GeMS Farm Page 1 of 24

FORAGE DESCRIPTION

CALLIANDRA (Calliandra calothyrsus) Used for fuelwood, land

reclamation, green manure, animal fodder, & pulpwood

Can grow in infertile soils (pH = 5.0), desired pH = 6 - 8

Tolerate less rain Intolerant of waterlogging Not shade tolerant Grazing potential at 5

heads/ha 1 kg of calliandra= 1 kg

concentrates for lactating cows. Increased butterfat content 10% in cow’s milk

Crude Protein CP = 20 – 25% Should be offered fresh to

about 30 – 40% of total ration Low dry matter digestibility

(in sacco) due to high tannin content Produces more leaves than other shrub legumes especially in acidic soils Relish by animals when offered fresh immediately after cutting thus increasing DMD (60 –

80%) Unpalatable to rabbits when offered alone Can be feed to rabbits & chickens at 5% of total ration. Can be used as fish feed (Vietnam) Outyields Ipil-ipil & madre cacao when harvested at 3 months interval Most agronomically adaptable compared to other species in terms of growth and resistance

to pests & diseases

Table 1. Proximate and fibre analyses of Dry Calliandra calothyrsus Notes:

DMD - Dry Matter Digestibility, NDF - Neutral Detergent Fibre.

Dry

matter, %

Crude protein, %

Ash, % Ether extract,

%

In vitro DMD, %

NDF, % Source

LEAVES 39.0 21.6 35.4 1 EDIBLE STEMS 25.1 11.7 42.8 1 LEAVES 19.5 7.5 2.4 49.0 2 LEAVES 13.7 4.9 63.4 3 LEAVES and EDIBLE STEMS

39.0 24.0 8.0 4.1 24.0 4

LEAVES 23.0 4.9 35.9 (in sacco) 5

DRY SEASON 17.7 5.1 49.5 46.7 6

15.8 5.2 45.7 48.4 6 WET SEASON 17.5 4.9 51.5 52.5 6

14.0 4.7 44.5 44.5 6

GeMS Farm Page 2 of 24

Seed germination can be improved by soaking for 48 hrs in cold water. Seeds retain their viability for at least 2 -3 years in a refrigerator. Seed generally should be sown at a depth equal to its width. Germination occurs in 4 – 10

days. Sowing should be done at the beginning of the rainy season. Nursery plants can be transplanted when they are 20 – 50 cm tall. Areas to be planted must

be cleared completely. Intensive weed control should be practiced until it is well established.

Can increase milk production in cows if additional amount (3 kgs) is given as a supplement May be harvested 4 – 6 times a year For maximum leaf production, cut to a height of 0.5 – 1.9 m every 2 - 3 months Used to reduce weed growth, conserve soil moisture, & improve soil texture and fertility. Becoming source of forage for honeybees in Indonesia Flowering is concentrated between October & January Good source of vitamin carotene A dairy goat needs 100 – 150 plants for diet supplement Small amounts (5%) maybe feed to chickens as leaf meal. The carotene content gives a dark

yellow yolk which can increase the market value of the eggs.

RENSONII (Desmodium_cinereum)

GeMS Farm Page 3 of 24

Shortlived only 2 – 3 years Used in contour hedgerows & for alley cropping Flowers & seeds grows about 7 months after planting Not well suited for grazing or browsing Seeds germinate quickly at 3 – 4 days Should be kept weed free until well established Cut every 2 months interval Must be planted from seed Not drought or cold tolerant CP = IVDMD = TDN = Ca = P =

GeMS Farm Page 4 of 24

FLEMINGIA (Flemingia macrophylla) - Malabalatong Has high fiber & condensed tannin

concentrations Very drought tolerant Can survive in very poorly drained &

occasionally waterlogged soils Best growth between 22–28 C Moderate to high shade tolerant Cut at intervals of 6-14 weeks at 35-100

cm above the ground To improve seed germination, seeds

should be soaked in boiled water for 2-3 mins stirring the whole time followed by soaking in cool water for 12 hours

Seedlings emerge in 7-14 days For large areas, it can be planted in

rows 90 cm apart with a seed planted 10-20 cm

Not susceptible to any major diseases Lower nutritive value than Ipil-ipil &

Madre cacao, (1.8-3.9% N, 0.15-0.3% P, 1.0-1.4% K, 0.13-0.94% Ca, 0.2-0.3% Mg)

Low IVDMD at 11-53% due to high level of tannin (2.4%) & lignin (17.2%) in leaves.

Can be mixed with other grasses & legumes to be more palatable to animals

Produces flowers & seeds within 6-7 month after planting Tolerant to waterlogging Can adapt to infertile soils Drought & shade resistant Very poor quality forage for ruminants

GeMS Farm Page 5 of 24

MADRE CACAO (Gliricidia sepium) Can grow in acidic & infertile

soils Not tolerant in waterlogging soils Drought tolerant Not tolerant to medium to heavy

shade First cut 8-12 months after

sowing at 0.5-1.0 m above soil level & thereafter every 2-4 months

Generally for cut & carry systems not grazing/browsing

Highly resistant to diseases Crude Protein CP= 18-30% IVDMD = 60-65% Wilting leaves for 12-24 hrs

before feeding increases intake Feeding levels for cows & goats

at 1-3% of body weight Sun cured feed to chickens at 4.5% of total diet gave good egg production, egg weight &

yolk color. Yellow yolk color can be achieved by feeding milled leaves at 2-4% of total diet. Growing chicks can be fed up to 10% of total ration without affecting performance &

survival.

INDIGOFERA (Indigofera schemperi & spicata) Schemperi Unpalatable to animals Highly persistent & productive legume Has strong lateral root & survives &

regrows under severe moisture stress Once established has a high survival rate &

a long plant life. Crude Protein CP <10% stem, >20% leaf ADF = 28% leaf, 36% stem Light shade tolerant but performs best in

full light Contains no indospicine

Sphicata Minor source of indigo Seed should be sown no deeper than 1 cm Tolerant on any plant diseases CP = 23% NDF = 32% Palatable to livestock Seeds contain amino acid, indospicine

which causes abortion in cattle, liver damage in sheep, cows and rabbits, and death in chickens. All Indigofera species should be regarded as containing this toxin until proven otherwise.

Ongoing unpublished studies have confirmed that cattle, goat, camels and

GeMS Farm Page 6 of 24

horses that have been exposed to indospicine in their diet accumulate the toxin in their muscle and other tissues, and dogs that have been fed meat from affected horses have died of liver disease, and this disease has been reproduced by feeding pure indospicine. Dogs are much more susceptible to the liver damaging effects of indospicine than are other species, but this susceptibility varies widely within the species. After experimental feeding of I. linnaei and I. spicata to ruminants, indospicine persists in the blood and tissues for some weeks after cessation of feeding, thus acting as a toxic residue. Without more decay studies, recommendations as to withholding periods for meat livestock cannot at this time be given.

Drought tolerant Tolerant to heavy grazing

IPIL-IPIL (Leucaena leucocephala) Unripe pods & seeds have

been used a food & medicine since ancient times in Latin America

Highly valued ruminant forage & fuelwood

Planted in hedgerows & alley farming systems

Intolerant of soils with low pH, low P, low Ca, high aluminium saturation, high salinity and waterlogging .

Tolerant of moderate salinity

and alkalinity. Optimum growth at 25-30 C Relatively slow to establish,

particularly in competition with weed species.

For best results plant on deep, well-drained soils with pH >5.5 and maintain a weed-free area of at least 2 m either side of the establishing plants.

Seed must be scarified to break the impermeable testa. Seedlings are normally raised in poly bags for plug planting at 3-4 months old. On acid infertile soils it is essential to add lime, P and K at planting and after each cut. Can be difficult to establish into existing grass pastures without complete grass control or

clean cultivation. Yields of forage vary with soil fertility, rainfall, altitude, density and cutting frequency from

1-15 t/ha/year. Leaf yield is maximised by cutting at 6-12 week intervals during the growing season . Yields in extensive hedgerow plantings in the dry tropics and subtropics generally range from 2-6 t/ha/year. Very high yields (>15 t/ha/year) in southeast Asia and Hawaii, with plants 0.5-1.0 m apart in rows 1-3 m apart. Fuelwood yields compare favourably with the best tropical trees, with height increments of 3-5 m/year and wood increments of 20-60 m³/ha/year for arboreal varieties.

Contains mimosine, a non-protein amino acid that has antimitotic and depilatory effects on

animals. Concentrations in young leaf can be as high as 12% and the edible fraction commonly contains 4-6% mimosine. Mimosine is acutely toxic to animals but is normally converted to 3-hydroxy-4(IH)-pyridone (DHP) upon ingestion. DHP is goitrogenic and, if not degraded, can result in low serum thyroxine levels, ulceration of the oesophagus and reticulo-rumen, excessive salivation, poor appetite and low liveweight gains, especially when the diet contains more than 30% leucaena. The anaerobic rumen bacteria, Synergistes jonesii, occur in most countries in the Americas and southeast Asia and completely detoxify DHP and its breakdown products. Synergistes jonesii was transferred to ruminant livestock in Australia in the mid 1980s and subsequently to Africa and China.

GeMS Farm Page 7 of 24

Yields of forage vary with soil fertility, rainfall, altitude, density and cutting frequency from 1-15 t/ha/year. Leaf yield is maximised by cutting at 6-12 week intervals during the growing season . Yields in extensive hedgerow plantings in the dry tropics and subtropics generally range from 2-6 t/ha/year. Very high yields (>15 t/ha/year) in southeast Asia and Hawaii, with plants 0.5-1.0 m apart in rows 1-3 m apart. Fuelwood yields compare favourably with the best tropical trees, with height increments of 3-5 m/year and wood increments of 20-60 m³/ha/year for arboreal varieties.

MULBERRY (Morus alba)

There is evidence that sericulture started about 5,000 years ago and hence the

domestication of mulberry. The main use of mulberry globally is as feed for the silk worm, but depending on the

location, it is also appreciated for its fruit (consumed fresh, in juice or as preserves), as a delicious vegetable (young leaves and stems), for its medicinal properties in infusions (mulberry leaf tea), for landscaping and as animal feed.

There are several places where mulberry is utilised traditionally as a feed in mixed forage

diets for ruminants. The berries, called sorosis have been used in traditional fabric dyeing. Purple and red are common colours produced with mulberry. It is traditionally used to dye wool.

Mulberry is well suited for use as a fodder where it can be grown opportunistically around

house-compounds, on spare pieces of land and along field edges. Integration of fish, livestock, and crop production in China has been refined for over 2,000 years.

GeMS Farm Page 8 of 24

The system recycles resources, reduces organic pollution (livestock and poultry manure are good organic fertilizers for fish farming), and combines fish farming with mulberry cultivation for raising silkworms. The silkworm pupae are used as fish feed, and the worm faeces and wastewater from silk processing as pond fertilizers. Pond silt is used as fertilizer for fodder crops, which can in turn be used to feed livestock, poultry and fish.

Mulberries grow better in a well-drained neutral soil, preferably a deep loam. Shallow soils

such as those frequently found on chalk or gravel are not recommended. The white mulberry, and to a lesser extent the red mulberry, are quite tolerant of drought , pollution and poor soil. The white mulberry is considered a weed in many parts of the country including urban areas. The black mulberry is more fastidious, faring less well in cold climates or areas with humid summers.

Requires full sun for good production.

Mulberries respond well to coppicing . In temperate areas foliage is harvested twice a year.

In the tropics the most appropriate cutting interval is 90-120 days. Cutting should not be done too close to the trunk since flush cuts are larger than they need to be and delay the sealing of the wound.

The most common planting method worldwide is by stem cuttings, but in certain places

seed is preferred.

For fruit production, plants should be spaced at about 3-4 m apart, but can be planted much closer at 75 cm spacing for cut and carry forage production for either silk worms or livestock. Micro-stakes, with only one bud, take well in humid and warm conditions.

Hardwood, softwood and root cuttings also are suitable methods for propagating mulberries.

Softwood cuttings of white mulberries root easily when taken in mid-summer and treated with rooting hormone. Red mulberries root less easily. Black mulberries are also somewhat difficult to propagate since they tend to bleed a lot.

The advantages of stem reproduction (cloning) are certainty of production characteristics,

practicality in obtaining the material and ease of planting. Male plants might be preferred when introducing foreign germplasm to new locations since this prevents involuntary expansion.

As in most perennial forages, the time and the establishment cost (mainly for land

preparation, planting and weed control) are the critical aspects of the successful introduction of mulberry.

Mulberries can also be grown from seed. Seed should be sown as soon as extracted from the

fruit, although white mulberry seeds germinate better after storage for one to three months before planting.

Seeds should be planted near the surface with a thin layer of soil and ashes spread over

them in moist soil. Seeds germinate in 9-14 days, depending on the season. When seedlings are about 7.5 cm tall, they are thinned and weeded.

As is the case with other tropical perennial forages for cut-and-carry systems, planting by

seed assures deeper roots with greater capacity to find water and nutrients, which eventually results in higher biomass production and greater longevity.

Seeds might be the most acceptable way of transporting, quarantine and store selected

materials. Sprig budding is the most common method for grafting mulberries.

A T-cut is made in the rootstock and a smooth, sloping cut is made on the lower end of the scion. The scion is then inserted into the T and wrapped and sealed.

GeMS Farm Page 9 of 24

Other types of grafts are also usually successful, although there may be incompatibility between white and black mulberries.

Mulberry for forage responds very well to fertilisation. All the required nutrients for

mulberry growth must come from the soil, since it does not fix atmospheric nitrogen. In pure stands, mineral and organic fertilisers (animal and vegetable manures) must be used

to replenish the nutrients removed with the foliage in order to maintain a sustainable production.

The association with legumes with effective N-fixing rhizobium can reduce N inputs and may be the most desirable combination for some farms, but even when recycling nutrients in animal manures, extra chemical fertilisers are required for maximum.

Responses of mulberry to N fertilisers have been clearly demonstrated, both in inorganic and organic forms, with better responses to the latter, the nitrogen level in soils is the

major factor for mulberry growth. Mulberry has been tried for direct browsing in combination with grasses and clovers

(Trifolium subterraneum) In the tropics, it combines well with Gliricidia sepium(madre cacao) under cut-and-carry

systems and under (Erithrinapoeppigiana).

CP = 15 - 28%

Lignin (Acid Detergent Lignin) content = 8.1% for leaves, 7.1% for bark

Ash = 25%

Calcium Ca = 1.8 - 2.4%

Phosphurous P = 0.14 – 0.24%

Potassium K = 1.9 – 2.87% for leaves, 1.33 – 1.53% for young stems

Magnesium M = 0.47 – 0.63% for leaves, 0.26 – 0.35% for young leaves

IVDMD = 89.2%

One of the main features of mulberry as forage is its high palatability . Small ruminants avidly consume the fresh leaves and the young stems first, even if they have never been exposed to it before. Then, if the branches are offered unchopped, they might tear off and eat the bark. Cattle consume the whole biomass if it is finely chopped. Animals initially prefer mulberry to other forages when they are offered simultaneously, and even dig through a pile of various forages to look for mulberry.

Biomass production:

Total: 25-47 t/ha./year. Edible: 15-35 t/ha./year.

There is a report of ad libitum dry matter intake of 4.18% of liveweight (average of three

lactating goats), which is much higher than in other tree fodders, the dry matter intakes of mulberry leaves of 3.44% of body weight in sheep under experimental conditions.

Goats can produce between 15,000-20,000 litres of milk/ha in mulberry based feeding

systems. In a comparative study, higher daily dry matter intakes of mulberry leaves were seen in sheep than in goats (3.55 vs. 2.74 kg DM/100kg body weight).

In Costa Rica, liveweight gains of bulls belonging to the Romosinuano breed (a criollo type)

fed elephant grass, increased to over 900g/day when mulberry was offered as a supplement at 1.7% of their body weight on a DM basis.

GeMS Farm Page 10 of 24

Growing Zebu x Brown Swiss steers being fed increasing levels of mulberry as supplement to a sorghum silage diet. Although the growing rates with the highest mulberry level are not impressive (195g/day), most likely due to the poor quality of the silage , this trial shows the high nutritive value of the supplement.

Other small herbivores, like guinea pigs, iguanas and snails, could also be fed mulberry

leaves. In fact, wild green iguanas (Iguana iguana) came to feed on recently established mulberry fields in Costa Rica.

A combination of mulberry and Trichantera gigantea leaves, as the protein source, and

blocks made of molasses, cassava root meal and rice bran, as the energy source, gave better reproduction and growth performance than a diet of commercial concentrates and grass supplemented Angora rabbits, receiving pelleted diets, with mulberry leaves ad libitum and obtained intakes of mulberry equivalent to 29-38% of the total intake. This level significantly reduces feed cost.

Fed mulberry leaves as the sole ration for adult rabbits. They found daily intakes of 68.5g

for dry matter, 11.2g for crude protein and 175kcal for digestible energy (equivalent to 2.55Mcal of digestible energy per kg).

The digestibility values were 74% for crude protein, 59% for crude fibre and 64% for dry

matter. The authors concluded that mulberry leaves provided enough nutrients for maintenance.

Shade-dried M. indica leaf meal in the mash of laying hens has been found to improve egg

yolk colour and to increase egg size and production with the inclusion up to 6%) in laying hens.

Fruits are picked or shaken on sheets when ripe. Mulberry seeds should be removed from

the ripe fruit as soon as ready by squashing with plenty of water to separate seed from pulp. The seed can be dried and stored or stratified in sand for several months although immediate sowing is often recommended.

Mulberry is also a widely used traditional folk remedy, used for "aphtha, armache, asthma,

bronchitis, bugbite, cachexia, cold, constipation, cough, debility, diarrhea, dropsy, dyspepsia, edema, epilepsy, fever, headache, hyperglycemia, hypertension, inflammation, insomnia, melancholy, menorrhagia, snakebite, sore throat, stomatitis, tumours, vertigo, and wounds".

Mulberry twigs are used for making baskets, the sticks as beanpoles, and the wood for

fuelwood, sporting goods (it's springy, like ash) and fine furniture. In Japan, the traditional "chashaku" green tea scoop used in semi-formal tea ceremonies is made of mulberry wood. If it's not mulberry then it's only an informal one. (Formal chashaku are supposed to be ivory.)

Leaves’ contents of protein, soluble sugars and organic acids decrease with maturity,

whereas fibre, fat and ash constituents increase

Due to its high digestibility and excellent level of crude protein, mulberry foliage can be a comparable source to commercial concentrates for ruminal feeding and production.

GeMS Farm Page 11 of 24

ATRATUM (Paspalum atratum) Use as long term pasture but can be used in cut & carry systems Use as a hedgerow for erosion control Good for hay making Successful on soils ranging from sands to clays, and can tolerate poorly drained, acid, low

fertility conditions. Responds to improved nitrogen fertility. Moderate to good shade tolerant Grows well at 22 – 27C Very tolerant of flooding but does not grow in permanent water. Tolerant of low grazing and regular cutting, although best results obtained from more

lenient management. Very easy to cut with scythe or mower. CP = 11% IVDMD = 50 – 68% Well eaten by cattle, buffaloes, horses, fish, and pigs Easy to sow and quick to establish Adapted to wet, acid soils Tolerant of flooding Palatable to cattle, horses and sheep Tolerates close grazing Relatively short grazing season Limited to moist situations Unpalatable when mature

GeMS Farm Page 12 of 24

TRICHANTHERA (Trichanthera gigantea) In agriculture, trichanthera is used as a

forage, living fence and shade tree . It is also used to protect water springs from degradation through stream bank erosion. Farmers in Colombia have used trichanthera as an indigenous medicinal plant to treat conditions in humans and domestic animals. In humans, it is used as a blood tonic, to treat nephritis and as a lactogenic drink for nursing mothers. In domestic animals, it is used to treat colic and hernia in horses, and retained placenta in cows. Sprouts are used for human consumption in maize porridge.

Tolerant in acidic & infertile soils pH 4.5 Shade tolerant Stem cuttings will readily form roots in

full sun or in light shade Propagation is generally by stem cuttings.

Generally established from stem cuttings

that strike roots easily. Cuttings 2.2-2.8 mm in diameter, 20 cm long and with at least 2 leaf buds were most effective in striking roots (92% of cuttings). Larger and longer cuttings were less successful. Cuttings should be selected from the basal part of young stems. Strike rate has been improved by storing cuttings in a shaded place for one day prior to planting into a nursery bed. Cuttings produce shoots in about one month and can be planted into the field after about 50 days. Spacings vary from 0.5 to 1.0 m apart and can be planted in a block or as a twin-hedgerow along fence lines.

Can be grown in association with a range

of over-story agroforestry species due to its shade tolerance. Has been grown underneath bananas, Leucaena (ipil-ipil) and Gliricidia (Madre cacao).

Stems that contact the ground, either through bending or breakage, will root at the nodes

to form new plants. Spread is very slow and will not occur under regular cutting.

Moderate to high nutritive quality depending on provenance. Contains high concentrations of water-soluble carbohydrates and starch, and low NDF. CP content ranges from 12-22%, IVDMD ranges from 45-60% and 24 hr in sacco DMD ranges from 50-70%. Contains comparatively high ash and calcium concentrations at 16-20% and 2.4-3.8% of DM, respectively. The high ash and Ca concentrations may be related to the presence of cystoliths, small mineral concretions on the leaves and stems. Suitable as a feed for non-ruminants.

Well accepted by a range of domestic animals, including pigs and other monogastrics, after

a period of familiarisation. Palatability may change with provenance .

GeMS Farm Page 13 of 24

SETARIA (Bunga-bunga) (Setaria sphacelata var. splendida)

Used as permanent pasture, hay,

silage, cut and carry, soil conservation , hedgerow.

Will grow in most soils provided

moisture is readily available. Can survive at low fertility but responds well to applications of nitrogen and phosphorus, and sometimes potassium,

in infertile soils.

Can survive long dry season but best with short or no dry season. Leaf reddening often associated with moisture stress. Very tolerant of flooding.

Low shade tolerance

Persists under frequent cutting or

grazing, but requires controlled management to achieve optimum results. For best combination of regrowth and quality, particularly in dairying systems, plants should be cut at 30-45 cm at least every 30 days. Maximum regrowth was measured in the Philippines cutting at 45 cm every 60 days

Produces little viable seed. Planted from rooted tillers; clumps topped to about 15 cm and

separated into pieces each with 2-3 tillers; planting material should be fresh (not allowed to dry out); planted with tops exposed on a grid from 70 x 90 cm to 45 x 100 cm. Can be planted in wider rows, allowed to grow tall, and rolled flat to facilitate nodal rooting and sward formation.

Best not planted with other grasses. Not seriously affected by pests or diseases.

1.36% N (8.5% CP), 0.33% P, 4.94% K, 0.20% Ca, 0.06% Na, 0.18% Mg, and 1.14% Cl in 5-week

regrowth of CPI 15899 from Tanzania. Ability to accumulate Na varies with provenance – CPI 33084 (= K 61106) from Kenya had Na level of 1.11%.

Well eaten by all classes of livestock, but should not be fed to horses

High quality feed. Good for cut-and-carry. Tolerates poor drainage. Survives in low fertility.

GeMS Farm Page 14 of 24

KATURAY (Sesbania grandiflora) Valued as a fodder throughout

Indonesia, particularly for dry season feeding of cattle and goats.

Commonly grown on paddy bunds,

and around gardens or cropping fields for its nitrogen contribution. The sparse canopy of S. grandiflora casts relatively little shade, hence its suitability close to sun-loving crops and gardens. S. grandiflora grows fast enough to be used as an annual green manure crop.

The leaves, seed pods and flowers

are used as human food in southeast Asia. The light density wood of S. grandiflora makes poor firewood and is not durable as a timber, however it can be used for low quality pulp. Poles are used for light construction but have limited durability.

Used as a shade crop and as a support for climbing crops. Also used as a component of

windbreaks. Tolerant of a wide range of soils including soils that are alkaline, poorly drained, saline, or

of low fertility. S. grandiflora has some tolerance of acid-soils down to pH 4.5. It is well adapted to heavy clay soils

Not shade tolerant

Tolerant of flooding over short periods.

Intolerant of severe and regular pruning when young. In Lombok, Indonesia, side branches

are cut for feed, leaving the trees to develop tall poles. After the tree has reached a height of 3 m or more, the leader can be cut back above 1.5 m height. In Timor, Indonesia, large trees are heavily pruned during the long dry season without significant mortality. Cutting regularly (5 times a year) to form a low hedgerow (1 m tall) resulted in almost 100% mortality in an agronomic trial in northeast Thailand. For this reason S. grandiflora often appears poorly productive in agronomic trials. Low hedgerows can be achieved by regular replanting from seed. The tree has a potential lifespan of 20 years.

Establishes rapidly from seed or by vegetative propagation from stem and branch cuttings.

Scarification may improve uniformity of establishment but is not considered essential. Generally must faster to establish compared to other common tree legumes (Leucaena, Gliricidia, Calliandra). Commonly planted as individual trees or in rows, spaced 1-2 m apart along fence lines, field borders and the bunds of rice paddies. In fertile sites will attain a height of 5-6 m in 9 months. Height increments are greatly reduced in the second year of growth. Can be planted at high densities (up to 3,000 stems/ha) to produce pole timber, or sparsely planted to produce dry-season forage and fuelwood.

Tolerant of low fertility soils so that no fertiliser is generally required.

Not generally directly grazed by livestock as high plant mortality will occur. Combined in

grazed paddocks as mature trees out of browse height, or as cut-and-carry forage integrated into cropping systems.

Is susceptible to severe pest attacks from leaf webbers, leaf feeders and stem borers.

GeMS Farm Page 15 of 24

Contains 25-30% crude protein. Supplementation with S.grandiflora of goats fed guinea grass hay increased intake by 25% and supported a positive N balance. In sacco digestibility was 75% in 12 hours. Other in vitro and in sacco studies report the very high forage quality of S. grandiflora .

Highly palatable to ruminant livestock. Also generally well accepted by monogastrics.

Seeds contain a toxin poisonous to fish. Contains low quantities of condensed tannins. Also

contains canavanine, the nutritional implications of which are unknown.

No long-term animal production studies have been reported, but S. grandiflora is a major component of ruminant diets in eastern Indonesia where it may comprise up to 70% of total forage allowance during the dry season. Anecdotal reports of high liveweight gains in cattle are common. In India, milk yield was increased by 8% (9.2-9.9 l/day) when cattle were fed 5 kg fresh leaf/day. In Western Samoa, goats failed to gain weight when supplemented with S. grandiflora , although the reasons for this poor result were not identified. The authors suggested that supplementation with S. grandiflora should be limited to 30% of total feed on the basis of this experiment. Poor weight gains in chickens has led to the recommendation that supplementation of poultry feeds with S. grandiflora should be limited to 2% of total ration.

Rapid establishment from seed. Tolerant of a wide range of soil types and rainfall

environments.

High palatability and forage quality. Intolerant of cool temperatures and frost. Low to moderate tolerance of regular defoliation .

Unsuited to direct grazing by ruminants.

Limited or no potential as a forage for non-ruminants.

Intolerant of strong winds which may break the stem or branches.

Considered to be a poor quality fuelwood as it smokes when burned, and deteriorates in

storage.

GeMS Farm Page 16 of 24

AMARILLO (Arachis pintoi)

Used for permanent pasture for intensive grazing systems; ground cover in open situations and under trees; ornamental. While mostly too low-growing for cut-and-carry, some provenances are used for these systems.

Generally found on red, sandy

loam river-bottom soils of low to moderate fertility and high aluminium saturation, particularly in low areas, which are wet to flooded during the wet season. In cultivation, A. pintoi is not restricted by soil texture. Successful on soils with pH ranging from about 4.5 - 7.2, although growth reduced below pH 5.4. Prefers moderate to high fertility but can survive in infertile soils. Low requirement for copper, molybdenum and lime, and moderate requirement for phosphorus and zinc. Tolerant of high levels of manganese and aluminium. Tolerant of periods of waterlogging . Low to moderate tolerance of salinity.

Among the most shade tolerant of warm season legumes tested. May produce more growth

in shade than in full sunlight.

Flowers throughout the growing season , although limited by moisture in all situations, and low temperatures or daylength in the subtropics. Flowering apparently stimulated by dry-wet cycle as in A. hypogaea . Seed is produced on pegs (gynophores) developing from extension of the ovary, placing the seed in the soil (geocarpy), mostly in the top 7 cm. Pegs vary in length from 1-27cm long. Pegs do not penetrate hard, dry ground and shrivel and die on contact with the soil. In the upland tropics, it normally takes about 6 weeks from flowering to mature pods towards the end of the growing season , although this may be less in midseason or in the tropics.

Extremely tolerant of low and regular defoliation .

Can be established from cuttings or from seed, although plants established from seed

develop an effective root system more rapidly. Moderate levels of dormancy in fresh seed can be reduced by pre-drying at 40ºC for 10-14 days prior to planting. Once dried, seed should be stored in a cool dry environment - large reductions in viability of inadequately dried and inappropriately stored seed have been experienced within 10 months of harvest. Seed should be sown at 10-30 kg/ha seed-in-pod depending on seed quality and price, and the desired early stand density. Should be sown 2-5 cm deep - surface sowings result in poor germination and high seed losses to birds and rodents. Care should be taken in selection of planting equipment – some mechanisms destroy the soft seed.

Does not require high levels of fertiliser in most situations.

Regular defoliation necessary when grown with aggressive grasses to maintain high

proportion of legume . Grows well under trees.

Generally not grown in association with other legumes, unless grown under leguminous trees

such as Leucaena leucocephala (ipil –ipil) and Calliandra calothyrsus .

Diseases cause no long-term or serious damage, but rats and mice are attracted to the nuts and can be a problem.

GeMS Farm Page 17 of 24

13-25% Crude Protein, 60-70% Dry matter digestibility. Relatively low levels of condensed tannins.

Well eaten by all classes of animals, including chickens, ducks and pigs. Selected by cattle if

animals exposed to the legume previously.

Seed produced below ground, and separates from peg soon after maturity. May need to mow regularly during the growing season to encourage seed set and to eliminate haven for rodents attracted to the seed. Most harvesting systems depend on screening of soil to obtain seed, although some attempts to use conventional peanut harvesting methods that rely on persistent link between seed and peg. Seed is produced throughout much of the growing season, provided moisture is adequate, so harvest is normally undertaken at end of season. Seed should be dried and stored under low humidity to avoid rapid seed mortality.

Tolerant of heavy grazing Tolerant of low fertility Productive High quality Good ground cover Combines well with competitive sward grasses Not well suited to cut-and-carry systems Needs good moisture for production Underground seed attracts rodents Difficult to eradicate. Slow and costly establishment

GeMS Farm Page 18 of 24

CENTROSEMA (Cavalcade) (Centrosema pascuorom)

Is suitable for mixtures with grasses, or in pure stands for ley-farming. It makes excellent

hay; each year, there are 5-6,000 ha sown for hay production in Australia. More recently farmers in the Northern Territory, Australia, are growing cv. Cavalcade to produce legume cubes. Hay giving yields of about 7 t/ha is cut with a rotary head cutter and dried in the field to 10% moisture. Bales are shredded and mixed with bentonite (a volcanic-ash clay material containing Fe, Mg and either Na or Ca), sprayed with water to 12% moisture and then cubed under very high pressure. In 1997, 8,000 t of Cavalcade cubes were produced. Two pelleting plants operate at Katherine and Tortilla. Cavalcade hay and pellets provide feed on boats for 300,000 head live cattle exported from Darwin to Indonesia and the Philippines. C. pascuorum stands persist through a seed bank. For hay production, renovation every 3 or 4 years is recommended to maintain a pure stand. In ley farming, the C.pascuorum phase is able to provide 80-100 kg/ha N to the system.

Adapted to a wide range of soils, from sand to heavy clay and from slightly acid to alkaline

soils (pH 5-8.5). Requires medium to high soil fertility .

Flowering time appears to be related to sites of origin and cv. Cavalcade is known to be a short day plant. Good seed producer.

Moderate tolerance to grazing and cutting.

Established by seed, at a seeding rate of 2-6 kg/ha. For seed production and hay crops of cv.

Cavalcade in Australia, seeding rates up to 10-15 kg/ha are reported to ensure good plant stands. Some soil disturbance is crucial to ensure good establishment. C. pascuorum is best sown, drilled or broadcast, in a cultivated seed bed at a depth of 1-2 cm. Best time for sowing is the start of the wet season. It is advisable to control weeds during establishment.

Depending on soil conditions, for establishment 100-250 kg/ha, for maintenance 50-100 kg

are recommended.

A number of diseases and pests have been reported for C.pascuorum , however without causing major damage.

High quality forage with good palatability . Crude protein content and digestibility vary

according to plant age and season from 6-27% and 42-79%, respectively. Mineral contents are similar to C. molle .

Highly palatable to animals

GeMS Farm Page 19 of 24

Flowers 2-5 months after sowing. In one study, a negative correlation between seed yield and time to flowering were found, but there was no consistent relationship between seed yield and seed size. For seed production well-drained sandy loams are best suited. At least 5 kg/ha seed are sown, with fertilization according to soil properties: a general recommendation is 150-250 kg/ha superphosphate for establishment, and 100-150 kg/ha superphosphate and 50-100 kg/ha muriate of potash for maintenance. Seed is suction-harvested (slow and energy consuming), or stands are mown prior to pod shattering followed by use of conventional harvester. Seed yields of 250-1,500 kg/ha are reported.

High-quality forage for pastures and ley farming, production of hay and legume cubes. Well adapted to the dry tropics, tolerates seasonal flooding and adapts to a wide range of

soil conditions including heavy clays but excluding very acid, low-fertility soils. Self-regenerating annual that grows and spreads rapidly. High seed production Not well adapted to acid, infertile soils

DESMANTHUS (Desmanthus virgatus)

Grazed by herbivores in the native

range. Exotic component of improved permanent pastures in northern Australia. Grown in alley farming systems as a hedgerow species in India.

Poor tolerance of medium to heavy

shade. Low DM production under shade of Acacia leucophloea.

Will flower and fruit year round in the

tropics, given sufficient soil moisture. Generally flowers and fruits in spring and summer in subtropical locations.

Very tolerant of regular cutting and

grazing by ruminants. One of the forage legumes most tolerant of heavy grazing in pastures on clay soils in subhumid, northern Australia.

Sow 2 kg/ha of scarified seed at a depth

of 0.5-2.0 cm into moist soil with at least 50-60 cm depth of good moist soil to ensure establishment. Deeper planting depths may prevent or delay emergence. Surface broadcasting onto a well-prepared seedbed, followed by rolling; planting using a "crocodile" seeder; sodseeding into slashed back pasture treated with glyphosate to suppress grass growth; or planting into cultivated strips; have also given satisfactory results.

Fresh seed is extremely hard-seeded and should be scarified, either abrasively (eg. using a

rice polisher) or by hot water treatment (4-10 seconds in boiling water), to raise the germination to a minimum of 50-70%. It is important to achieve good establishment from the plant crop, as seed produced from paddock plants will remain hard-seeded for 5-6 years.

Being early flowering and producing large seed crops, cv. Marc will spread under grazing

given reasonable rainfall conditions.

Has potential to become a minor weed of disturbed areas. Its low growth habit limits its ability to dominate companion species.

GeMS Farm Page 20 of 24

Evaluations generally do not distinguish between species of Desmanthus, and are based on cvs. Marc, Bayamo and Uman. Crude protein content of the entire plant ranged from 10.5-15.5%, with leaves averaging 22.4% and stems 7.1%. A study of 18 accessions grown in India reported an average CP content of 21% (range 15-27%), and average NDF and ADF contents were 42 and 35%, respectively. In sacco DMD and N concentration of CPI 78382 were 65% and 3.5% respectively.

Palatable to grazing ruminants and grazed by beef cattle throughout the growing season.

Desmanthus has been observed to be less palatable than leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala ) but more readily eaten than Stylosanthes scabra cv. Seca.

No toxicities to ruminant livestock were reported in the literature. Desmanthus spp. do not

cause bloat in ruminants because they contain 2-3% (of total DM as tannic acid equivalent) condensed tannins.

High rates of seed production. Tolerant of heavy grazing. Very persistent in low rainfall environments. Combines well with grass pastures in sub-humid, moderate fertility environments. Tolerant of alkaline, sodic, saline and heavy clay soils.

HAMATA STYLO (Stylosanthes hamata)

Mostly used for permanent pastures. Good for cut and carry as green feed, or for hay if cut before dry season leaf fall when plants become increasingly stemmy. Can also be used as a ley in cropping systems with nitrogen benefits up to 90 kg/ha recorded in West Africa and northern Australia under experimental conditions. It is used for feeding cattle, goats, sheep, pigs and poultry. Growing use of S. hamata in silvipasture systems in India where it is used in undersowing Eucalytus and Dalbergia forests as well as a component in watershed and soil conservation programs.

Two types of plant - diploids and tetraploids. The diploids are not well adapted to acid soil

conditions, originating from predominantly alkaline soils, from coarse coral beach sands to relatively heavy clays, where pH is not less than 6.2. The tetraploids from Venezuela that provide the common cultivars, grow on acid to alkaline soils (pH 5.4-8.0, usually acid to slightly acid) of various textures, but not on heavy clays. They are tolerant of low P, but may respond to applied S. They extend the range originally set by S. humilis , which was largely restricted to infertile, acid, sandy surfaced soils, onto more alkaline soils. While there are no general comments on salinity tolerance, it appears 'Verano' is more tolerant of moderate salinity levels than S. humilis. Tetraploids from Florida are very different to those from Venezuela.

Not considered very shade tolerant - comparable with S. guianensis and Macroptilium

atropurpureum

The diploids are primarily long day plants, while the tetraploids have an indeterminate flowering response to short days. The cultivars normally flower 9-10 weeks after

GeMS Farm Page 21 of 24

germination, but perennating plants can flower within 6 weeks of the start of the season and continue throughout the growing season . Seed takes 15-16 days to ripen from flowering.

Tolerates heavy grazing. Stocking rate should be adjusted to suppress associated grass if it

appears too competitive, especially early in the growing season . Grazed S. hamata plants tend to perennate better than ungrazed plants. Higher yields can be obtained from commencing grazing at early flowering and then at 4-week intervals, over starting later and grazing less frequently. Can become dominant at the expense of perennial grasses through heavy grazing. Grass and 'Verano' mixtures can be maintained by strategic fire and grazing management with appropriate phosphorus fertiliser use on infertile acid tropical soils.

CP levels range from 17-24% in green leaf and 6-12% in the stem, depending on age of

regrowth and general growing conditions. IVDMD for whole tops are of the order of 60-65%, comprising 66-72% for green leaf and 33-57% for stems. P levels of the forage depend on the soil P status and age of regrowth, from as low as 0.08-0.3% (0.16-0.37% of DM in green leaf and 0.06-0.34% in stems). Nutritive value declines rapidly with the onset of dry season leaf drop.

Extremely palatable.

Under ideal conditions, can yield up to 17 t/ha DM in pure stands, but in mixed pasture,

more commonly between 1 and 7 t/ha DM, depending on growing conditions, defoliation pressure and grass competition. Yield of between 7 and 10 t/ha per annum have been recorded under a range of cutting frequencies, soils and rainfalls in cut-and-carry systems in Thailand. These yields are comparable to those of S.guianensis CIAT 184.

Liveweight gain usually in the range of 140-160 and up to 200 kg/hd/yr depending on

stocking rates, growing conditions and mineral limitations, but on low fertility soils annual gains can be reduced to 100 kg/hd.

Experience relates to the tetraploids. Seed can be hand-picked or machine harvested by

direct heading with or without suction harvest follow-up. Seed is normally machine-harvested once flowering has ceased or nearly so. Most seeds should be no longer green but brown. Although total seed set may be as high as 1,750-2,000 kg/ha, harvest yields are usually of the order of 300-600 kg/ha or 800 kg/ha from suction harvesting.

Can be oversown into native pasture country or grown with sown grasses Grows on low fertility soils Highly persistent under grazing Field tolerance of anthracnose disease Intolerant of waterlogging Restricted to tropical environments

GeMS Farm Page 22 of 24

STYLO (Stylosanthes guianensis) Long and short-term pasture (grazed

or cut and carry), intercropping in rice, ground cover (erosion control) in orchards, green manure, hay for leaf meal and pellets.

Prefers well-drained, open-textured

soils from sands to light clays (e.g. tropical latosols, gleys, loams and sandy podzolic soils); poor on heavy montmorillonitic clays. Found on soils with pH from 4.0-8.3, adaptation varying with ecotype. Moderately tolerant of high Al and Mn but not of high salinity. Late-flowering (Tardío) types are more tolerant of high levels of Al and Mn than are the common types. Can extract P very efficiently from low P soils, but still responds to applications of P, as well as K, S, Ca, and Cu in soils with low levels of these nutrients. Needs lower levels of Mo than many other tropical legumes.

Considered as having no, or at best fair, shade tolerance.

Cutting or grazing once plants become tall and woody can kill the plant, since there are few

growing points close to the ground on mature plants. Best to stimulate lower branching early by grazing or cutting to 10-20 cm in the first few months. Constant heavy grazing is detrimental. Grazing on a 1 week on and four to eight weeks off rotation, or cutting at 2-3 month intervals appears to favour the legume .

Can be planted from seed or vegetatively. Freshly harvested seed may have >70% hard seed.

Seed can be scarified to reduce this level of hard seed by soaking in water at 55°C for 25 minutes, 70°C for 10 minutes or at 85°C for 2 minutes. Alternatively, it can be mechanically scarified with an abrasive disc or rice polisher, or treated with concentrated sulphuric acid for 10 minutes (important to wash seed thoroughly after acid treatment). Mechanical harvesting normally has a scarifying effect on the seed. Fairly promiscuous in its rhizobium requirements, often nodulating adequately on native rhizobium . Commercial inoculant in Australia based on CB 82 strain Bradyrhizobium, although CB 756 also effective; MG 5013 recommended in Malawi. Pelleting is not necessary unless to protect rhizobia from fertilisers. Seed sown at 2-5 kg/ha.

Where seed is scarce, about 80% strike has been achieved with cuttings. Cuttings 15-20 cm

long, with lower leaves removed are taken in the wet season, and >1/2 the stem buried horizontally to 3-5 cm.

Stylo responds well to improved soil fertility, particularly P, but can grow on infertile soil

(partly due to endotrophic mycorrhiza found in roots). In deficient soils, 10-20 kg/ha P is recommended as well as other nutrients as indicated by soil analysis.

Can be shaded out by taller grasses such as Panicum maximum . Suppresses weeds under

correct management. Dies out under excessive cutting or grazing allowing weed to ingress. Has had an apparently allelopathic effect on succeeding cotton (Gossypiumspp.) and sisal (Agave spp.) crops when used as a green manure .

12-20% CP, 52-60 % IVDMD , 0.2-0.6% P, 0.6-1.6% Ca.

GeMS Farm Page 23 of 24

Not readily eaten by cattle early in the growing season but becomes relatively more palatable than associated grasses later into the dry or cool season. It is also of value for small ruminants. With rotational grazing, animals graze the leaves first, successively taking more stem, ultimately damaging the woody main stem. Also fed to pigs. Has some value as foggage /standover since leaf retained at least in early dry season.

Commonly 5-10 t/ha DM depending on cultivar, growing conditions and management, and as

high as 20 t.

For cultivars, maximum measured seed production ranges from about 700 to 1,350 kg/ha, although machine harvest recovery is only 50-60% of this amount since pods shed on maturity. Mechanically harvested commercial crops mostly range between about 100 and 300 kg/ha seed. Late flowering (Tardío) varieties in areas with pronounced dry season require irrigation to complete the reproductive cycle e.g. 'Mineirão' produced 333 kg/ha seed under irrigation, compared with 82 kg/ha dryland. In the upland tropics of Australia, 'Nina' (ATF 3308) commences flowering in March with a peak in April/ May; harvest yielding 260 kg/ha clean dry seed in late June. In the seasonally dry tropics of Thailand, flowering commences September/October and peaks in November and December. By late January, 80-90% of the seed has fallen. Seed remaining in seed heads is dislodged by beating the crop with bamboo sticks. Seed is then swept up and cleaned, yielding over 1 t/ha on occasions.

Adapted to acid infertile soils. Low P demand. Tolerant of Al and Mn. Easily established from seed or cutting. Good growth habit for cut and carry . Does not twine. Leaf stays green into dry season. Will not stand heavy grazing. Frost susceptible. Can reduce the yield of subsequent crops. Seed tends to shatter on ripening, thus reducing yields.

RUZI GRASS (Brachiaria ruziziensis)

Permanent or semi-permanent pasture for grazing or for cutting for green feed and conservation . Also planted for grazing under coconut plantations.

Ruzi grass requires light to loam soils

of moderately high fertility (pH 5.0–6.8) and cannot tolerate strongly acid conditions.

Ruzi has moderate shade tolerance

and is grown under coconut plantations.

It can stand moderately heavy grazing and requires high levels of fertilising to persist under

frequent cutting.

Ruzi can be established from seed, which is often cheap but needs to be stored for at least 6 months after harvest. Broadcast seed at 2.5–10 kg/ha (depending on seed quality) onto a well prepared seedbed and lightly cover. Should not be sown deeper than 2 cm. Infertile soils should be fertilised to supply N, P and K prior to planting. Seedling growth is vigorous.

GeMS Farm Page 24 of 24

Alternatively, ruzi grass can be established vegetatively from stem cuttings with rooting nodes.

Ruzi demands high fertility soils and adequate fertiliser to persist under grazing or cutting.

Good nutritive value - better than most other Brachiaria spp.with CP commonly 7–13%, and

up to 20%, and digestibility 55–75%. For ruzi grass hay cut 45 days after seeding in northeast Thailand, the IVDMD, crude fibre, NDF and ME concentrations were 61%, 80.5%, 72.8% and 7.9 MJ/kg, respectively.

Very palatable. Selective, heavy grazing pressure and the need for high soil fertility can

result in the loss of ruzi grass. Photosensitization may occur and some references suggest that ruzi grass should not be fed

to sheep, goats or young cattle.

Less productive than B. decumbens in Australia and South America although yields have exceeded 20 t/ha/year with high rates of nitrogen. In Sri Lanka, DM yields of 16.8, 22.0 and 25.6 t/ha/year were achieved with N applications of 112, 224 and 366 kg/ha, respectively. On an oxisol at Coronel Pacheco, Brazil, ruzi grass produced 6.0 t/ha DM without added fertiliser and 12.0 t/ha with 150 kg/ha N fertiliser.

Palatable and good quality. High seed yields. Rapid establishment from seed or cuttings. Needs fertile, well drained soil. Lower DM production compared with B. decumbens . Poor persistence on infertile and/or poorly drained soils. Poor dry season growth. Very susceptible to spittlebug.

Ruzi grass is generally less popular than B. decumbens as a forage species because it is not

productive on acid-infertile soils, is spittlebug susceptible and produces less DM than B. decumbens.

ANABIONG (Trema orientalis) ANONANG (Cordia dichotoma) AS-IS MAYA (Ficus angustissima) BALETE TILOS (Ficus spp.) BALETENG PAPAYA (Ficu balete) BINUNGA (Macaranga tanarius) HAUILI (Ficu hauili) NAPIER GRASS (Pennisetum purpureum) PURPLE GUINEA GRASS (Panicum maximum TD 58) RATILES/DATILES (Muntigia calabura)