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Foams

Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1996[/DP]End of Citation

Foams/0824793951/files/cover-1.html

SURFACTANT SCIENCE SERIES

CONSULTING EDITORS

MARTIN J. SCHICKConsultant

New York, New York

FREDERICK M. FOWKES(19151990)

1. Nonionic Surfactants, edited by Martin J. Schick (see also Volumes 19 and 23)

2. Solvent Properties of Surfactant Solutions, edited by Kozo Shinoda (see Volume 55)

3. Surfactant Biodegradation, R. D. Swisher (see Volume 18)

4. Cationic Surfactants, edited by Eric Jungermann (see also Volumes 34, 37, and 53)

5. Detergency: Theory and Test Methods (in three parts), edited by W. G. Cutler and R. C. Davis (see also Volume 20)

6. Emulsions and Emulsion Technology (in three parts), edited by Kenneth J. Lissant

7. Anionic Surfactants (in two parts), edited by Warner M. Linfield (see Volume 56)

8. Anionic Surfactants: Chemical Analysis, edited by John Cross (out of print)

9. Stabilization of Colloidal Dispersions by Polymer Adsorption, Tatsuo Sato and Richard Ruch

10. Anionic Surfactants: Biochemistry, Toxicology, Dermatology, edited by Christian Gloxhuber (see Volume 43)

11. Anionic Surfactants: Physical Chemistry of Surfactant Action, edited by E. H. Lucassen-Reynders (out of print)

12. Amphoteric Surfactants, edited by B. R. Bluestein and Clifford L. Hilton (out of print)

13. Demulsification: Industrial Applications, Kenneth J. Lissant

14. Surfactants in Textile Processing, Arved Datyner

15. Electrical Phenomena at Interfaces: Fundamentals, Measurements, and Applications, edited by Ayao Kitahara and Akira Watanabe

16. Surfactants in Cosmetics, edited by Martin M. Rieger (out of print)

17. Interfacial Phenomena: Equilibrium and Dynamic Effects, Clarence A. Miller and P. Neogi

18. Surfactant Biodegradation: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, R. D. Swisher



19. Nonionic Surfactants: Chemical Analysis, edited by John Cross

20. Detergency: Theory and Technology, edited by W. Gale Cutler and Erik Kissa

21. Interfacial Phenomena in Apolar Media, edited by Hans-Friedrich Eicke and Geoffrey D. Parfitt

22. Surfactant Solutions: New Methods of Investigation, edited by Raoul Zana

23. Nonionic Surfactants: Physical Chemistry, edited by Martin J. Schick

24. Microemulsion Systems, edited by Henri L. Rosano and Marc Clausse

25. Biosurfactants and Biotechnology, edited by Naim Kosaric, W. L. Cairns, and Neil C. C. Gray

26. Surfactants in Emerging Technologies, edited by Milton J. Rosen

27. Reagents in Mineral Technology, edited by P. Somasundaran and Brij M. Moudgil

28. Surfactants in Chemical/Process Engineering, edited by Darsh T. Wasan, Martin E. Ginn, and Dinesh O. Shah

29. Thin Liquid Films, edited by I. B. Ivanov

30. Microemulsions and Related Systems: Formulation, Solvency, and Physical Properties, edited by Maurice Bourrel and Robert S. Schechter

31. Crystallization and Polymorphism of Fats and Fatty Acids, edited by Nissim Garti and Kiyotaka Sato

32. Interfacial Phenomena in Coal Technology, edited by Gregory D. Botsaris and Yuli M. Glazman

33. Surfactant-Based Separation Processes, edited by John F. Scamehorn and Jeffrey H. Harwell

34. Cationic Surfactants: Organic Chemistry, edited by James M. Richmond

35. Alkylene Oxides and Their Polymers, F. E. Bailey, Jr., and Joseph V. Koleske

36. Interfacial Phenomena in Petroleum Recovery, edited by Norman R. Morrow

37. Cationic Surfactants: Physical Chemistry, edited by Donn N. Rubingh and Paul M. Holland

38. Kinetics and Catalysis in Microheterogeneous Systems, edited by M. Grtzel and K. Kalyanasundaram

39. Interfacial Phenomena in Biological Systems, edited by Max Bender

40. Analysis of Surfactants, Thomas M. Schmitt

41. Light Scattering by Liquid Surfaces and Complementary Techniques, edited by Dominique Langevin

42. Polymeric Surfactants, Irja Piirma

43. Anionic Surfactants: Biochemistry, Toxicology, Dermatology. Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Christian Gloxhuber and Klaus Knstler

44. Organized Solutions: Surfactants in Science and Technology, edited by Stig E. Friberg and Bjrn Lindman

45. Defoaming: Theory and Industrial Applications, edited by P. R. Garrett

46. Mixed Surfactant Systems, edited by Keizo Ogino and Masahiko Abe



47. Coagulation and Flocculation: Theory and Applications, edited by Bohuslav Dobis*

48. Biosurfactants: Production Properties Applications, edited by Naim Kosaric

49. Wettability, edited by John C. Berg

50. Fluorinated Surfactants: Synthesis Properties Applications, Erik Kissa

51. Surface and Colloid Chemistry in Advanced Ceramics Processing, edited by Robert J. Pugh and Lennart Bergstrm

52. Technological Applications of Dispersions, edited by Robert B. McKay

53. Cationic Surfactants: Analytical and Biological Evaluation, edited by John Cross and Edward J. Singer

54. Surfactants in Agrochemicals, Tharwat F. Tadros

55. Solubilization in Surfactant Aggregates, edited by Sherril D. Christian and John F. Scamehorn

56. Anionic Surfactants: Organic Chemistry, edited by Helmut W. Stache

57. Foams: Theory, Measurements, and Applications, edited by Robert K. Prud'homme and Saad A. Khan

58. The Preparation of Dispersions in Liquids, H. N. Stein

ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION

Amphoteric Surfactants: Second Edition, edited by Eric G. Lomax

Emulsions and Emulsion Stability, edited by Johan Sjblom

Vesicles, edited by Morton Rosoff

Nonionic Surfactants: Polyoxyalkylene Block Copolymers, edited by Vaughn M. Nace


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Page 587

Index

A

Additives, 315337

foam additives and foam stability, 316317

approach to stabilization, 316

mechanism of stabilization by additives, 316317

for modifying foaming environment, 329331

minimizing depletion of surfactants, 330331

minimizing foamicidal factors, 330

modifying foaming conditions, 330

selecting effective foam additives, 331334

CMC-lowering ability of additives, 332334

polarity of additives, 334

surfactant charge types, 331

surfactant structural compatibility, 331332

for stabilizing foams, 317329

bipolymers, 328

electrolytes, 324325

finely divided particles, 325326

liquid crystals, 328329

organic compounds, 317324

polymers, 326328

Aerosol hair products, 408409

Aerosol shave cream, 407

''Alcohol-resistant" foams, 473, 486488

Alkanolamides, 399

as foam stabilizers, 319321

Alkylethersulfates, 391393

Alkylsulfates, 391393

Alkyl sulfoxides, 324

Amine oxides as foam stabilizers, 321324

Amphoteric surfactants, 400401

Anionic surfactants, 389395

alkylsulfates and alkylethersulfates, 391393

carboxylic acids, 393394

soaps, 389391

sulfonic acid derivatives, 394395

Antifoams, silicone, 555585

antifoam testing, 562565

nitrogen bubbling tests, 562564

pump testing, 564565

classification of antifoams, 558559

factors affecting antifoam performances, 565573

antifoam droplet size, 567568

effect of solution pH, 570571

effect of spreading pressure, 571573



Page 588

[Antifoams, silicone]

filler characteristics, 565566

foaming surfactant concentration, 569570

nature of foaming system, 568569

silicone oil viscosity, 566567

foam stability and mechanistic interpretation of antifoaming, 573582

foams in relation to antifoaming, 559560

silicone antifoam preparation, 560562

Antifungal agents, 410

Anti-infective agents, 410

Attractive hydrophobic forces, 4749

B

Batch modes (for mineral flotation and separation), 515

Betaines, 324

Biopolymers as foam stabilizers, 328

Bubble bath preparations, 405406

C

Capillaries, foam flow in, 228232

Carboxylic acids, 393394

Cationic surfactants, 339400

Characterization of foams, 243274

assessing foamability and foam stability, 259268

conductimetric method, 264

forced destruction/disruption methods, 267268

light-scattering and reflection methods, 266267

pressure methods, 264265

sparge tube technique for foam stability, 263

characterizing foam structure, 244259

bulk structure, 246

macrophotography and light microscope techniques, 246248

other microscopical methods, 248259

methods for measuring foam rheology, 268272

concentric (coaxial) cylinder method, 272

cone and plate rheometer method, 272

Langmuir trough method, 270271

pulsed drop method, 271

Coalescence, 262

Colloidal particles, interactions between, 1249

Derjaguin formula for short ranging forces, 1314

DLVO theory, 2426

electrostatic interaction, 1724

forces due to ionic correlations, 2627

oscillatory structural forces, 3435

repulsive hydration and attractive hydrophobic forces, 4549

steric interaction, 2834

van der Waals forces, 1417

Concentric (coaxial) cylinder method for measuring foam rheology, 272

Conductimetric method for assessing foam stability, 264

Cone and plate rheometer method for measuring foam rheology, 272

Continuous-gas and "weak" foams, 452454

Continuous-phase liquid holdup profile during foam formation, 144146

Cosmetic foams, 302303

Critical micelle concentration (CMC), 292

lowering ability of the foam additives, 332334

Critical packing parameter (CPP) of surfactants, 386387

Critical thickness of thin foam film, 8184

D

Dentifrice products, 409410

Derjaguin formula for short-ranging forces between two particles, 1314

Disjoining pressure, effect on film drainage rate of, 111113

Disproportionation, 262263

DLVO theory, 2426



Page 589

Drainage:

syneresis and, 106124

disjoining pressure, 111113

gravitational syneresis, 117124

liquid holdup profile in a standing foam or concentration emulsion, 107111

osmotic pressure, 113117

unsteady-state, of standing foam or concentrated emulsion, 124156

continuous-phase liquid holdup profile during foam formation, 144146

evolution of liquid holdup profile in stationary draining foam, 146156

model for drainage of a stationary foam or concentrated emulsion, 125129

simplified equations for drainage of standing foam or concentrated emulsion, 141144

velocity of drainage of a thin film, 139141

velocity of gravity drainage through the Plateau border, 129138

Drug products (foaming), 410

Dynamic foams, stability measurements of, 276279

Dynamics and rheological properties, 202214

pure dilatation, 204214

simple shear, 202204

E

Effective foam additives, 331334

CMC-lowering ability of additives, 332334

polarity of additives, 334

surfactant charge types, 331

surfactant structural compatibility, 331332

Electrolytes for stabilizing foams, 324325

Electron microscopy in studying foam structure, 248257

Electrostatic interaction between colloidal forces, 1724

plane-parallel film, 1720

two charged spheres, 22

two nonidentical charged surfaces, 2022

Emulsions as models of foams, 232238

Enhanced oil recovery (EOR), 413464

continuous-gas and "weak" foams, 452454

"design" strategies for field application of foam, 454457

choice of surfactant formation, 455456

evaluating the process, 456457

injection strategy, 456

preliminary issues, 454455

effect of oil and rock wettability on foam, 451452

foam generation in porous media, 429439

laboratory observations, 429431

mechanisms of lamella creation, 432437

model for foam generation in steady liquid-gas flow, 437439

pregenerating foam before injection, 429

foam in porous media, 422423

foam mobility in porous media, 423429

experimental observations, 424425

gas "relative permeability" with foam, 427428

gas "viscosity" with foam, 427

gas "yield stress" with foam, 425427

foam propagation in porous media, 440450

laboratory observations, 441445

"limiting capillary pressure," 448450

mechanisms of lamella destruction, 445448

surfactant propagation, 440441

foam properties in bulk, 416419




Page 590

[Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)]

oil recovery and flow through porous media, 419422

operational constraints on foam processes, 420422

permeability and relative permeability, 419420

Ethoxylated alcohols, 396398

Ethyleneoxide adducts, 398399

Experimental results on foam rheology, 217241

experimental results, 228239

emulsions as models of foam, 232238

foam flow in capillaries, 228232

other experimental observations, 238239

rheology, 219228

viscosity measurements, 219225

yield stress measurements, 225228

F

Fatty acids as foam stabilizers, 319

Fatty alcohols as foam stabilizers, 318319

FFT process (use of foam for finishing products), 359363, 367

Filled antifoams, 558559

Finely divided particles as foam stabilizers, 325326

Firefighting, 465509

application of low-expansion foams, 477490

"alcohol resistant" foams, 486488

application rates, 477478

"gasohols," 488489

influence of aqueous film formation on firefighting techniques, 492496

"laboratory-scale" equipment, 489490

production, 478480

transportation of foam to fire, 480482

basics of firefighting methods, 468471

classification of foams, 474477

chemical type, 474477

expansion ratio, 474

definitions, 472474

environmental considerations, 477

evaluation of firefighting abilities of low-expansion foams, 494499

background, 494

factors influencing fire test methods, 494499

high-expansion foams, 499501

applications, 500501

production, 499500

stability, 500

medium-expansion foams, 501502

physical characteristics of low-expansion foams, 490493

fluidity/"viscosity," 493

stability/drainage, 490493

solid fuel fires to which foam may be applied, 471472

types of liquid fuel fires, 467468

Fixed foam-making equipment for firefighting, 479480

Fluid interfaces, thermodynamic properties of, 312

effect of the interfacial blending moment, 1012

foam as a multiphase system, 37

surface equations of a state, 710

Fluoroalkyl-type surfactants, 303304

Foamability, 259262

Foam as a multiphase system, 37

Foam-breaking mechanisms, 297299

Foaming environments, additives for, 329331

Forced destruction/disruption methods for assessing foam stability, 267268

Fuel fires, liquid, 467468

G

"Gasohols," 488489

Geometrical models of foam rheology, 190196

Gibbs-Marangoni stabilization of foams, 297298

Gravitational separation, 262

Gravitational syneresis, 117124



Page 591

H

Hair products, aerosol, 408409

High-expansion foams, 474, 499501

applications, 500501

production, 499500

stability, 500

Hydrocarbon-type surfactants, 300301

Hydrodynamic modeling of foam film, 6471

basic equations and boundary conditions, 6971

characteristic values of parameters of emulsion and foam films, 6769

stages of approaching of two bubbles, 6467

Hydrophobic forces, attractive, 4749

I

Instability of thin films, 156164

Interbubble gas diffusion:

comparison between time scales of interbubble film rupture and time scales of, 183184

rate of growth of bubbles due to, 177178

Interfacial bending moment, effect of, 1012

bending moment, 1011

Tolman length, 1112

Interfacial properties of surfactants, variations in, 67, 68

Interfacial rheological properties, 189215

foam dynamics and rheological properties, 202214



geometrical models, 190196

kinematics of spatially periodic foam media, 197202



Inversion thickness of thin foam film, 8588

Ion flotation, 522528

ion selectivity in foam separation, 522525

operation of adsorptive bubble separation column, 525528

Isocyanate-based foams (see Solid isocyanate-based foams)

K

Kinematics of spatially periodic foam media, 197202



L

Langmuir trough method for measuring foam rheology, 270271

Laplace equation, 264265

Lifetime of thin liquid film, 7281

basic equations and boundary conditions in the lubrication approximation, 7274

influence of surface viscosity on rate of thinning and film lifetime, 7781

rate of thinning and lifetime of foam film, 7577

Light-scattering and reflection methods for assessing foam stability, 266267, 282284

Liquid crystals as foam stabilizers, 328329

Liquid fuel fires, 467468

Liquid holdup profile and collapse, effect of bubble size distribution on, 169186

coalescence frequency, 178183

comparison between time scales of interbubble gas diffusion and film rupture, 183186

mass balance equation for films, 173174

mass balance equation for Plateau borders, 174175

mass balance equation for the surfactant, 176177

population balance equation for bubble size distribution, 171173

rate of growth of bubble due to interbubble gas diffusion, 177178

Low-expansion foam, 474

evaluation of firefighting abilities of, 494499



Page 592

[Low-expansion foam]

background, 494

factors influencing fire test methods, 494499

firefighting, applications of, 477490

"alcohol resistant" foams, 486488

application rates, 477478

"gasohols," 488489

influence of aqueous film formation on firefighting techniques, 492496

"laboratory-scale" equipment, 489490

production, 478480

transportation of foam to fire, 480482

physical characteristics of, 490493

fluidity/"viscosity," 493

stability/drainage, 490493

Low-power light microscopy in studying foam structure, 246248

M

Macrophotography in studying foam structure, 246248

Macroscopic description of thin liquid film, 4955

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in studying foam structure, 257259

Medium-expansion foams, 474, 501502

Mineral flotation and separation processes, 511553

adsorptive bubble separations, 522528

ion selectivity in foam separations, 522525

operation of adsorptive bubble separation column, 525528

nomenclature, 514515

particulate flotation, 528552

bubble particle adhesion, 540545

operation of a particle flotation column, 549552

surface structures of mineral particles, 529540

surfactant adsorption and solid/solution interface, 545549

surfactants: structure and properties, 515521

adsorption at the air/solution interface, 519521

solution chemistry, 516519

Mobile foam generators, 480

Model for drainage of stationary foam or concentrated emulsion, 125129

N

Nitrogen bubbling tests (antifoam testing), 562564

Nonaqueous foams, 287314

foam-breaking mechanisms, 297299

solid isocyanate-based foams, 304309

flexible foams, 307309

rigid foams, 305307

stabilization of liquid nonaqueous foams, 299304

fluoralkyl-type surfactants, 303304

hydrocarbon-type surfactants, 300301

polymethylsiloxane-type surfactants, 302303

theories of foam stability, 288297

stabilization by surface viscosity, 293296

stabilization due to surface tension effects, 288293

Nonionic surfactants, 396399

alkanolamides, 399

ethoxylated alcohols, 396398

other ethyleneoxide adducts, 398399

other nonionic nitrogen derivatives, 399

O

Oil recovery (see Enhanced oil recovery (EOR))

Optical fiber-based method for measurement of static foams, 280281

Oral products, 409410

Organic compounds for stabilizing foams, 317324



Page 593

Oscillatory structural forces, 3445

colloidal structural forces, 4245

depletion forces, 4042

origin of the structural forces, 3439

oscillatory solution forces, 3940

Osmotic pressure, affect on film drainage rate of, 113117

Ostwald ripening, 262263

P

Particle flotation column, operation of, 549552

Particulate flotation, 528552

bubble particle adhesion, 540545

operation of a particle flotation column, 549552

surface structure of mineral particles, 529540

surfactant adsorption at the solid/solution interface, 545549

Personal care products, 381412

foaming personal products, 401410

bubble bath preparations, 405406

drug products, 410

miscellaneous aerosol hair products, 408409

oral products, 409410

quick-breaking foam products, 409

shampoo, 401403

shaving soaps, 406407

skin cleansers, 403405

foaming tendencies of major surfactant groups, 389401

amphoteric surfactants, 400401

anionic surfactants, 389395

cationic surfactants, 399400

nonionic surfactants, 396399

general features of foams in, 384389

evaluation of foams, 387389

foam generation and boosting, 384387

Phosphine oxides, 324

Polymeric compounds as foam stabilizers, 326328

Polymethylsiloxane-(silicone) type surfactants, 302303

Presurgical scrubs, 410

Pulsed drop methods for measuring foam rheology, 271

Pump test (antifoam testing), 564565

Q

Quick-breaking foam products, 409

R

Repulsive hydration forces, 4547

Rheological properties (see also Experimental results on foam rheology)

applications in the textile industry, 370376

interfacial, 189215

foam dynamics and rheological properties, 202214

geometrical models, 190196

kinematics of spatially periodic foam media, 197202

methods for measuring, 268272

concentric (coaxial) cylinder method, 272

cone and plate rheometer method, 272

Langmuir trough method, 270271

pulsed drop method, 271

Rhomboidal dodecahedron ("wet foam") unit cell, 191, 192, 205207

S

Shampoos, 401403

Shaving soaps, 406407

Silicone antifoams, 555585

antifoam testing, 562565

nitrogen bubbling tests, 562564

pump testing, 564565

classification of antifoams, 558559

factors affecting antifoam performances, 565573

antifoam droplet size, 567568

effect of solution pH, 570571

effect of spreading pressure, 571573

filler characteristics, 565566

foaming surfactant concentration, 569570

nature of foaming system, 568569



Page 594

[Silicone antifoams]

silicone oil viscosity, 566567

foam stability and mechanistic interpretation of antifoaming, 573582

foams in relation to antifoaming, 559560

silicone antifoam preparation, 560562

Skin cleansers, 403405

Slip velocities, 238239

Soaps:

as anionic surfactants, 389391

shaving, 406407

Solid isocyanate-based foams, 304309

flexible foams, 307309

rigid foams, 305307

Sparge tube techniques for assessing foam stability, 263

Stability, (see also Textile industry, structure and stability of foams), 262268

additives for, 317329

bipolymers, 328

electrolytes, 324325

finely divided particles, 325326

liquid crystals, 328329

organic compounds, 317324

polymers, 326328

assessing, 259268

conductimetric method, 264

forced destruction/disruption methods, 267268

light-scattering and reflection methods, 266267

pressure methods, 264265

sparge tube technique, 263

due to surface tension effects, 288293

of foams and concentrated emulsions, 156169

collapse of foam bed, 164167

instability of thin film, 156164

maximum dispersed-phase fraction in concentrated emulsion, 167169

of liquid nonaqueous foams, 299309

fluoralkyl-type surfactants, 303304

hydrocarbon-type surfactants, 300301

polymethylsiloxane-type surfactants, 302303

mechanisms of stabilization by additives, 316317

theories of, 288297

stabilization by surface viscosity, 293296

stabilization due to surface tension effects, 288293

Stability measurements (see also Static foams, stability measurement of), 275285

dynamic foams, 276279

Static foams, stability measurements of, 279284

light transmission/reflectance, 282284

measurement of pressure in head space, 281282

optical fiber probes, 280281

other methods, 284

photographic methods, 279280

Steric interactions between two surfaces, 2834

Steroidal aerosol foams, 410

Structure of foams, 100106, 244259

characterizing, 244259

bulk structure, 246

macrophotography and light microscope techniques, 246248

foams

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