Forces Challenging the Forces Challenging the Conservative European OrderConservative European Order

Liberalism Nationalism

Early Liberal PrinciplesEarly Liberal Principles

* * Note that while C19Note that while C19thth Liberals did support Liberals did support constitutional government, with powers of constitutional government, with powers of

monarchs being limited & governments monarchs being limited & governments being responsible to elected being responsible to elected

representatives of parliament, they DID representatives of parliament, they DID NOT support mass democracy.NOT support mass democracy.

C19th Liberalism

LegalEquality

ReligiousToleration

Freedomof Press

Free MarketEconomies

ConstitutionalGovernment*

Rise of Nationalism in EuropeRise of Nationalism in EuropeNationalismNationalism can be regarded as the most can be regarded as the most significant political force of C19th Europe. significant political force of C19th Europe. ImpactImpact continued in Europe & rest of the world continued in Europe & rest of the world in the following century, & in the following century, & still today.still today.

DefinitionsDefinitions of nationalism typically suggest of nationalism typically suggest nationalism is based on demand that nationalism is based on demand that groups of groups of people (known as “nations”) connected by people (known as “nations”) connected by their common language, &/or culture, &/or their common language, &/or culture, &/or history, &/or geography, &/or religion should history, &/or geography, &/or religion should be ruled by their own government within be ruled by their own government within their own statetheir own state. This was not an idea that had . This was not an idea that had significant affect in Europe significant affect in Europe beforebefore C19 C19thth..

Rise of Nationalism in EuropeRise of Nationalism in Europe (2) (2)

OrigOrigiinsns of of nationsnations & & nationalismnationalism are also are also v.v. controversial, controversial, butbut the the Romantic MovementRomantic Movement is is often recognized often recognized as having played an as having played an impt.impt. role in role in their development in their development in Europe. Historians & writers Europe. Historians & writers in C19th Europe who collected information & in C19th Europe who collected information & stories about nations’ “pasts”, their common stories about nations’ “pasts”, their common folklorefolklore, , literatureliterature & & languagelanguage & customs, & & customs, & transmitted their work to larger audiences through transmitted their work to larger audiences through the mechanized printing the mechanized printing presspress, helped to give , helped to give people a sense of community beyond the people a sense of community beyond the immediate locality in which they lived. Their ideas immediate locality in which they lived. Their ideas & findings transmitted further by & findings transmitted further by schoolteachersschoolteachers..

The Romantic MovemetThe Romantic Movemet

The Romantic Movement, or The Romantic Movement, or RomanticismRomanticism, , gained strength in the early C19th and was gained strength in the early C19th and was partly a reaction to the values of the partly a reaction to the values of the Enlightenment and impact of industrialization. Enlightenment and impact of industrialization. Its influence was felt in art, literature, folklore, Its influence was felt in art, literature, folklore, history and cultural studies, and intellectually it history and cultural studies, and intellectually it emphasized the importance of understanding emphasized the importance of understanding the role played by the role played by emotions, feelings & emotions, feelings & imaginationimagination (as opposed to rationality). (as opposed to rationality).

Major Centers of C19Major Centers of C19thth Nationalism in EuropeNationalism in Europe

IRISHIRISH

GERMANGERMANPOLISHPOLISH

BALKANBALKANITALIANITALIAN

EASTEAST

EUROPEANEUROPEAN

Major Centers of C19Major Centers of C19thth

European Nationalism (2)European Nationalism (2)

Irish nationalism: Known as “Irish nationalism: Known as “The Irish ProblemThe Irish Problem”, ”, Ireland taken over by Britain in 1800, but Irish Ireland taken over by Britain in 1800, but Irish nationalists began to demand independence (at nationalists began to demand independence (at least greater self-government)least greater self-government)

Italian Nationalism: Divided among many states, Italian Nationalism: Divided among many states, with Austria with Austria esp.esp. powerful in Italian affairs, Italian powerful in Italian affairs, Italian nationalists nationalists wantedwanted national unification of the national unification of the Italian people Italian people

German Nationalism: Divided amongGerman Nationalism: Divided among many states, many states, German nationalists German nationalists wantedwanted aa united German united German nation-statenation-state

Major Centers of C19Major Centers of C19thth

European Nationalism (European Nationalism (33))Polish Nationalism: Poland had lost its Polish Nationalism: Poland had lost its independence, its territory distributed among independence, its territory distributed among GreatGreat PowersPowers. Polish nationalists . Polish nationalists wantedwanted an independent an independent nation-state.nation-state.Eastern European Nationalism: Largely within Eastern European Nationalism: Largely within Austrian Empire where many different ethnic Austrian Empire where many different ethnic groups co-habited, different communities, groups co-habited, different communities, esp.esp. Hungarians (Magyars), Czechs, Slovenes, began Hungarians (Magyars), Czechs, Slovenes, began to politicize their demands for their own ethnic to politicize their demands for their own ethnic groups, & call for national independence.groups, & call for national independence.Balkan Nationalism: Largely in Ottoman territories, Balkan Nationalism: Largely in Ottoman territories, (also Russian(also Russian,,Austrian),Austrian), Serbs,Greeks,Romanians, Serbs,Greeks,Romanians, Bulgarians & others began demand independence.Bulgarians & others began demand independence.

MetternichMetternich& the Conservative Order& the Conservative Order

Perhaps most significant center Perhaps most significant center of of conservatismconservatism during post- during post-Vienna years was Austria. Vienna years was Austria. Empire’s Chancellor Empire’s Chancellor Prince Prince MetternichMetternich (1773 - 1859) (1773 - 1859) aware of dangers of nationalism aware of dangers of nationalism & liberalism to multi-national & liberalism to multi-national empire like Austria, & that even empire like Austria, & that even beyond borders of Empire, in beyond borders of Empire, in the German the German BundBund the rise of the rise of these forces could threaten these forces could threaten stability within Austria.stability within Austria.

The German BundThe German BundAt the Vienna Congress a At the Vienna Congress a very loose very loose confederationconfederation waswas formed among the formed among the German States known as the German States known as the BundBund. . It It had 39 members, had 39 members, most powerful of which were most powerful of which were Austria & Prussia. Metternich Austria & Prussia. Metternich was determined to dominate was determined to dominate the Bund espthe Bund esp.. so as to so as to prevent the rise of demands prevent the rise of demands for liberal constitutionalism & for liberal constitutionalism & German nationalist forces German nationalist forces that could threaten that could threaten the the integrity of Austria within integrity of Austria within which millions of ethnic which millions of ethnic Germans also lived.Germans also lived.

The Carlsbad DecreesThe Carlsbad Decrees

In early C19th there In early C19th there were active German were active German student clubs known as student clubs known as ‘‘BurschenschaftenBurschenschaften’ ’ that were pushing the that were pushing the demand for German demand for German national unification. To national unification. To prevent their demands prevent their demands from spreading, from spreading, Metternich persuaded Metternich persuaded the main German the main German states to accept the states to accept the Carlsbad DecreesCarlsbad Decrees of of July 1819.July 1819.

Each university to have a Each university to have a representative of state’s representative of state’s rulerruler to make sure university to make sure university (incl. students & professors) (incl. students & professors) obeyedobeyed laws & acted “laws & acted “morallymorally””Professors promoting ideas Professors promoting ideas that challenged existing that challenged existing regimes to be regimes to be dismisseddismissedBurchenschaften bannedBurchenschaften banned & & all individuals involved in secret all individuals involved in secret or unauthorized university or unauthorized university associations prohibited from associations prohibited from holding public officeholding public officeHeavy Heavy censorshipcensorship of the press of the press with severe penalties for those with severe penalties for those disobeying censorship lawsdisobeying censorship laws

Conservatism in FranceConservatism in FranceSimilar Similar conservative trendsconservative trends to those imposed by Metternich to those imposed by Metternich were seen during this period in other parts of Europe too.were seen during this period in other parts of Europe too.

E.g., in E.g., in France, there was also a wave of conservatism. Louis France, there was also a wave of conservatism. Louis XVIXVI,, originally accepted circumstances had changed & that his originally accepted circumstances had changed & that his powers would be constitutionally limited by a ‘powers would be constitutionally limited by a ‘CharterCharter’. The ’. The French Charter had guaranteed legal equalityFrench Charter had guaranteed legal equality & & religious religious toleration, & establishment of a partially elected parliament. toleration, & establishment of a partially elected parliament. ((ButBut, parliament’s upper house was actually appointed by the , parliament’s upper house was actually appointed by the King, & though the lower house was elected, only those with King, & though the lower house was elected, only those with substantial property qualified to vote & to stand as candidates).substantial property qualified to vote & to stand as candidates).

By 1820, however, following assassination of second-in-line to By 1820, however, following assassination of second-in-line to throne, king persuaded to become more conservativethrone, king persuaded to become more conservative & & impose impose press press censorshipcensorship, further , further restrict right to voterestrict right to vote, , arrestedarrested many, (incl. liberals), suspected of threatening his regime, & pmany, (incl. liberals), suspected of threatening his regime, & putut secondary education under control of Catholic Church.secondary education under control of Catholic Church.

Early Challenges to theEarly Challenges to theVienna SettlementVienna Settlement

1820 1820 Revolution in SpainRevolution in Spain & Uprisings in many & Uprisings in many ItalianItalian statesstates against against “legitimate” monarchies“legitimate” monarchies restored after restored after Vienna. Vienna. PutPut down by down by Great Power Great Power intervention.intervention.

In 1825, in ‘In 1825, in ‘Decembrist RevoltDecembrist Revolt’, liberals tried to gain ’, liberals tried to gain greater power in Russia. When greater power in Russia. When Tsar Alexander ITsar Alexander I died Nov died Nov 1825 1825 liberal army officersliberal army officers gave backing to his gave backing to his replacement by his less conservative brother replacement by his less conservative brother ConstantineConstantine, , but were ultimately unsuccessful in getting but were ultimately unsuccessful in getting himhim installed on installed on the throne, & instead Tsar the throne, & instead Tsar NicholasNicholas, another brother of , another brother of Alexander seen as more conservative Alexander seen as more conservative becabecame the new me the new Tsar & Tsar & triedtried to maintain tight control through to maintain tight control through censorship & censorship & secret policesecret police..

Tsar Nicholas ITsar Nicholas I

Early Challenges to theEarly Challenges to theVienna SettlementVienna Settlement (2) (2)

Somewhat in contradiction, however, the Great Somewhat in contradiction, however, the Great Powers were to intervene in favour of Revolution in Powers were to intervene in favour of Revolution in GreeceGreece that began in 1821 & sought independence that began in 1821 & sought independence from the Ottoman Empire. In this case, in fact, from the Ottoman Empire. In this case, in fact, European liberalsEuropean liberals strongly supported their states’ strongly supported their states’ intervening & leading figures such as Lord Byron intervening & leading figures such as Lord Byron actually went to fight on the side of the insurgents. actually went to fight on the side of the insurgents. They created the image of this struggle for national They created the image of this struggle for national liberation as the re-birth of ancient Greek civilization & liberation as the re-birth of ancient Greek civilization & democracy as opposed to the oppressive, despotic democracy as opposed to the oppressive, despotic Turk. By 1830 Greece had been recognized as an Turk. By 1830 Greece had been recognized as an independent kingdom by the Ottomans. (Serbia was independent kingdom by the Ottomans. (Serbia was also to gain independence in the Ottoman Balkans the also to gain independence in the Ottoman Balkans the same year).same year).

Following the general ratification of its indepence in 1832, Kingdom of Greece expanded over the next century to more or less its present shape in different stages.

Modern Greece

Revolutions of 1830Revolutions of 1830PartiallyPartially successful challenges to conservative successful challenges to conservative order occurred in 1830. 1st major successful order occurred in 1830. 1st major successful challenge in France where Bourbon monarchy challenge in France where Bourbon monarchy was overthrown. was overthrown. Charles XCharles X, Louis XVIII, Louis XVIII’ ’ brother, became king after brother, became king after LouisLouis’ death ’ death ((18241824))..

Charles was much more extreme conservative Charles was much more extreme conservative (supported by “(supported by “ultraroyalistsultraroyalists”) who wanted”) who wanted to to turn clock back fully toturn clock back fully to absolutist absolutist years. years. H He e introduced series of conservativeintroduced series of conservative // reactionary reactionary policies incl. payments to aristocrats who lost policies incl. payments to aristocrats who lost land in French Revolution. land in French Revolution. UnhappyUnhappy that there that there were too many liberals in Chamber ofwere too many liberals in Chamber of DeputiesDeputies, , hehe called new election in early 1830... But called new election in early 1830... But liberals gained even more seats! Charles liberals gained even more seats! Charles now now ledled royal coup d'étatroyal coup d'état issuing ‘ issuing ‘Four Four OrdinancesOrdinances’ on July 25th 1830.’ on July 25th 1830.

Charles X

Four Ordinances & ‘July Revolution’Four Ordinances & ‘July Revolution’

1) Restrictions on 1) Restrictions on Freedom of the PressFreedom of the Press

2) Chamber of Deputies 2) Chamber of Deputies DissolvedDissolved

3) New Elections Called3) New Elections Called

4) Franchise restricted 4) Franchise restricted to only the very to only the very wealthiestwealthiest

These ordinances basically These ordinances basically ignored constitutional monarchy ignored constitutional monarchy established at Viennaestablished at Vienna. Liberal. Liberal newspapers called on people to newspapers called on people to resist. Labourers in Paris, (already resist. Labourers in Paris, (already hurt by harsh economic conditions hurt by harsh economic conditions since 1827), took to the streets & since 1827), took to the streets & were attacked by Kings forces in were attacked by Kings forces in the ‘the ‘July DaysJuly Days’. Many died, but ’. Many died, but ultimately king was forced to ultimately king was forced to abdicate on Aug 2abdicate on Aug 2ndnd 1830. The 1830. The Chamber of Deputies chose Chamber of Deputies chose Duke Duke of Orleansof Orleans, thereafter known as , thereafter known as Louis PhilippeLouis Philippe, (known to have , (known to have more liberal leanings), as new more liberal leanings), as new king. king.

The Independence of BelgiumThe Independence of BelgiumDevelopments in France in 1830 led to Developments in France in 1830 led to political political changeschanges in other areas. in other areas. E.g.E.g., at , at Vienna new state known as Vienna new state known as United United Kingdom of the NetherlandsKingdom of the Netherlands formed formed incl.incl. territory known later as Belgium. Uprisings territory known later as Belgium. Uprisings began late Aug 1830 & Dutch forces failed began late Aug 1830 & Dutch forces failed to defeat Belgians who declaredto defeat Belgians who declared their their independence & established a liberal independence & established a liberal constitution. This territorial change constitution. This territorial change conflicted withconflicted with Vienna Vienna decisions, but Russia decisions, but Russia busy with own uprising of Poles, Prussia busy with own uprising of Poles, Prussia trying to suppress liberal uprisings in trying to suppress liberal uprisings in smaller neighbouring German states & smaller neighbouring German states & Austria likewise in Italian states. Great Austria likewise in Italian states. Great Powers therefore took no actionPowers therefore took no action. . Belgian Belgian independence officially recognized with independence officially recognized with TreatyTreaty of London of London in 1839. in 1839.

British Counterpart to RevolutionBritish Counterpart to Revolution

RRevolutionary uprisings evolutionary uprisings shookshook muchmuch of Europe from of Europe from late late C18C18thth onwards, onwards, but but BritainBritain waswas an an exceptionexception..While no revolution in Britain during this period, there While no revolution in Britain during this period, there was, however, change. was, however, change. CChange was more gradualhange was more gradual & & incremental & usually incremental & usually resultresult ofof compromisecompromise between between more conservative & liberal elements of society.more conservative & liberal elements of society.E.g.E.g., ‘, ‘Great Reform Bill of 1832Great Reform Bill of 1832’ increase’ increasedd size of size of British electorate by providing wealthier business & British electorate by providing wealthier business & commercial class with commercial class with rightright to vote. This change was to vote. This change was not a result of revolution, but of recognition of changes not a result of revolution, but of recognition of changes in domestic balance of power, compromise & a in domestic balance of power, compromise & a strong strong parliamentary traditionparliamentary tradition open to adapting in order to open to adapting in order to meet the rising needs / demands for change.meet the rising needs / demands for change.

Rulers of France: 1789-1871Rulers of France: 1789-1871Louis XI (r. 1774-1792)

First Republic (1793-1804)

Napoleon Bonaparte (1804-1815)

Louis XVIII (1815-1824)

Charles X (1824-1830)

Louis Philippe (1830-1848)

Second Republic (1848-1856)

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1856-1870)

Third Republic (1871-1940)