o' ti !#e, but #lo more properly #!!ount 'or te e;tent to =i!

eolution in te!nolo%y #nd buine rel#tionip !#n #''e!t iue o' mor#l reponibility in buine !onte;t.

#ey$ords: Aembler, *omponent, iretone, ord, #rt, #rtm#9er, rodu!t 3#'ety, rodu!t?i#bility, Reponibility, 3port-tility Vei!le, ire


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Radials, Rollovers and Responsibility:

An Eamination of the !ord"!irestone Case

%. The Anatomy of a Tire Crisis

7n Au%ut /, 2000, e;e!utie o' te iretone tire !orpor#tion (# ubidi#ry o' @rid%etone

*orpor#tion) #nnoun!ed te olunt#ry re!#ll o' #n etim#ted 6.5 million tire -- te e!ond

l#r%et tire re!#ll in te nited 3t#te to d#te. e re!#ll in!luded 255R15 AB, AB #nd

ilderne A tire, m#ny o' =i! #d been int#lled # ori%in#l e popul#r

;plorer port-utility ei!le (3V).1 At te time o' te #nnoun!ement, tee tire #d been

lin9ed by te $#tion#l "i%=#y r#''i! 3#'ety Adminitr#tion ($"3A) #nd !onumer #do!#!y

%roup to 20 !ompl#int, 80 !r#e #nd 46 de#t.2 +ot o' tee in!ident inoled ord

;plorer #nd o!!urred =en tre#d ep#r#tion !#ued blo=out t#t led to ei!le rolloer.

?#ter, $"3A =ould r#ie it 'i%ure to in!lude oer 100 de#t #nd 500 inCurie inolin% u!

in!ident, m#9in% ti one o' te mot eriou !#e o' produ!t '#ilure in 3 itory.

or mont 'ollo=in% te re!#ll, te iretone A tire -- #nd te ord ;plorer

e


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tere'ore =i! !omp#ny i reponible 'or te reultin% inCurie. A te publi! deb#te un'olded,

te iue =# 'r#med #round te reponibility.

e m#ie #nd ery publi! re!#ll o' te iretone tire =# imply te l#tet in # erie

o' #ttempt to repond to problem t#t #d pl#%ued te ;plorer #nd it tire 'or ye#r. e

;plorer> problem #d been di!ued in !omp#ny memo 'rom # e#rly # 1/8.4 #rly ord

tet on te ;plorer prototype, !ode-n#med F$46, indi!#ted t#bility !on!ern. e ;plorer

=#, in # =ord, tippy. e optim#l =#y to #ddre ti problem =ould #e been to =iden te

;plorer> =eel b#e #ndor lo=er it !enter o' %r#ity.5 "o=eer, u! !#n%e =ould #e

del#yed produ!tion more t#n te top ord e;e!utie =ere =illin% to toler#te. ord en%ineer

o''ered # b#!9-up pl#n: ey u%%eted t#t te ;plorer> t#bility problem !ould be p#rti#lly

#ddreed imply by lo=erin% te tire preure.6 ord !oe ti 'i;, #nd et #n in'l#tion preure

o' 26 p..i..

e tire to be ued on ;plorer #d been dei%ned by iretone pe!i'i!#lly 'or ti

ei!leH tey =ere p#en%er ei!le tire dei%ned to #e te loo9 o' o''-ro#d ei!le tire. An

in'l#tion preure o' 26 p..i =# #t te lo= end o' te #'ety m#r%in o' 25-5 p..i 'or u! tire,


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#nd i%ni'i!#ntly lo=er t#n te 0-5 p..i. t#t =ould norm#lly #e been re!ommended 'or

tem. n'l#tion preure i one '#!tor t#t determine o= ri%id te tire i: te lo=er te

preure, te more # tire 'le;e #round te ide=#ll. e more 'le;in%, te more 'ri!tion te tire

%ener#te, #nd te %re#ter te 'ri!tion, te more e#t i produ!ed. u, !eteri p#ribu, lo=erin%

te #ir preure in te tire in!re#e te #mount o' e#t tey %ener#te, #nd e;!eie e#t

d#m#%e tire.8 "o= mu! e#t i Fe;!eie depend on te tire. #en%er ei!le tire #re

r#ted # A, @, or * #!!ordin% to o= ulner#ble tey #re to e#t, =it * bein% te mot

ulner#ble, #nd A bein% te le#t. e iretone A tire int#lled on ord ;plorer =ere r#ted

# *, =i! i te lo=et %r#de le%#l 'or ue on p#en%er ei!le.

/

n ele!tin% *-r#ted tire

#nd ettin% # lo= in'l#tion preure 'or tem, ord =# !ooin% to ubCe!t tire t#t =ere not

epe!i#lly e#t-reit#nt to !ondition t#t !ould be e;pe!ted to %ener#te more e#t t#n norm#l.

Anoter '#!tor t#t !#n d#m#%e # tire i e;!eie ei!le lo#d. &epite te l#r%e iIe o'

te ;plorer, te re!ommended p#ylo#d on te ei!le =# # rel#tiely modet 50 to 1,10

pound (dependin% on model) J # p#ylo#d t#t i e#y to e;!eed =it eer#l p#en%er #nd #

modet !#r%o lo#d. i m#de it e#y to Foerlo#d te ei!le, #nd tu to put een more tre

on te tire. 7ter 3V #d imil#r p#ylo#d, but ued eiter l#r%er (#nd tu more e#t

reit#nt) tire, or re!ommended i%er in'l#tion preure, (or bot) in order to proide #n

#ddition#l #'ety m#r%in 'or oer-lo#ded ei!le.10

' te iretone tire #d been o' i%er


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tre#d p#!9#%e> ep#r#tion 'rom te tire !#r!# #t 2/ p..i. o' preure.11 "o=eer, iretone

diputed te re#lim o' tee tet #nd !l#imed t#t it #d e!ured more #ti'#!tory reult 'rom

it o=n in-oue tet done under di''erent tet !ondition. iretone !l#imed t#t een #t te

lo=er preure ord =# by ten !oniderin%, F=e don>t tin9 it =ill be # problem.12

idently, iretone> #ur#n!e =ere %ood enou% 'or ord. ord #pproed te dei%n

o' te iretone A tire 'or ue on te ;plorer #nd et te tire preure to 26 p..i. 1 e

;plorer =# introdu!ed into te Ameri!#n m#r9et in 1//0. e 'irt tre#d ep#r#tion l#=uit

#%#int ord #nd iretone =# 'iled ortly tere#'ter, in ebru#ry o' 1//1.15 @ut =ore

problem =ere to !ome.

3oon #'ter te 'irt ;plorer =ent to m#r9et, tet o=ed t#t te ;plorer> 'uel

e!onomy =# le t#n #ti'#!tory. n p#rt ti =# # reult o' te lo=ered in'l#tion preure

#dopted to de#l =it te ;plorer> t#bility problem. e 'i; ord eentu#lly !oe =# to

de!re#e te Frollin% reit#n!e (rou%ly, te F


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tire, te problem =it te iretone-;plorer !ombin#tion in!re#ed r#pidly. 16 A p#ttern o'

#!!ident emer%ed in =i! te tire> tre#d liter#lly peeled #=#y 'rom te tire body, !#uin% te

;plorer to be!ome un!ontroll#ble #nd o'ten to roll oerD're


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At te time o' ti =ritin%, #bolute proo' #bout =#t !#ued tee #!!ident # yet to be

et#blied. "o=eer, # l#r%e body o' eiden!e tron%ly u%%et t#t eer#l '#!tor inter#!ted

to produ!e te de#dly #!!ident. ire e;pert #e pointed to poible dei%n 'l#= in te tire,

to de'e!t or =e#9nee temmin% 'rom m#teri#l #nd pro!ee ued in teir produ!tion, #nd to

poible m#nu'#!turin% irre%ul#ritie #t te &e!#tur, llinoi iretone pl#nt t#t produ!ed mot

o' te tire t#t '#iled.22 "o=eer, =#teer =e#9nee or 'l#= m#y #e e;ited in te tire, it

i #lmot !ert#in t#t te t#bility problem in te ;plorer #lo pl#yed # !ru!i#l role in te

#!!ident: e lo=er tire preure =i! =ere ord> !oen metod 'or !opin% =it tee

t#bility problem #lmot !ert#inly e;#!erb#ted =#teer 'l#= or =e#9nee e;ited in te tire

temele. t i =ort notin% t#t, bet=een 1//6 #nd 1//8, ord #d been buyin% ome tire 'or

;plorer 'rom Goodye#r. e Goodye#r tire, =en e


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ei!le to be inoled in rolloer #!!ident. ndeed, #t te Eoint *on%reion#l "e#rin% on te

ordiretone re!#ll, !ommittee member eter &eut! rem#r9ed t#t F3V, by de'inition,

#e # rolloer problem.2 n ome repe!t, ten, %ener#l dei%n 'e#ture o' 3V eem to #e

!ontributed to te 9ind o' #!!identDte d#n%erou ei!le rolloer--t#t o'ten reulted 'rom

tre#d ep#r#tion on ;plorer. 7ter d#t# u%%et t#t problem reultin% 'rom te p#rti!ul#r

!ombin#tion o' tire '#ilure #nd rolloer #re more pronoun!ed =it ord ;plorer t#n =it

oter 3V. or int#n!e, # tudy o' $"3A> d#t#b#e 'o!uin% on oer ,500 report o' tire

'#ilure 'ound t#t te rolloer-to-tire-'#ilure r#te on te ord ;plorer =# 1L # !omp#red to

only L 'or #ll oter 3V #nd li%t tru!9.

28

Anoter tudy by te #in%ton ot o' #!!ident

d#t# 'rom lorid# 'ound t#t Fno oter 3V # #n e blo=out problem, #nd t#t te ;plorer =# F5 per!ent more li9ely

to roll t#n oter !omp#!t 3V =en #n e report on te

#!!ident by u%%etin% t#t tey !ould be #ttributed to drier error #nd poor tire m#inten#n!e by

!onumer.0 rou%out te e#rly t#%e o' te medi# !oer#%e o' te ord-iretone tire !rii,

7no> de'ene o' iretone inoled # peritent deni#l t#t te tire =ere de'e!tie or t#t te

8


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!omp#ny =# #t '#ult 'or te #!!ident. en =en iretone> o=n intern#l ineti%#tion 'ound

eiden!e o' m#teri#l #nd dei%n irre%ul#ritie in te A tire, iretone #ttempted to i't mu! o'

te bl#me onto ord 'or re!ommendin% in#ppropri#tely lo= #ir preure 'or te tire, #nd

!ontinued to tre te role o' !onumer m#inten#n!e.1 ord> *7 #t te time, E#!

!l#im t#t it i not to bl#me 'or '#ilure o' iretone tire int#lled on it ei!le, or 'or te

reultin% #!!ident.

%%%. 'hose product( 'hich company(

$#er> !l#im t#t Fit> # tire problem #nd not # ei!le problem u%%et t#t te iretone

tire #re #n independent produ!t ditin!t 'rom te ord ;plorer on =i! tey =ere int#lled.

A'ter #ll, one =ould neer #y, 'or int#n!e, t#t ometin% i M#n en%ine problem #nd not #

/


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ei!le problemM in!e #n en%ine problem i # ei!le problem. o #y t#t ometin% i # tire

problem r#ter t#n # ei!le problem u%%et t#t te ;plorer i ord> produ!t, =ile te

tire #re iretone> produ!t. i u%%etion merit !loer e;#min#tion.

t i import#nt to 9eep in mind t#t ord did more t#n imply ell te iretone A tire.

t di!t#ted J #nd indeed reied -- m#ny o' te pe!i'i!#tion t#t iretone ued in dei%nin% te

tire, #nd it determined te #ir preure to =i! tey =ere to be in'l#ted. ndeed, te dei%n o'

te iretone A =# # F!ooper#tie e''ort bet=een ord #nd iretone.4 #t ord #nd

iretone =ould undert#9e u! # !ooper#tie e''ort i not urpriin% %ien te !omple;itie o'

te en%ineerin% pro!ee inoled in dei%nin% bot tire #nd ei!le. t i een le urpriin%

%ien te deep #nd lon%-l#tin% rel#tionip bet=een ord #nd iretone. i rel#tionip =#

b#ed on # itory o' tron% peron#l #nd '#mily rel#tionip d#tin% b#!9 to 1/08, =en "#rey

iretone upplied "enry ord =it tire 'or i ne= +odel . e buine rel#tionip =#

'urter !emented by 'riendip #mon% member o' tee t=o '#milie. "enry #nd "#rey>

%r#nd!ildren D illi#m *l#y ord #nd +#rt# #r9e iretone D m#rried in 1/4. ord

*#irm#n illi#m *l#y ord Er. i # de!end#nt o' te 'ounder o' bot !omp#nie.

Gien te itory o' te t=o !omp#nie #nd te inolement o' ord in te pe!i'i!#tion

o' te dei%n p#r#meter o' te iretone A tire, it =ould be mile#din% to !#r#!teriIe ord #

# mere Fmiddle-peron 'or tire =i! iretone dei%ned #nd m#nu'#!tured !ompletely on it

o=n. ile tee !orpor#tion #re ditin!t buine entitie, tey #d !omple; rel#tionip =it

e#! oter.

7ne =#y to !#r#!teriIe te rel#tionip bet=een te t=o !omp#nie =ould be to ee

iretone # # !omponent-p#rt upplier to ord. e tire =ould ten be een # # !omponent

p#rt in te 'inied produ!tDn#mely te !omplete, re#dy-to-drie ord ;plorer. 7n te oter

10


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#nd, =e !ould ee ord # # mere !onduit or middleperon 'or iretone. Vie=ed 'rom ti

perpe!tie, ord =ould be te m#nu'#!turer o' # produ!t (te ;plorer #n tire) t#t re '#mou Fou%t implie !#n prin!iple, =i! old t#t

one !#n only be mor#lly obli%#ted to do ometin% t#t one i !#p#ble o' doin%. 5 A!!ordin%ly,

te deontolo%i!#l #ppro#! typi!#lly ee it # bein% improper to old #n entity mor#lly

reponible 'or ometin% t#t it !ould not #e #oided. 3in!e # mere eller doe not !re#te #

produ!t, it l#!9 #ny dire!t !ontrol oer =eter it i de'e!tie. or ti re#on, # deontolo%i!#l

#ppro#! to reponibility =ill typi!#lly re%#rd it # unre#on#ble to old eller mor#lly

reponible 'or te e;iten!e o' de'e!t in produ!t. 6 7' !oure, # eller m#y be reponible 'or

te tr#n'er o' # de'e!tie produ!t to # !onumer (in!e it !ould in prin!iple tet te produ!t it

ell #nd re'ue to ell #ny de'e!tie or unteted produ!t). "o=eer, te m#nu'#!turer i #lo

reponible 'or # imil#r tr#n'er o' # de'e!tie %oodDte m#nu'#!turer tr#n'er it into te

11


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Ftre#m o' !ommer!e =it te intention t#t it eentu#lly re#! # !onumer. u, =#teer

reponibility te eller mi%t #e 'or tr#n'errin% # de'e!tie produ!t to omeone ele, te

produ!er # te reponibility 'or # imil#r tr#n'er in #ddition to te reponibility 'or #in%

!re#ted te de'e!tie produ!t in te 'irt pl#!e. e eller m#y tr#n'er #n e;itin% #I#rd, but

te produ!er bot !re#te te #I#rd in te 'irt pl#!e #nd tr#n'er it.

A utilit#ri#n #ppro#! to mor#l reponibility =ould eem to re


13/45

m#nu'#!turin% or dei%n de'e!t in te produ!t tey ell (unle, per#p, tey #d more

in'luen!e oer teir !re#tion t#n # mere eller typi!#lly doe) # # olid 'ound#tion in =ell-

et#blied piloopi!#l #ppro#!e to mor#l reponibility. @ot #ppro#!e upport te

intuition t#t m#nu'#!turer #re te prim#ry be#rer o' mor#l reponibility 'or te e;iten!e o'

(initi#l) produ!t de'e!t, #nd t#t it i unre#on#ble to re


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). A Brief oo- at the e&al Bac-&round

ile te 'o!u o' ti p#per i on mor#l r#ter t#n le%#l reponibility, te le%#l #nd mor#l

iue in te ord-iretone !ontroery #re o ti%tly inter=oen t#t it i not poible to di!u

one =itout #t le#t ome di!uion o' te oter. A!!ordin%ly, =e o''er ere # brie' di!uion

o' te le%#l do!trine t#t 'orm te b#!9%round o' te ord-iretone !ontroery.

rodu!t li#bility l#= !#n be een # # !ompromie bet=een eer#l di''erent mor#l ide#

#bout te #ppropri#te =#y to #ddre #rm #riin% 'rom de'e!tie produ!t.8 3ome o' tee

ide# #re purely utilit#ri#n, #nd re'le!t te %o#l o' #!iein% #n in!entie #nd !ompen#tion

tru!ture t#t mot e''i!iently b#l#n!e te !ot #nd bene'it o' preentin% #nd #ddrein% #rm

reultin% 'rom de'e!tie produ!t. 3ome #re deontolo%i!#l in !#r#!ter, #nd #re !on!erned =it

m#9in% # =ron%doer p#y retitution 'or te #rm'ul reult o' #!tion 'or =i! e i mor#lly

!ulp#ble. 3ome #re b#ed on !onider#tion o' Cuti!e, #nd #re !on!erned =it determinin% te

'#iret me#n o' p#yin% te !ot o' inCurie reultin% 'rom de'e!tie produ!t./

ee tree b#i! mor#l !on!ernDutility, deontolo%i!#l !on!eption o' mor#l

reponibility, #nd Cuti!eDproide # 9ind o' mor#l underpinnin% 'or produ!t li#bility l#=.

"o=eer, tey do not #l=#y point in te #me dire!tion, #nd trou%out te itory o' Ameri!#n

produ!t li#bility l#=, te b#l#n!e o' emp#i # i'ted b#!9 #nd 'ort bet=een tem. u,

'or e;#mple, durin% te l#te 1800, te pre#ilin% le%#l do!trine preented # peron inCured by #

de'e!tie produ!t 'rom !olle!tin% !ompen#tion 'rom # p#rty =it =om e did not #e #n

e;pli!it !ontr#!tu#l rel#tionip.40 e r#tion#le 'or ti o-!#lled Fpriity b#rrier =# t#t

#llo=in% inCured p#rtie to ue p#rtie =it =om tey #d no !ontr#!tu#l rel#tionip (Fpriity)

=ould le#d to # pro'uion o' l#=uit t#t =ould #e # perni!iou e''e!t on te deelopin% 'ree

14


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enterprie ytem 'rom =i! o!iety # # =ole =# tou%t to bene'it. i do!trine %#e

m#nu'#!turer #n in!entie to ell trou% ret#iler, #nd tu to deelop te 9ind o' ret#il

ditribution net=or9 t#t #re # #llm#r9 o' te modern e!onomy. Net # tee net=or9

deeloped, #nd # produ!t be!#me more !omple; #nd di''i!ult to inpe!t, te priity b#rrier

eemed in!re#in%ly #rbitr#ry #nd un'#ir to !onumer. A !onumer =o =# inCured by #

de'e!tie produ!t bou%t 'rom # non-m#nu'#!turin% ret#iler =ould typi!#lly %o un!ompen#ted

(unle te eller #d o''ered # =#rr#nty), but # !onumer inCured by # de'e!tie produ!t bou%t

dire!tly 'rom # m#nu'#!turer !ould re!eie !ompen#tion.

i #pp#rent un'#irne !ontributed to te %r#du#l erodin% o' te priity do!trine. n it

rulin% on te l#ndm#r9 1/16 !#e o' +#!eron . @ui!9 +otor *o. (21 $.N. 82,111

$..1050), # $e= Nor9 !ourt more or le #bolied te Fpriity b#rrier. e !#e i

interetin%ly imil#r to te ord-iretone !#e: @ui!9 !ontr#!ted =it # upplier to produ!e

=ooden =eel 'or it #utomobileH rot in one o' tem !#ued it to '#il, =i! !#ued #n #!!ident.

n reCe!tin% @ui!9> #r%ument t#t te problem =# # F=eel problem #nd not # ei!le

problem, Euti!e *#rdoIo =rote t#t Fte de'end#nt =# not #boled 'rom # duty o' inpe!tion

be!#ue it bou%t te =eel 'rom # reput#ble m#nu'#!turer. t =# not merely # de#ler in

#utomobile. t =# # m#nu'#!turer o' #utomobile. t =# reponible 'or te 'inied produ!t.

t =# not #t liberty to put te 'inied produ!t on te m#r9et =itout ubCe!tin% te !omponent

p#rt to ordin#ry #nd imple tet. . . 41

e +#!eron rulin% =# oon #dopted in mot 3 Curidi!tion, #nd ti proided

inCured !onumer =it # mu! %re#ter !#n!e o' re!eiin% !ompen#tion 'rom te

m#nu'#!turer o' te produ!t =oe de'e!t !#ued teir inCurie. "o=eer, te inCured

!onumer uu#lly till #d to proe not only t#t te produ!t =# de'e!tie, but t#t te de'e!t

15


16/45

reulted 'rom m#nu'#!turer ne%li%en!e.42 +#ny people till re%#rded it # un'#ir t#t # de'e!tie

produ!t mi%t !#ue #n inCury 'or =i! te i!tim mi%t %o un!ompen#ted imply be!#ue te

m#nu'#!turer #d m#de #n unu!!e'ul e''ort to m#nu'#!ture te produ!t !#re'ully.

i per!eption o' un'#irne =# one o' te m#in Cuti'i!#tion 'or te ne= do!trine o'

produ!t li#bility, 9no=n # tri!t li#bility in tort, =i! =# introdu!ed in # erie o' de!iion,

te mot import#nt o' =i! =ere te 1/44 *#li'orni# !#e o' !ol# . *o!# *ol# @ottlin% *o.

o' reno (24 *#l.2d 45, 150 .2d 46), te 1/60 $e= Eerey !#e o' "ennin%on . @loom'ield

+otor, n!. (2 $.E. 58, 161 A.2d 6/), #nd te 1/6 *#li'orni# !#e o' Greenm#n . Nub#

o=er rodu!t, n!. (5/ *#l.2d 5, .2d 8/). e do!trine o' tri!t li#bility t#t tee

de!iion introdu!ed =# oon #dopted by oter !ourt, #nd i no= re!o%niIed, in ome 'orm or

#noter, by irtu#lly #ll 3 !ourt. e ide# o' tri!t li#bility i t#t te m#9er o' # produ!t i

le%#lly li#ble 'or #ny inCury reultin% 'rom # m#nu'#!turin% de'e!t in it produ!t, re%#rdle o'

o= !#re'ul it =# in produ!in% te produ!t.4

i do!trine =# introdu!ed in p#rt # #n e;pli!it repone to !onider#tion o'

ditributie Cuti!e. @#i!#lly, te ide# i t#t =en # peron i inCured by # de'e!tie produ!t,

omeone =ill #e to be#r te !ot, #nd it eem mot '#ir t#t te p#rty pro'itin% 'rom te

produ!tion o' te de'e!tie produ!t ould be te one to do o.44 tilit#ri#n !onider#tion =ere

#lo #d#n!ed in upport o' tri!t li#bility: "oldin% m#nu'#!turer tri!tly li#ble 'or inCurie

reultin% 'rom de'e!tie produ!t proide tem =it #n in!entie not only to e;er!ie enou%

!#re to #oid # 'indin% o' ne%li%en!e, but #lo to inet in te deelopment o' ne= te!nolo%ie

to m#9e produ!t eer more #'e #nd reli#ble.45

?et u turn no= to more pe!i'i! le%#l iue rele#nt to te ord-iretone !ontroery.

7' p#rti!ul#r import#n!e i te le%#l li#bility o' m#nu'#!turer (o'ten !#lled F#embler) o'

16


17/45

produ!t t#t in!lude !omponent p#rt m#de by oter !omp#nie (o'ten !#lled Fp#rtm#9er).

en =en # !omponent =# m#de by te p#rtm#9er in u! # =#y # to !ont#in # de'e!t be'ore

it eer re#!ed te !ontrol o' te #embler, te #embler !#n till be eld #t le#t p#rti#lly li#ble

'or #!!ident reultin% 'rom te de'e!t in t#t !omponent. 46 "o=eer, in u! # !#e te m#9er

o' te de'e!tie !omponent i typi!#lly #lo eld #t le#t p#rtly li#ble.4

e itu#tion i ome=#t more !ompli!#ted =en # non-m#nu'#!turin% (Fmere) ret#iler

ell # de'e!tie produ!t.48 rom te time =en tri!t li#bility =# 'irt introdu!ed, !ourt in

in'luenti#l t#te (u! # *#li'orni#) #e eld t#t te #me tri!t li#bility 'or de'e!tie produ!t

t#t #pplie to te m#9er o' te produ!t #lo #pplie to it eller.

4/

i do!trine # be!ome

u''i!iently t#nd#rd t#t bot te e!ond #nd tird Ret#tement o' ort !ite it # te pre#ilin%

l#=. 3ubCe!tin% mere eller to tri!t li#bility !#n #r%u#bly be Cuti'ied in term o' o!i#l utility

(in!e it proide in!entie 'or eller to t#9e # %re#ter interet in produ!t #'ety) #nd

ditributie Cuti!e (in!e it eem more '#ir 'or # eller to be#r te !ot #o!i#ted =it

de'e!tie produ!t t#n 'or #n inCured !onumer to do o). "o=eer, tere # been # %ro=in%

moement to limit te le%#l li#bility o' non-m#nu'#!turin% eller. 3ome !ourt #e imply

re'ued to old non-m#nu'#!turin% eller li#ble 'or de'e!t t#t e;ited in produ!t #t te time

tey =ere deliered 'rom te m#nu'#!turer.50 n #ddition, m#ny Curidi!tion #e Field l#=

t#t preent # pl#inti'' 'rom uin% # mere ret#iler 'or de'e!t in # produ!t t#t it did not produ!e

=en te m#nu'#!turer i ##il#ble to be ued inte#d.51 And een in Curidi!tion =ere it i

poible to ue # mere ret#iler o' # de'e!tie produ!t, it i norm#lly poible 'or te ret#iler to

re!oer 'rom te m#nu'#!turer =#teer d#m#%e it #d to p#y to te pl#inti''. 52 3o in mot

Curidi!tion, te m#nu'#!turer i te m#in t#r%et 'or inCured pl#inti'', =ile ret#iler #re

%ener#lly #ble eiter to #oid le%#l li#bility 'or de'e!tie produ!t t#t tey did not !re#te or to

1


18/45

i't te !ot o' !ompen#tin% inCured !onumer b#!9 to te m#nu'#!turer o' te produ!t t#t

!#ued te inCury.5

ee deelopment eem to re'le!t te intuition underlyin% te deontolo%i!#l #ppro#!

to mor#l reponibility di!ued e#rlier. e non-m#nu'#!turin% eller, #'ter #ll, doe not !re#te

te de'e!t t#t !#ue te inCury, #nd it eem to iol#te deontolo%i!#l !on!eption o'

reponibility to old # p#rty mor#lly reponible 'or te e;iten!e o' # #I#rd t#t it did not

!re#te. e !re#tion o' # produ!t %ie te m#nu'#!turer # mor#l !onne!tion to it t#t i mu!

more intim#te t#n te !onne!tion t#t # mere eller # to te produ!t. e m#nu'#!turer o' #

de'e!tie produ!t !re#te # #I#rd t#t did not e;it preiouly. e eller merely moe it 'rom

pl#!e to pl#!e. ile ti l#tter #!tion m#y be te b#i 'or ome mor#l reponibility 'or te

eller, it eem re#on#ble t#t it =ould be i%ni'i!#ntly le t#n te mor#l reponibility t#t

#tt#!e to te entity =i! not only pl#!e # #I#rd into te tre#m o' !ommer!e t#t le#d to

te !onumer but #lo !re#te te #I#rd in te 'irt pl#!e. i, #t #ny r#te, eem to be te

mor#l r#tion#le 'or te !urrent le%#l trend o' pl#!in% prim#ry le%#l reponibility 'or de'e!tie

produ!t m#inly on teir m#nu'#!turer r#ter t#n on teir eller. (ord> #ttempt to portr#y te

tire #nd te ei!le # ep#r#te produ!t, #nd tu to portr#y itel' # # mere ret#iler 'or te

tire, eem to be #n #ttempt to t#p into ti line o' tou%t.)

u, =e !#n ee t#t produ!t li#bility l#= re'le!tDtou% not #l=#y per'e!tlyDmor#l

ide# #bout '#irne, te e''i!ient b#l#n!in% o' o!i#lly bene'i!i#l %o#l, #nd mor#l !ulp#bility.

3in!e tee ide# ometime !on'li!t =it one #noter, #nd in!e it eolution # been

in'luen!ed by pre!edent, politi!#l '#!tor, #nd pe!i'i! le%il#tie en#!tment, produ!t li#bility

l#= =ill ometime #i%n le%#l reponibility in =#y t#t m#y not e;#!tly m#t! eiter our

mor#l intuition or te impli!#tion o' # p#rti!ul#r piloopi!#l #ppro#! to mor#l

18


19/45

reponibility. $eertele, tere #re i%ni'i!#nt !onne!tion bet=een le%#l !on!eption

reponibility #nd mor#l !on!eption o' reponibility, #nd mu! o' our #n#lyi o' te mor#l

dimenion o' ti !#e i li9ely to #pply to #t le#t ome o' it le%#l dimenion.

)%. Retailers versus Assemblers: o$ to Tell the +ifference

t #ppe#r, ten, to m#9e # i%ni'i!#nt di''eren!e to bot mor#l #nd le%#l reponibility =eter

ord =# merely # ret#iler 'or tire or =eter it =# te #embler o' # !ompoite produ!t

!onitin% o' te ;plorer #nd it tire. 7' !oure, een i' =e de!ide t#t tire ould be ie=ed

# # !omponent o' te ord ;plorer, ti =ould not #bole iretone 'rom reponibility 'or

de'e!t t#t mi%t e;it in toe tire. or i'D# te eiden!e u%%et--te tire =ere o' lo=er


20/45

=#rr#nty 'or it. u, =ile te tire !#me =it te !#r, #nd =# een #tt#!ed to te !#r, it =#

neertele re%#rded # # ep#r#te produ!t.

e !ontend, o=eer, t#t #d#n!e in te!nolo%y #e !#n%ed te rel#tionip

bet=een # ei!le #nd it tire, #nd t#t tee !#n%e m#y re


21/45

b#i! ene o' te =ord Fprodu!t t#t #pplie to #ny tin% t#t i produ!ed. @ut #n item i #

!omponent o' #noter produ!t i' it i inte%r#ted into te l#r%er produ!t in u! # =#y t#t 'rom

te !onumer> point o' ie= it no lon%er m#9e ene to re%#rd it # # ep#r#te produ!t. rom

te point o' ie= o' te !#r buyer, te e#d %#9et i o 'ully inte%r#ted into te ei!le t#t it

doe not properly !ount # # ep#r#te produ!t, but r#ter # # !omponent o' te !#r. ere i #

ene in =i! te !#r buyer i not # !onumer o' te e#d %#9et per e. R#ter, e i #

!onumer o' te l#r%er produ!t into =i! te e#d %#9et i inte%r#ted.

3o te e#d %#9et eem to be # !omponent o' te !#r in # =#y t#t te 'l#li%t b#ttery

i not # !omponent o' te 'l#li%t. @ut =#t doe ti di''eren!e #mount toO e ee tree

'#!tor # bein% mot #lient in our !ommonene Cud%ment t#t te e#d %#9et i o inte%r#ted

into te ei!le # to be # !omponent o' it, =ere# te 'l#li%t b#ttery rem#in # ep#r#te

produ!t ditin!t 'rom te 'l#li%t.

irt, te 'l#li%t b#ttery i inter!#n%e#ble in # =#y t#t # e#d %#9et i not. +#ny

di''erent !omp#nie m#9e 'l#li%t b#tterie, #nd #ny one o' tem t#t i te ri%t iIe !#n be

ued in te 'l#li%t.55 n #ddition, te b#tterie t#t po=er te 'l#li%t !#n be ued in # =ide

r#n%e o' produ!t #in% ery 'e= 'e#ture in !ommon. u, !#n e#ily t#9e te b#tterie out

o' my 'l#li%t #nd ue tem to po=er # r#dio or # noelty t#l9in% 'i, or # m#ll '#n, or #ny o'

# #t #rr#y o' ery di''erent produ!t t#t t#9e te #me iIe b#ttery # my 'l#li%t. @y

!ontr#t, e#d %#9et #re not inter!#n%e#ble in ti =#y. ile repl#!ement %#9et m#y be

m#de by oter !omp#nie beide te one t#t initi#lly upplied te %#9et to te #uto-m#9er,

e#! %#9et i pe!i'i!#lly en%ineered 'or # p#rti!ul#r !#r en%ine. or int#n!e, one !#nnot t#9e

te e#d %#9et 'rom # "ond# A!!ord #nd put it into # ord #uru, een i' te en%ine in te t=o

!#r #re ery imil#r in iIe. e !riterion o' inter!#n%e#bility eru pe!i#liI#tion eem

21


22/45

rele#nt, ten, to te


23/45

into te l#r%er produ!t e i dei%nin% i # tron% indi!#tion t#t te item i # !omponent o' te

l#r%er produ!t, een i' it i eentu#lly upplied by #n outide !omp#ny. n oter =ord, te

e;tent to =i! te dei%n o' item B i di!t#ted by o= it 'un!tion in te dei%n o' N elp to

determine te e;tent to =i! B i # !omponent inte%r#ted into N.

3o =e #e identi'ied tree m#in '#!tor t#t ditin%ui te !le#r !#e o' # e#d %#9et,

=i! i !le#rly # !omponent o' te ei!le, 'rom te !#e o' te b#ttery, =i! i !le#rly #

ep#r#te produ!t t#t mi%t neertele be p#!9#%ed #nd old =it # 'l#li%t. e 'irt i #

rel#tie pe!i#liI#tion. e e!ond i e#e o' repl#!ement. e tird i =#t =e mi%t !#ll te

Fdire!tion o' en%ineerin% 'itM bet=een te item #nd te l#r%er produ!tDte e;tent to =i! te

item> dei%n i di!t#ted by te dei%n o' te produ!t =it =i! it i to be ued. t i import#nt

to note t#t e#! o' tee '#!tor #dmit o' de%ree. irt, #n item m#y be more or le

pe!i#liIed, dependin% on o= m#ny oter m#nu'#!turer m#9e # uit#ble repl#!ement. An item

m#de e;!luiely by one m#nu'#!turer i more pe!i#liIed, #nd tu le inter!#n%e#ble, t#n

one m#de by # number o' di''erent m#nu'#!turer. 3imil#rly, #n item t#t !#n be int#lled on #

l#r%er number o' di''erent produ!t i le pe!i#liIed t#n one t#t !#n be int#lled on # m#ller

number o' oter produ!t. 3e!ond, te e#e o' repl#!ement i li9e=ie # m#tter o' de%ree. At

one e;treme, it m#y re


24/45

e '#!t t#t e#! o' tee '#!tor #dmit o' de%ree implie t#t te property o' bein% #

!omponent #lo #dmit o' de%ree. i i le !ounterintuitie t#n it m#y #t 'irt ound, i' =e

tin9 in term o' te notion o' inte%r#tion, =i! i # !on!ept t#t doe eem to #dmit o' de%ree.

o be # !omponent i to be inte%r#ted into # l#r%er produ!t, #nd inte%r#tion #dmit o' de%ree.

u, #n item i # !omponent o' #noter produ!t to te de%ree t#t it i inte%r#ted into t#t oter

produ!t, =ere inte%r#tion i de'ined in term o' te tree '#!tor =e #e di!ued #boeD

'#!tor =i! #dmit o' de%ree. i !on!luion # #n import#nt impli!#tion, n#mely t#t tere

!#n be intermedi#te !#e, in =i! #n item i =#t =e mi%t !#ll # F


25/45

te oter #nd, tire #re r#ter unli9e 'l#li%t b#tterie in t#t ery 'e= !onumer mount #nd

b#l#n!e teir o=n tire. o be ure, te t#9 doe not re o=n en%ineer eem to #e tre#ted te tire # # bein% # !omponent o' te

!omple; ei!le tey =ere dei%nin%. ord> en%ineer ued tire in'l#tion preure # # #ri#ble

##il#ble 'or m#nipul#tion in teir #ttempt to #ddre ;plorer> t#bility problem. ?#ter,

en%ineer intru!ted iretone to m#9e te tire li%ter in order to improe ;plorer> 'uel

e''i!ien!y. u, ord> en%ineer did not tre#t te tire # #n independent produ!t =oe n#ture

=# #lre#dy %ien, # b#tterie #re 'or te ordin#ry produ!er o' 'l#li%t, but # one element

#mon% oter in te oer#ll inter#!tion o' te ei!le t#t tey =ere dei%nin%. i u%%et

t#t, =ittin%ly or not, ord =# inte%r#tin% te tire more 'ully into te ei!le tey =ere

produ!in%. @y tee #!tion, ord =# elpin% to turn =#t m#y #e on!e been # ep#r#te

25


26/45

produ!t into #n item t#t =# #t le#t # !l#im t#t te iretone A tire #re # !ompletely

ep#r#te produ!t 'rom te ord ;plorer. e re#lity i t#t tey #re #t le#t # en%ineer =ere te dei%ner, #nd =i! =#

#embled by ord. n oter =ord, te tire =ere, in ery import#nt repe!t, '#r more t#n

mere ep#r#te produ!t Fbundled or old #lon% =it te ;plorer. ' ti i !orre!t, ten #ny

#n#lyi o' ord> reponibility 'or te de'e!tie tire re


27/45

ditin!t 'rom te reponibility o' te p#rtm#9er 'or m#9in% #'e #nd non-de'e!tie !omponentH

it i te reponibility 'or dei%nin% # #'e #nd non-de'e!tie !ompoite produ!t into =i! toe

!omponent =ill be inte%r#ted.

en # !omp#ny undert#9e to dei%n #nd #emble # produ!t, it undert#9e # duty to

!#rry out tee pro!ee in # m#nner t#t doe not m#9e te 'in#l produ!t de'e!tie or

unre#on#bly d#n%erou. *le#rly, i' tin% %o =ron% in te dei%n or #embly o' te !ompoite

produ!t, te #embler i reponible mor#lly, #nd more t#n li9ely le%#lly # =ell.58 n te

#ben!e o' # #lid e;!ulp#tory e;!ue, u! # !omp#ny # iol#ted te duty to !#rry out toe

pro!ee 'or =i! it i reponible in # m#nner =i! doe not introdu!e d#n%erou de'e!t

into te 'in#l produ!t.5/

@ot te dei%n #nd #embly reponibilitie o' #embler #re =idely re!o%niIed in

di!uion o' reponibility 'or produ!t #'ety in te le%#l #nd buine eti! liter#ture. @ut

=#t i le o'ten noted, but e oer-#r!in% reponibility 'or

te !ompoite produ!t, i # reponibility 'or te !oi!e o' !omponent #nd upplier tereo'.

e #embler # ultim#te reponibility 'or te #'ety o' te !ompoite produ!t. e !ompoite

produ!t i te #embler> produ!t, #nd te #embler i Cut # 'ully reponible 'or it # #ny

produ!er i 'or te #'ety o' it produ!t. #rt o' =#t te #embler doe in produ!in% te

!ompoite produ!t i to !ooe #ppropri#te !omponent #nd to determine o= tey #re to be

inte%r#ted =it oter !omponent #nd r#= m#teri#l to 'orm te !ompoite produ!t. *#ll ti

tird #pe!t o' #embler reponibility F!omponent ele!tion reponibility. e oer#r!in%

duty to !#rry out te dei%n #nd produ!tion pro!ee in # m#nner t#t doe not introdu!e de'e!t

into te 'in#l produ!t implie t#t te #embler, in undert#9in% to ele!t !omponent to be

#embled, #lo undert#9e # duty to !ooe #ppropri#te !omponent #nd r#= m#teri#l 'rom

2


28/45

=i! to produ!e # !ompoite produ!t t#t i #'e 'or !onumer.

o e;#mine our !l#im t#t tere i # duty o' ti ort, !onider # !le#r !#e in =i! #n

#embler iol#te it. 3uppoe #n #embler o' #irpl#ne # !ontr#!ted to pur!#e 'uel t#n9

'rom te lo=et bidder. e lo=et bidder, let u #y, turn out to be # !ut-r#te met#l '#bri!#tion

!omp#ny =it =ell-do!umented #nd =ell-publi!iIed


29/45

!omp#ny # #!ted immor#lly depite te '#!t t#t it produ!ed no de'e!tie t#n9. #t it did

produ!e =# # de'e!tie #irpl#ne, #nd in!e te de'e!t in te t#n9 be!#me # de'e!t in te

#irpl#ne in =i! te t#n9 =ere int#lled, te #irpl#ne #embler i %uilty o' produ!in%

de'e!tie #irpl#ne. @e!#ue te !omponent =ill be!ome p#rt o' te l#r%er produ!t o' te

#embler, te #embler> duty to produ!e # #'e produ!t !re#te # duty to #oid uin% de'e!tie

!omponent, een =en tey #re upplied by oter !omp#nie t#t #e teir o=n obli%#tion to

#oid produ!in% de'e!tie !omponent.60 @e!#ue ti duty derie 'rom te #embler> duty to

enure te #'ety o' it o=n produ!t, it !#nnot be i'ted to te upplier.

e !#e o' te #irpl#ne #embler illutr#te te mot tr#i%t'or=#rd =#y 'or #n

#embler to iol#te it duty to !ooe #ppropri#te !omponent. ere #re, o=eer, oter =#y

in =i! #n #embler !#n iol#te ti #me duty. nte#d o' !ooin% # !omponent t#t it #

re#on to beliee i #lre#dy de'e!tie, #n #embler !#n ne%li%ently !ooe # !omponent t#t

m#y be re#on#bly e;pe!ted to be!ome de'e!tie under te !ondition in =i! te #embler

propoe to ue it. or e;#mple, uppoe t#t #n #embler o' Cet en%ine de!ide to !ut !ot by

uin% bolt t#t =ere m#de 'or te le #r !ondition o' piton-drien en%ine. e bolt, let

u #y, #re per'e!tly #de


30/45

li9ely to be!ome de'e!tie =en ued in te propoed =#y.

in#lly, =e !#n im#%ine # more !ompli!#ted 9ind o' !#e t#t i # mi;ture o' te t=o

oter. n ti 9ind o' !#e, # d#n%erou itu#tion #rie be!#ue o' # !ombin#tion o' mor#lly

dubiou de!iion by te #embler, #nd # !omponent t#t !ont#in l#tent de'e!t or =e#9nee.

3uppoe t#t @ill> @#lloon or9 i m#nu'#!turin% # p#en%er b#lloon. @@ #nti!ip#te t#t

te b#lloon =ill be ued to %ie ort b#lloon ride to p#en%er, #nd t#t in mot !#e, te

b#lloon> %ondol# =ill be 'illed to !#p#!ity. o e!ure te %ondol# to te b#lloon, @@

pur!#e len%t o' rope 'rom # rope-m#9er. 3uppoe t#t e#! len%t o' rope =ill #e to !#rry

4/0 pound o' =ei%t =en te b#lloon i lo#ded to !#p#!ity (=i! @@ #nti!ip#te =ill be

mot o' te time). 3uppoe t#t te rope upplier # t=o %r#de o' e#y-duty rope. Gr#de A i

r#ted to 1000 pound, #nd %r#de @ i r#ted to 500 pound. 3uppoe t#t Gr#de A i mu! more

e;penie. 3uppoe t#t @@ opt 'or %r#de @ to !ut !ot #nd in!re#e it pro'it m#r%in.

"ere @@ !ooe to ue # !omponent #t te ery ed%e o' te p#r#meter et 'ort by te

!omponent m#9er. $o= uppoe t#t te %r#de @ rope t#t @@ pur!#ed #nd ued to e!ure

te %ondol# turn out to #e # ery li%t =e#9ne. 3u! # =e#9ne m#y neer #e poed #

problem i' te rope #d uu#lly !#rried only 50 pound, =it only #n o!!#ion#l lo#d o' 4/0

pound. "o=eer, #t #n #lmot !ont#nt lo#d o' 4/0 pound, te undete!ted =e#9ne !#ue te

rope to bre#9. +or#lly pe#9in%, =o i #t '#ultO

*ert#inly te rope m#nu'#!turer mut be#r i%ni'i!#nt mor#l (#nd, no doubt, le%#l) bl#me.

A'ter #ll, it upplied # rope t#t =# de'e!tie een =en ued =itin it t#ted pe!i'i!#tion.

"o=eer, =e tin9 t#t it i !le#r t#t @@> !ondu!t # #lo been mor#lly bl#me=orty, in

mu! te #me =#y #nd to mu! te #me de%ree. @@ 9ne= t#t it =# not %oin% to ue te

rope 'or lo#d in te midr#n%e o' te pe!i'i!#tion, but r#ter #t te ery outer ed%e o' =#t te

0


31/45

rope m#9er =# =illin% to r#te it. @@ ould #lo 9no= t#t i' tere i #ny underlyin%

=e#9ne in te rope, uin% it #t te ed%e o' it r#ted !#p#!ity mi%t =ell e;#!erb#te it.61

e !ontend t#t te #embler> duty to !re#te # #'e produ!t in!lude # duty to t#9e

pe!i#l !#re =en uin% !omponent in =#y t#t !ould e;#!erb#te #ny underlyin% =e#9nee

t#t mi%t e;it =itout bein% dete!ted by te !omponent p#rt m#9er. e mot tr#i%t'or=#rd

=#y to di!#r%e ti duty =ould be to imply #oid u! unuu#lly #r ue o' # !omponent.

Altern#tely, te #embler !ould undert#9e to #e #ddition#l tetin% done to m#9e ure t#t te

!omponent i 'ree o' =e#9nee t#t, tou% toler#ble in ome ue o' te !omponent, !ould

le#d to tr#%i! !omponent '#ilure =en te !omponent i ued in te =#y te #embler i

!oniderin%. @@ ne%le!ted ti duty =en it de!ided to ue # !omponent in # =#y t#t pued

te limit o' it #'ety r#tin%, #nd =i! !ould be e;pe!ted to e;#!erb#te #ny l#tent undete!ted

de'e!t, =en it !ould #e ued # mu! #'er !omponent inte#d. eter or not one =ould

=#nt to old #n #embler tri!tly li#ble 'or !omponent de'e!t t#t it #d no pr#!ti!#l =#y o'

9no=in% #bout, it !ert#inly doe eem re#on#ble to old te #embler li#ble 'or #!tion t#t it

9no= or ould 9no= =ill e;#!erb#te #ny l#tent, minor de'e!t or =e#9nee t#t mi%t #e

%one unnoti!ed durin% tetin% predi!#ted on # le #r et o' oper#tin% !ondition. n ort,

=ile =e !ert#inly do not deny t#t te !omponent m#9er # te obli%#tion to enure t#t it

produ!t #re #'e #nd 'ree 'rom de'e!t, =e !ontend t#t # m#nu'#!turer =o m#9e ue o'

!omponent p#rt upplied by #noter !omp#ny # # mor#l duty to %u#rd #%#int poible de'e!t

in !omponent p#rt epe!i#lly =en tey #re bein% ued in =#y t#t #re out o' te norm, #nd

t#t !#n be re#on#bly e;pe!ted to e;#!erb#te #ny underlyin% =e#9nee or de'e!t t#t m#y not

be #pp#rent or d#n%erou =en te p#rt i ued in # more t#nd#rd =#y.62

1


32/45

)%. *ean$hile, Bac- at !ord

ere i i%ni'i!#nt eiden!e t#t ord be#ed in # m#nner imil#r to te b#lloon m#9er in our

e;#mple. t i !le#r 'rom our e#rlier di!uion o' te itory o' te ;plorer t#t te tire =ere

not imply #n Fe;tr# t#t =# #dded to #n #lre#dy e;itin% produ!t. R#ter, tey =ere dei%ned

pe!i'i!#lly 'or te ;plorer, #nd teir per'orm#n!e !#r#!teriti! =ere #n import#nt et o'

#ri#ble t#t =ere t#9en into #!!ount #nd m#nipul#ted by te en%ineer =o =ere dei%nin% te

!omple; ytem t#t !ompried te ;plorer #nd it tire. @y inte%r#tin% te tire into te dei%n

o' te ;plorer, ord #! de!iion to ue *-r#ted tire (te lo=et r#tin% 'or temper#ture #llo=ed 'or

p#en%er ei!le), #nd it de!iion to lo=er te re!ommended in'l#tion preure o' tee

#lre#dy lo=-

#pp#rent de!iion to dire%#rd independent eiden!e o' poible


33/45

!onidered # norm#l or #!!ept#ble r#te.65 e '#ilure r#te o' iretone tire on ord ;plorer

=ere !ert#inly #bnorm#lly i%. eter or not te underlyin% =e#9nee t#t !#ued te

iretone tire to '#il #t u! # r#te =en tey =ere ubCe!ted to te #r !ondition #nd lo=

#'ety m#r%in #o!i#ted =it te ;plorer !ontitute # true de'e!t m#y be # m#tter o' em#nti!.

#t doe eem !le#r 'rom te eiden!e, o=eer, i t#t ord > be#ior m#de m#tter =ore.

e #e #r%ued t#t te ord> u%%etion t#t it i # mere ret#iler 'or tire i unten#ble.

ile te ;plorer> tire '#ll into #n intermedi#te !#te%ory bet=een # !le#r !#e o' # ep#r#te

produ!t #nd # !le#r !#e o' # !omponent, tey =ere u''i!iently inte%r#ted into te dei%n o' te

;plorer t#t ord #!

#ttempt to 'i; # problem =it one #pe!t o' te ytem eem to #e !ontributed to te

prem#ture '#ilure o' #noter p#rt o' t#t ytem.

0OTE1

An e#rly erion o' ti p#per =# re#d #t # meetin% o' te Ao!i#tion 'or r#!ti!#l #nd

ro'eion#l ti! in *in!inn#ti, 7io on +#r! , 2002, #nd te #utor =i to t#n9 te

di!u#nt 'or ue'ul 'eedb#!9. e #utor #re #lo %r#te'ul to eer#l #nonymou reie=er

'or teir 'eedb#!9, #nd to Al Gini 'or i en!our#%ement. 3i%ni'i!#nt =or9 on ti p#per =#

done =ile #lmer =# # ot-&o!tor#l ello= #t *entr#l +i!i%#n nierity, #nd =ile


34/45

$o%%le =# on # le#e ponored by *+> Ree#r! ro'eorip pro%r#mH bot #re %r#te'ul

to *+ 'or it upport.

1. Firetone ire Re!#lled, *$$'n, Au%ut /, 2000, ttp:!nn'n.!nn.!om2000080/ne=.

nle oter=ie indi!#ted, =en =e #y Firetone A tire trou%out ti p#per, =e =ill be

re'errin% to tee tire, #nd =e =ill re'er to @rid%etone-iretone imply # Firetone.

2. bid.

. 3#r# $#t#n, Fire ?in9ed to 2/ +ore &e#t, 3A od#y, &e!ember , 2000, p. @. A

!ronolo%y o' te ordiretone tire !rii, $"3A d#t#, #nd depoition o' iretone #nd ord

en%ineer !#n be 'ound #t te ubli! *itiIen =eb ite, ttp:===.!itiIen.or%inde;.!'m. +u!

o' ti m#teri#l # #lo been !ompiled by #b urner in Fire: ordiretoneDA 3t#tu

Report, (Ao!i#tion 'or ri#l ?#=yer o' Ameri!#, Euly 2001). eit @r#der> "i% #nd

+i%ty : 3V--e orldP +ot n%erou Vei!le #nd "o= ey Got #t #y ($e=

Nor9: ubli! A''#ir, 2002) proide # n#rr#tie o' te dei%n pro!e t#t led to te ;plorer. A

!omplete d#t#b#e o' !onumer !ompl#int rel#ted to iretone tire '#ilure #nd ord ;plorer

rolloer, #nd oter ue'ul in'orm#tion, !#n be 'ound #t te $"3A =eb ite #t

ttp:===.nt#.dot.%o. +u! o' te in'orm#tion rel#ted to te re!#ll i #lo det#iled in te

report o' te Eoint "e#rin% be'ore te 3ub!ommittee on *ommer!e, r#de, #nd *onumer

rote!tion #nd 7eri%t #nd neti%#tion o' te *ommittee on ner%y #nd *ommer!e o' te

"oue o' Repreent#tie on Ford +otor *omp#ny> Re!#ll o' *ert#in iretone ire, Eune

1/, 2001 ($o. 10-45). i i ##il#ble #t ttp:ener%y!ommer!e.oue.%o10#!tion10-

45.pd', #nd ere#'ter =ill be re'erred to FEoint "e#rin%.

4. 3ee uner, op. !it., Eon Green=#ld, Fnide te ordiretone i%t, (ime, +#y /, 2001),

4


35/45

ttp:===.time.!omtimebuine#rti!le0,85//,1281/8,00.tml.), E#me "e#ley #nd 3#r#

$#t#n, Furter 3!rutiny ut ord in te "ot 3e#t, (3A od#y, 3eptember 21, 2000),

FReport: ord #ed p mproement, (N#ooQ $e=, 7!tober 18, 2000,

ttp:d#ilyne=.y#oo.!om#p20001018b), #nd ubli! *itiIen, op. !it.

5. ord =idened te =eelb#e o' te 2002 model 'our-door ;plorer by t=o in!eH o=eer,

E#


36/45

t#t om# @o%m#nn, ord> o=n


37/45

15. or # itory o' te l#=uit on ti m#tter, ee urner, op. !it. #nd ubli! *itiIen, op. !it.

16. om# o%#rty, F*#n *ourt> *lo#9 o' 3e!re!y @e &e#dlyO Eudi!i#l 7rder rote!tin%

*omp#nie ept ire *#e Tuiet, 3A od#y, 7!tober 16, 2000, p. [email protected] ee #lo ubli!

*itiIen> do!ument, Fe Re#l Root *#ue o' te ord-iretone r#%edy (ubli! *itiIen #nd

3#'ety'orum.!om, 2001) #nd @r#der, "i% #nd +i%ty (op !it.).

1. 3ee, 'or int#n!e, +#tte= 3t#nn#rd, Ford, iretone ne= ire ere @#d, 3uit Alle%e,

3#n r#n!i!o *roni!le, Au%ut 0, 2000. 3ee #lo te our!e lited in note 5. An #nonymou

re'eree u%%eted t#t m#n#%ement di#rr#y #t bot iretone #nd #t ord m#y #e preented

ome o' te in'orm#tion ##il#ble to en%ineer, l#=yer, #nd oter 'rom re#!in% te top

e;e!utie in # m#nner t#t #llo=ed tem to !onitently tr#!9 te problem. Altou% ti

pe!ul#tion mi%t e;pl#in te '#ilure o' upper m#n#%ement to t#9e


38/45

2000, ttp:!ommer!e.en#te.%oe#rin%0/12m!!.pd'.

20. n'orm#tion on te d#te o' ord> re!#ll in tee !ountrie !#n be 'ound #t ubli! *itiIen,

op. !it # =ell # in urner, op. !it.. 3ee #lo #ren +iller, F+emo: ord "#d ron% ire in

+ide#t, N#ooQ @uine $e=, 7!tober 1/, 2000.

ttp:d#ilyne=.y#oo.!om#p20001016b, #nd Al'ono *#rdy, FVeneIuel# n role in te "oue Eoint *ommittee "e#rin%, op. !it.

22. urner, op. !it.H ee #lo ?#=ren!e lri!, &etroit ree re, 3eptember 25, 2000.

2. 3ee E#me Grim#ldi #nd r#n9 3=obod#, Ford 7''er ire t# *omp#rion, e

#in%ton ot, 3eptember 18, 2000, p. A10. At te Eoint "e#rin%, !ommittee member noted

t#t te !oi!e to top uin% Goodye#r tire #ppe#red to be b#ed prim#rily on !ot !on!ern, #nd

E#!


39/45

rolloer, p. 52. Eon ?#mpe o' iretone preented imil#r d#t# #t te e#rin% to o= t#t

Fre#l =orld !l#im d#t# proide 'urter eiden!e Ut#t S tere =ere i; time # m#ny tre#d

ep#r#tion !l#im 'or te ord ;plorer, =itin te repl#!ement tire popul#tion t#t in!luded

oter ei!le, t#n tere =ere 'or oter ei!le, p. /2. ile iretone> d#t# m#y be b#ed

on ome=#t mile#din% !omp#rion, tere doe eem to be # !onenu t#t tere =ere more

tre#d-ep#r#tion problem =it te tire on te ;plorer t#n on oter ei!le.

26. t i =ort mentionin% t#t te ord ;plorer #ppe#r to '#ll in #bout te middle r#n%e in

term o' t#bility =en !omp#red to #ll 3V. n '#!t, # number o' oter 3V #nd !#r #d

i%er ei!le drier de#t r#te t#n te ord ;plorer. or ome o' tee t#titi!, ee E#me

R. "e#ley, F*r# 3tudy R#n9 &e#dly Vei!le, 3A od#y, 7!tober 18, 2000, p. @. 3ee #lo

Eenni'er @ott, Fe @i% @lo=out: +#neuerin% @y @rid%etoneiretone, ord +#y "#e +#de

# @#d 3itu#tion ore, Auto.!om, 7!tober 5, 2000 #nd Eon Green=#ld, op. !it. $onetele,

te ;plorer did #e #n #bnorm#lly i% r#te o' rolloer #!!ident reultin% 'rom tire '#ilure

=en !omp#red to oter 3V #nd to oter p#en%er ei!le in %ener#l. urter, #

3#'ety'orum.!om #n#lyi o' $"3A> d#t#b#e o=ed t#t # rolloer-to-tire-'#ilure r#te o'

1L on te ord ;plorer !omp#red to # 5L r#te 'or oter ord li%t tru!9 #nd 3V #nd # L

r#te 'or #ll oter 3V #nd li%t tru!9. 3ee ttp:===.#'ety'orum.!omne=010521.tml.

2. Eoint "e#rin%, op. !it., p. 1.

28. 3ee te 3#'ety'orum.!om An#lyi Ford ;plorer Roll 7er 4 ime +ore 7'ten #n

7ter 3V en ire #il, +#y 21, 2001 #t ttp:===.#'ety'orum.!omne=010521.tml,

#nd te $"3A in'orm#tion !ited #t Ford ;plorer Rolloer ?e%#l A!tion W Re!#ll

n'orm#tion, on ttp:===.'orde;plorerrolloer.!om.

2/. 3ee te *onumer A''#ir report F;plorer +ore ?i9ely to Roll Re%#rdle o' ire ype,

/

http://www.fordexplorerrollover.com/http://www.fordexplorerrollover.com/


40/45

7!tober /, 2000, #t ttp:===.!onumer#''#ir.!omne='orde;proll.tml.

0. Firetone ?etter to @elo W "7 ;e!utie, ebru#ry 10, 2000.

"tttp:===.9ou.!omne=torie12/0.tml.

1. E#net i;, F*on'li!t re!eded iretone Re!#ll, Auto.!om, 3eptember 26, 2000.

ttp:===.#uto.!om#utone=tire2620000/26.tm.

2. ee !omment, m#de durin% # teleied *on%reion#l e#rin%, =ere =idely reported in

te medi#. 3ee, 'or e;#mple, #rle ldrid%e #nd om# o%#rty, Firetone ut K@et eory>

or=#rd, 3A od#y, 3eptember 1, 2000.

. Eenni'er @ott, op. !it.

4. om# &. @#u%m#n, n%ineerin% &ire!tor, ord ru!9 7per#tion, in # depoition on

&e!ember 21, 2000 (*#ue $umber 00-020-A, $ue!e *ounty, e;#, 00/1:24-00/4:11).

5. @y Fdeontolo%i!#l #ppro#!e =e me#n #ppro#!e to reponibility t#t 'o!u on =#t =e

mi%t !#ll intrini! mor#l !ulp#bility or %uilt o' te #%ent bein% pr#ied or bl#med.

6. A l#r%e eller mi%t be #ble to #''e!t produ!t


41/45

'or te #'ety o' te oer#ll produ!t !re#te # reponibility to enure t#t #ll o' te !omponent

o' te produ!t #re #'eDin!ludin% #ny !omponent m#de by outide !omp#nie. ' u! #

!omponent i de'e!tie, ten bot !omp#nie #e iol#ted teir duty to produ!e #'e produ!t.

8. e di!uion in te ne;t eer#l p#r#%r#p dr#= on id 7=en, +. 3tu#rt +#dden, #nd

+#ry i, +#dden W 7=en on rodu!t ?i#bility, (3t. #ul, +$: etGroup, 2000), olume

2, te Ameri!#n ?#= ntitute> Ret#tement o' te ?#= ird J ort, #nd Eerry E. illip,

rodu!t ?i#bility in # $utell , 5 ed. (3t. #ul, +$: etGroup, 1//8).

/. e dr#= ere in p#rt on d=#rd E. ion9#, ort in # $utell (3t #ul +inn.: et Group,

1///), # =ell # on 7=en, +#dden, #nd i, op. !it. #nd illip, op. !it.

40. interbottom . ri%t (15 n%.Rep. 402 Un%.1842)H ti 1842 @riti !#e =# !ited

#pproin%ly in te 1852 $e= Nor9 !#e o' om# . in!eter (6 $.N. /).

41. +#!eron, p. /4'. *#rdoIo note, Fe obli%#tion to inpe!t mut #ry =it te n#ture

o' te tin% to be inpe!ted. e more prob#ble t#t d#n%er, te %re#ter te need o' !#ution.

42. i di!uion oerimpli'ie m#tter ome=#t, in!e te inCured !onumer !ould in m#ny

!#e #lo ue under # teory o' bre#! o' =#rr#nty, #nd in m#ny !#e =#rr#nty =# eld to be

implied unle e;pli!itly di!l#imed by te m#nu'#!turer. ile ti #ltern#tie did in!re#e te

option o' inCured !onumer, it till #d ome dr#=b#!9

4. 3ome=#t di''erent rule #re o'ten #pplied to de'e!t in te dei%n o' # produ!t.

44. rodu!er =ould ten re!oup te !ot by buildin% tem into te produ!t> pri!e. n teory,

ti pro!e =ould intern#liIe te !ot o' inCurie into te pri!e o' produ!t, =it more d#n%erou

produ!t #in% # l#r%er Fli#bility premium built into teir pri!e. 3ee Guido *#l#brei #nd Eon

. "ir!o'', Fo=#rd # et 'or 3tri!t ?i#bility in ort (N#le nierity ?#= Eourn#l 81

U1/2), #nd Eon @. Att#n#io, Fe rin!iple o' A%%re%#te Autonomy #nd te *#l#brei#n

41


42/45

Appro#! to rodu!t ?i#bility (Vir%ini# ?#= Reie= 4 U1/88).

45. 3tri!t produ!t li#bility =# !ontroeri#l =en it =# 'irt introdu!ed, #nd to ome e;tent it

rem#in o tod#y. 3ee 'or e;#mple, illi#m ?. roer, Fe A#ult on te *it#del N#le ?#=

Eourn#l, 10// (1/60), #nd 3idley W Autin, Fe $eed 'or ?e%il#tie Re'orm o' te ort

3ytem 10 "#mline ?#= Reie= 2 (1/8).

46. e %ener#l le%#l prin!iple t#t #n #embler !#nnot dele%#te it reponibility to produ!e #

#'e produ!t to it upplier %oe b#!9 #t le#t # '#r # +#!eron, #nd # been %ener#lly

#!!epted by 3 !ourt. 3ee Ameri!#n Euripruden!e, 3e!ond dition, rodu!t ?i#bility

($#tion#l ?e%#l Ree#r! Group, 2002), e!tion 4, 5.

4. bid., 3e!tion 140. n mot u! !#e, bot te !omponent p#rt m#9er #nd te #embler #re

!o-de'end#nt. n ome !#e, te #embler i ued ep#r#tely #nd ten ue te !omponent p#rt

m#9er in # ep#r#te #!tion. iter =#y, te !ourt =ill #t ome point determine o= to diide te

burden o' te d#m#%e #=#rded to te pl#inti'' bet=een te #embler #nd te p#rtm#9er. A

number o' di''erent ruleJ=i! #ry 'rom Curidi!tion to Curidi!tionJ%oern o= ti #ppen.

+ot re


43/45

%ener#l rule, # endor =o ditribute # produ!t #!


44/45

55. @y !ontr#t, te pe!i#liIed b#tterie t#t #re ued in ome ele!troni! dei!e, u! #

!ellul#r pone, l#ptop !omputer, et!., #re more inte%r#ted into te repe!tie dei!e, #nd

!one


45/45

rope to !#rry, #y 200 or 00 pound, #nd it till '#iled. #t !oi!e mut #ddre o= te !omponent =ill inter#!t =it te oter

!omponent o' te !ompoite produ!t. en # mere

ford-firestone--archived versdion.doc

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