fiziologjia mjedisore (ekofiziologjia) e pemeve

7/21/2019 Fiziologjia Mjedisore (Ekofiziologjia) e Pemeve

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^MCWNRTC\N\C BÔXT@R C \CRHMTGHE^K\N\C C BÔXTCT LFN JONLCTC\

LNYHR\HJNM\C C F@R\CE^K\^RT LFN HREC\NE\^RT TN YNC_H_FC\

Nmlrct Eukkho

(pr`g. hs`d.)

GC_C@K@AOCH JONLCT@RN(NE@GC_C@K@AOCH)

N YNJWN

knesc`mn pr Dcekcm CC lfn CCC t stulcjnvn m Tfenmdht F`rtceuktur`rn

q sf`qr`fnm mah ly dceknt n knesc`mnvn t b`tuhrh?

Eukkho, N. (2991) Bc`kàoch n \fnkkuhr n Ynjvn Grut`rn

Eukkho, N. (2996) Ne`czc`kàoch n Lrugrut`rvn

fttps?//sctns.a`àkn.d`j/h/ubt.nlu.hk/ne`czc`kàoch-n-lrugrut`rnvn/

WH 298< - 298>


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Yhrhtfmcn

Gczc`kàoch jonlcs`rn (ne`czc`kàoch) n pnjvn sft mo lcscpkcm bc`kàocen q stulc`m hekcjhtczcjcmhght-sfeurtr lfn prsfthtonm hghtaoht mlho eusftnvn jonlcs`rn t mlrysfunsfjn. Ho` sft mo sfenmdnespnrcjnmthkn q `rvhtnt t sfponaò jnehmczjht czc`kàoce jbc bhzm n vròtcjnvn ne`kàocen.Ttulcjc c czc`kàocs jonlcs`rn t bcjvn jnrrnt erynscsft jn gumesc`mcm lfn pnrg`rjhmdm n bcjvnm jonlcscm n tyrn. Mlrysf`rnt jonlcs`rn j`lukòm tfnkkscsft p`tfuhosn t aoctf hspnetnt n rrctons

lfn zfvckkcjct t bcjvn. \ euptuhrct n czc`kàocs jonlcs`rn sft tfnkbs`rn pr przaonlfonm nvnmlml`lfonvn `ptcjhkn pr mo spndcn hp` euktcvhr t dhetuhr jn qkkcj jcmcjczcjcm n mlcecjnvnmnahtcvn hp` ljprursn t eusftnvn jonlcs`rn mm`ptcjhkn, lfn j`lccecjcm `sn ercocjcm njcer`jonlcsnvn q òm m pr`lfcjthrc jhescjhkn (rho`mczcjc). Eo` lcscpkcm lhkk`fnt pr tfnescmtne jnehmczjht m bhz t czc`kàocs jonlcs`rn m mcvnknt bcècjcen, bc`czcen, j`kneukhrn lfn tczc`kàocs s tr bcjs. Ttulcjc c ne`czc`kàocs sft c rmlscsfj pr lrurt grut`r phsc sft tfuhosn n phsfjhmasfjnq mo pnj grut`rn tc mmsftr`fnt mo strnsc, jhlon nlfn t rml, aoht ndurcs s dcekct onts`r. Yèsftu, mah emlvsftrcjc bc`kàoce, ndurch n mo pnjn c mlonm ml`mofnr g`rt eusftnt n vctnvn tjphrsfjn. Ttrnsnt jonlcs`rn (hbc`tcen) `sn bc`tcen hsftu sceumlr jhmcpukcjnt q pnjt psòmmprjont sfrbcjnvn har`tnemcen mlceòm jbc zfvckkcjcm n `rahmnvn vnaonthtcvn lfn rcpr`lfunsnaoht stcms s rrctons lfn c sftrcom mlcecjnt n tyrn nlfn m vctnt n jtnosfjn.\cphrc sfujvonhr cpnjs grut`rn bm q sfrbcjn har`tnemcen t dhetuhrh, sc sft pr sfnjbukk pknfrcjc, juml tj`s enm mlcecjn t jnmofnrsfjn p`r mo sftrcron m j sfuj dcekn pr`lfunsn. Mlrehq, ahbcjnm lrnotcjcm har`m`jce lfn eusftnt n strnsct, sh hbc`tcen hsftu nlfn bc`tcen, juml t enm mlcecj jbcrnzukthtcm n pnjt`rns nlfn m vctnt n jv`msfjn. Rnhacjnt mlho strnsnvn t lrurvn grut`rn zm mo pons t p`shjn t pràrhjct t j`lukct. Mjmyr j t vnhmt trhot`fnt strnsc uo`r, pr sfehe t rnhacjnvn t khrjcsfjn czc`kàocen. M eteuhlr trhot`fnm sfnjbuo ekhsce sc lueurct n zahvrcjct t nmvn escknjhtcen q juml bfnm sfehepr fujbon t gumesc`mhkctntct fclrhukce t khsthrvn m lctt vnr`rn t ehrhetnrczuhrh mah rrnzhtcj lfntnjpnrhturh t khrth, n q prl`rcm jnehmczjh t mlrnqons s lnjct spndcce lfn nmln t phsqhruhrh.

Aoht knesc`mnvn bfnm aoctfmo erhfhscjn jn bcjt bhrcsft`rn, sc p.sf. ghetc q kufhtont lct`rn tp`tnmdchkct uo`r aontf`r q vcom sc phsò n sftcjct t erenss nvhp`trhmspcrunsn t jonlcsct ohm jt jlfh sn sh vknrht q jhtnm zhe`mcsft tne bcjt bhrcsft`rn. Rnzcstnmdht n khrth fclrhukcen m mcvnkrrmo`r, tne z`mh trhmzct`rn rrmotruma, m truma, lna, lnazh lfn m myoht n bcsfthvn t aontfnvnpnmaòm kuescm zbrcts mah rrmoh lnrc m aontfn ohm t bhrhbhrth jn fujbont prno trhmspcrcjct tvnt aontfnvn. Yceh n sfhrtcjct, q zhe`mcsft mue fhsnt tne bcjt bhrcsft`rn, prbm mo myo mausftunsnsftns pr kuescm n kcjgs m pnj. Mo pons qnmlr`rn n pràrhjct t j`lukct mlhknt m mlcecjcm n jonlcsct jbc rrctonm n lrurvngrut`rn. Yr sfnjbukk, nesp`zcjc mlho tnjpnrhturhvn sfuj t mlrysfjn aoht dcekct vont`r eh brq pnjt grut`rn t zfvckkòm rnhacjn prsfthtsn sc ohm j`s-rrctoh n luesfjn q eh t bo jn

praoujonm lcjr`rn lfn pk`tscjcm n erenshvn pr t gt`ft lfn pr t mar`ft q c phrhprcomkhsthrczcjct prhmvnr`r.Neuckcbrc c rrctons sft aoctfhsftu pons n etco trhotcjc phsc mlrtfurnt mausft jn sfrbcjn

har`tnemcen sc erhsctoh lfn g`rjscjc c pnjvn. M mo pnj, hscjckhtnt lufnt t prsfeòm khrasc jt jlfh sn tne mo bcj bhrcsft`rn lfn eo` prdhet`m mo hut`m`jc j t jhlfn mlrjont `rahmnvnt mlrysfjn lfn cmtnrvhknvn e`f`rn j t aohth mlrjont pr`dnsnvn t hscjckcjct lfn prl`rcjct tehrb`fclrhtnvn. \ phturct m lcsp`zcdc`m t rnznrvhvn t ehrb`fclrhtnvn lfn jcmnrhknvn, q mlrysf`mm pnrculfht n mlrysfjn t vctct, prbom mo nknjnmt t rmlscsfj t neuckcbrct vnaonthtcv lfnrcpr`lfuns t pnjs lfn, pr spndcn aontfnrmsn, cmtnar`m `sn zvnmls`m aoht ghzs s khsthrczcjctg`t`scmthtnt t hscjckuhrh lrnotprlrnot mah aontfnt.

Yrcroh n pr`lfcjct t ejbynr, tcpce c spndcnvn sc jhmlhrcmh, pcstheu, bhohjoh lfn ukkcrc hsftu scnlfn lcsh euktcvhrvn, sc m rhstcm n j`kks lfn qnrsfcs, sft mo tontr sfnjbukk c qhrt t jhrrlfmcnvne`jpknesn jclcs dcekct vont`r lfn sfujvonhr. Mo prno `bonetcvhvn eryns`r t pnjthrct sft ruhotohn neuckcbrct mlrjont hetcvctntct rcpr`lfuns, rrctons vnaonthtcvn t vctct lfn nmtctntc c cmluetcjct kuk`r prvctcm n hrlfsfj. M ghet, pr`dnsc c kukzcjct, luen ckkuhr mah cmluetcjc kuk`r lnrc m kukzcjcm n pk`t,


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sftrcfnt zhe`mcsft m ly snz`mn rrcton, pnrculf aoht s dcks sfghqnm lueurc t e`meurrcjct pr burcjnmlrjont gruthvn, jnrcstnjhvn rcpr`lfunsn lfn ht` vnaonthtcvn, luen n phrhprahtctur bcjm t sfghqmo ejbcj m pr`lfcj. Yhshrlfoh n vctnvn jn pr`lfcjthrc t khrt lfn t l`bt, q sft n phghv`rsfjnpr hrsyn trnau, juml t sfghqnt jhlon nlfn sc mo jumans scmer`mczcjc n pr`lfcjthrcs jclcs lnavnt s moots pnj, n vnhmrcsft m pnjt n vontrh. Yràrhjc trhot`m m jmyr erhfhsunsn o` vntj czc`kàocm jonlcs`rn t kkònvn lrugrut`rnm rhp`rt jn ht` bhrcsft`rn p`r nlfn mlrjont vnt arupct t pjvn grut`rn. M tnjhtceht n trhotuhrh

onpnm sfnjbuo sc ht` t lcmhjcehvn t mlrysfjn t heujukcjct lfn prl`rcjct t g`t`scmthtnvnnlfn m brnmlsc t ehtna`rcs s spndcnvn aontfnrmsn. \ne spndcn jn kukzcj t fnrsfj, sc ohmbrtfhj`rt, zfvckkcjc c aontfnvn ml`lf phs kukzcjct, n escsò kukzcjc lfn kclfoh n gruthvn ml`lfcmmprjont sfpnmzcjct t ehrb`fclrhtnvn t arujbukkuhrh m `rahmnt n prfnrsfjn t eur`rs lfn trrmovn. Hmhsonkkths, ghr`rt n pk`tsòm kukzcjcm n pk`t vntj phsc q aontfnt n r`znts ohm zfvckkuhrtrscsft lfn ohm m aonmlon t erynom r`kcm n tyrn g`t`scmtntce m jbsftnton t zfvckkcjct t `rahmnvnrcpr`lfunsn.

Y` m e`mtnestcm n trhotcjct erhfhsuns mlrjont kkònvn lrugrut`rn, rmlsc c eusft`fnt nlfnlhkkcjct mlrjont czc`kàocs jonlcs`rn t pnjvn grut`rn aontfnrmsn lfn spndcnvn aontfnjbhotsn.\ne t phrht, dcekc c euktcvcjct, n escsò, jnmhxfcjc c pnjt`rns sft snz`mhk, mlrsh tne aontfnjbhotsntkuesn t mlrysfjn vnaonthtcvn juml t mlonecm morhtontrm m mo vct t vntj. sft n qhrt sn, eur

mo spndcn n ekcjs s but euktcv`fnt m z`mht jnslfnthrn `sn mmtr`pcehkn, j`lcce`m sfuj sonkkonmn sho, jhlon luen hrrctur t erynom ly dcekn rcpr`lfunsn m vct. M euktcvcjcm n suesnssfj t pnjvn grut`rn hp` bcjvn buoqs`rn m praoctfsc, onjct cmtnrnsuhr pr rnhacjnt hghtsfeurtrh mlho strnsnvn jonlcs`rn jn t dckht et` bcj prbhkknm lfnrnhaòm m l` snz`m. Yrsfthtoh mlho jonlcsct ckk`m m mcvnk j`kneukhr lfn qnkcz`r, eu zbuk`fnm eusftntjonlcs`rn, lfn eu rnhkcz`fnm rnhacjnt mlho mlrysfcjnvn m jonlcs. Luen ckkuhr mah et` jnehmczjhczc`kàoce, ehrhetnrcstceht j`rg`kàocen t bcjvn bfnm t rmlscsfjn m mcvnkcm n tr bcjs.Tfponacjnt ne`czc`kàocen ereòm t euptuhr jnehmcstce m mo mcvnk j t ukt cmtnarcjc? czc`kàoc,bcècjc, bc`czce, bc`kàoc j`kneukhrn. Rnhesc`mnt jnthb`kcen qnkcz`rn lfn `rahmczcjc struetur`r(j`rg`kàoce lfn hmht`jce) ohm cmstrujnmtnt bc`kàocen jn t dckht `rahmczjht prl`rcm eusftn

jonlcs`rn t dhetuhrh, c sfjhmacm ht`, `sn prsfthtnm mlho tyrn. M prahtctonm n pràrhjct lfn knesc`mnvn prehtsn sft br mo prponeon lcshvonhrn pr tcmtnaruhr hrtceuo sfenmd`r jbc rnhacjnt czc`kàocen t lrurvn grut`r mlho mlrysf`rnvn jonlcs`rncmlcvcluhkn m mo czc`kàoc jonlcs`rn t cmtnaruhr jn rrctonm n zfvckkcjcm n bcjs. Et` knesc`mn c hlrns`fnm stulnmtvn t dcekct t lyt (JHT\NR TFENMD@R) lfn dcekct t trnt(L@E\@RH\^R) lfn mlrt`fnm jbc mo`furct n jhrrh jbc prjcrscjcm aonmntce m dcekcm n phr(BHDFNK@R). Escsò, pr t hrrctur mo sfgrytzcj jhescjhk t cmg`rjhdc`mct t lfm m et` knesc`mn,rne`jhmlòj q stulnmtt t rcgrnesòm sfuj e`mdnptn bhz. B`tcjc j c prsfthtsfj pr etqkkcj sft hehkkc lfn Eukkho (2991) Bc`kàoch n Bcjvn F`rtceuktur`rn. \rcptce. Tfprnsò sn et` knesc`mnsn l` t sfrbnom sc rngnrnmd jn cmtnrns nlfn pr spndchkcstt n pnjthrcs, pum`mosct n sfrbcjct

esfckkcj`r, spndchkcstt n prjcrscjct aonmntce sc lfn pr stulnmt t pnjthrcs n f`rtceukturs.* * *

Yr hrsynt n prjnmlurh m et phrhtfmcn ey tnest l` t b`t`fnt m g`rjhtcm TFMCJN YRT\^LNM\\. Rronlfcjcsft, ey jhtnrchk mue juml t dct`fnt.


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Yhsqyrh n Kmls

8. Fyron.............................................................................................................................................................................8 8.8 Gczc`kàoch jonlcs`rn? preuzcjc, bonetc n rmlsch..........................................................................8 8.2 Gczc`kàoch jonlcs`rn n bcjvn...................................................................................................................8 8.2.8 Ghet`rt jonlcs`r t stulcuhr m zc`kàocm jonlcs`rn t lrurvn rut`r................................2 8.4 Xhsoh jscjlfmsn/stulcj rn m zc`kàocm jonlcs`rn t lrurvn grut`r................................2

8.4.8 J`lnkcjc.........................................................................................................................................< 8.4.2 Yrl`rcjc c nespnrcjnmtnvn............................................................................................................6 8.< Yrsfthtoh lfn pkhstcdctntc gnm`tcpce........................................................................................................89 8. 2.8 Fyron.............................................................................................................................................................8> 2.2 Hspnetn zcen t rrnzhtcjct.......................................................................................................................87 2.4 Jhtoh n rrnzhtcjct.......................................................................................................................................22

2.4.8 Mlonsfjrch spnetrhkn..................................................................................................................22 2.4.2 Mlonsfjrch lrnotcj`rn................................................................................................................2> 2.4.4 Jnshthrczcjc..................................................................................................................................2> 2.4.< Yrkkàhrctoh (prhrcjc)..............................................................................................................2> 2.< Rrnzhtcjc m pnjt`rn..............................................................................................................................27 2. 2.>.8 \rnaunsct spnetrhk..........................................................................................................................47 2.>.2 Mlonscjc sfujeml`r lfn zfvckkcjc c jtnosfj c j`lnknvn t trhmsnrcjct t rrnzhtcjct.....46

2.7 Jnt`lht n lrnotprlrnoth lfn mmeur r pr prdhetcjcm n strueturs s eur`rs........................1 4.4 \rhmsgnrcjc pruns lfn turbuknmt..........................................................................................................79 4.4.8 Tftrnsht euthrn............................................................................................................................78 4.4.2 Yrunsfjrch n sftrnshvn euthrn t aontfns..............................................................................73 4.< Yr`dnsnt n trhmsgnrcjct brnmlh lfn jbc eur`rht n lrurvn grut`r....................................................12 4.


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.4.4 Mlonscjc m khrasc.......................................................................................................................878 >.4.< Jnt`lht n tonrh.............................................................................................................................874

>.< Hvukkcjc mah jhscvnt jn pnj.............................................................................................................87> >. >...> Wnsh.............................................................................................................................................................876 >.7 Bhzh zcen n e`mtr`kkct t tnjpnrhturs s cmlnvn..............................................................................819 >.7.8 Aonmloh n mlnr............................................................................................................................819 >.7.2 Aonmloh n mlrysfunsfjn.............................................................................................................812 >.7.4 E`msthmtnt e`f`rn tnrjcen pr `rahmnt bcj`rn.........................................................................814 >.7.< Rhstn t vnhmth t fhreut e`f`r t mlrysfcjnvn m tnjpnrhtur............................................81.7.> E`msthmtnt e`f`rn tnrjcen pr `rahmnt bcj`rn.........................................................................814

YONTH CC. GC_C@K@AOCH JONLCT@RN7. Rnhacjc c aòzhvn mlho jonlcsct...................................................................................................................868 7.8 Fyron...........................................................................................................................................................868 7.2 Tfprmlhroh n aòzhvn............................................................................................................................862 7.4 Jnehmceh lfn jnehmczjht aòz`r....................................................................................................862 7.< Jnt`lht n stulcjct....................................................................................................................................867 7.


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7.>.2 Rnhacjc mlho lrcts.....................................................................................................................833 7.>.4 Rnhacjc mlho lyèsclct t ehrb`mct............................................................................................299 7.>.< Rnhacjc mlho khasftcs..............................................................................................................298 7.>.> Rnhacjc mlho aonmlons s uoct......................................................................................................292 7.>.7 Rnhacjc mlho tnjpnrhturs lfn het`rvn t tonr.....................................................................29< 7.>.1 Tonkkoh n aòzhvn m jonlcsn mhtyr`rn........................................................................................29> 7.7 Rnzcstnmdh aòz`rn m jhrrlfmcn jn rnzcstnmdht n tonrh............................................................296 7.1 Gumesc`mc aòz`r lfn khqnt n e`mtr`kkct

..............................................................................................289 7.1.8 Kheu c e`mtr`kkct t uoct...............................................................................................................2897.1.2 Kheu c e`mtr`kkct t lyèsclct t ehrb`mct...................................................................................284

1. G`t`scmtnzh lfn ryjejbcjc c pnjvn? jhtoh lfn j`lnkcjc.....................................................28> 1.8 Fyron...........................................................................................................................................................28> 1.2 G`t`scmtnzh................................................................................................................................................287 1.2.8 Rnhesc`mnt n lrcts.......................................................................................................................287 1.2.2 Rnhesc`mnt n nrrscrs..................................................................................................................228 1.2.4 Gurmczcjc jn lyèscl ehrb`mc....................................................................................................224

1.4 Gryjejbcjc

.........................................................................................................................................22 1.4.< Eu`dcnmtt n ryjejbcjct lfn nehsctntnt ryjejbynsn.................................................221 1.4.> Gumesc`mc c ryjejbcjct........................................................................................................223 1.< Jhtoh lfn hmhkczh n ejbcjct t lyèsclct t ehrb`mct.....................................................................223 1..8 Bcècjch `t`scmtntcen..................................................................................................................24.2 J`lnknt njpcrcen........................................................................................................................24> 1.7 Gku`rnsfnmdh n ek`r`kct..........................................................................................................................241 1.7.8 Hmhkczh n sfuhrons s flu`rnsfnmds............................................................................................246 1.7.2 Nehsctntc c `tècjcs................................................................................................................23 1.3.< Ttrnsc uo`r lfn ercpzcjc.............................................................................................................278 1.3.> Ghet`r t tonr.............................................................................................................................27>

1.89 Nehsctntc g`t`scmtntce lfn pr`lfcjthrch..........................................................................................277 1.89.8 Nehsctntc `t`scmtntce c aontfnvn cmlcvcluhkn...........................................................................277 1.89.2 Tfehkkzcjc mah `t`scmtnzh n aontfns m ht t eur`rs...........................................................271 1.89.4 Rrctoh n bcjs, pr`lfcjc phrs`rn lfn ejbcjc mnt` c ne`scstnjct........................................273 1.89.< Yrjcrscjc c rnmlcjnmtct t pnjvn.......................................................................................219


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6. Tcmohknt nezàonmn jn mlcecj jbc rrctonm n zfvckkcjcm n pnjvn...................................................214 6.8 Hspnetn t praoctfsfjn t hmhkczs s rrctons......................................................................................214 6.2 Bhzh zc`kàocen n kufhtonvn m rctjcm n rrctons (ph euzcjn m usfqyns).....................................21< 6.2.8 Rctjc c rrctons...............................................................................................................................21< 6.2.2 TKH sft het`rc eryns`r q prdhet`m kufhtonm m RAR.........................................................21> 6.2.4 \rhsfsch n aontfns lfn lnmlsch n jhss aontf`rn....................................................................216 6.2.< Mlrysfcjnt hmht`jcen lfn ecjcen q sf`qròm lnmlscm n jhss aontf`rn.......................213

6.2.> Rctjc c hscjckcjct mnt`, `t`scmtnzh lfn ryjejbcjc...........................................................213 6.4 Tcmohknt nezàonmn (jonlcs`rn) q mlceòm rrctonm lfn zfvckkcjcm.................................................213 6.4.8 Mlcecjnt zc`kàocen t tnjpnrhturs........................................................................................268 6.4.2 Mlcecjnt zc`kàocen t lrcts.....................................................................................................266 6.4.4 Ghet`rt jonlcs`r q mlceòm rctjcm n rrctons..........................................................................232 6.< Rrctoh n grytct..............................................................................................................................................23< 6. 89.8 Jhmasct uo`rn bcj`rn lfn pr`dnsnt zc`kàocen.............................................................................42> 89.8.8 Mlcecjnt n jhmascvn uo`rn......................................................................................................42> 89.8.2Jnehmczjht lfn r`kc c rrnaukkht`rvn t rrctons s bcjvn.......................................................421 89.2 \`knrhmdh mlho tfhtscrs......................................................................................................................442 89.2.8 Tfjhmach n jhmascvn uo`rn bcj`rn........................................................................................444 89.2.2 \ knrhmdh n jhmascvn uo`rn bcj`rn........................................................................................44< 89.2.4 \ knrhmdh mlho tfhrons lfn jnthb`kczjc.................................................................................447 89.2.< Jnehmczjht n nehsctntct..........................................................................................................446 89.4 Hmhkcz n jtnosfjn n nehsctntct t prl`rcjct t uoct..................................................................46


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88. Ttrnsc c pnjvn mah tnjpnrhturht n sehosfjn.......................................................................................474 88.8 \njpnrhturht n khrth..............................................................................................................................474 88.2 \njpnrhturht n ukth.............................................................................................................................47< 88.2.8 Ljtcjc mah c g`ftc prhmmarcrs...........................................................................................47> 88.4 Jnehmczjht n ljtcjct? marcroh.........................................................................................................47> 88.< Ehkctoh lfn jnehmczjht n t`knrhmds mlho marcds...........................................................................471 88.> Jbròtoh mah marcdht..............................................................................................................................471

88.>.8Jnt`lht phscvn...........................................................................................................................476 88.>.2Jnt`lht hetcvn...........................................................................................................................473 88.7 Jhmcpukcjc nespnrcjnmthk c tnjpnrhturs........................................................................................473 88.1 Jnehmczjht n sfjhmacns.........................................................................................................................419 88.1.8Jonlcsnt n mxnfth.......................................................................................................................418 88.1.2Jonlcsn t g`fth.......................................................................................................................412 88.6 Ekcjh tnrjcen lfn rnhacjc bcj`r..........................................................................................................414

Kcsth n e`rmczhvnE.8-8 Gczc`kàoch jonlcs`rn m npèm n mlrysfcjnvn ekcjhtcen (mar`fons ak`bhkn).......................................................4

E.2-8 Mlcecjnt n rrnzhtcjct jbc ontm n bcjvn.............................................................................................................8>E.2-2 Lrcth - rrnzhtcjc nknetr`jhamntce jn rmlsc m bc`kàoc.................................................................................87E.2-4 Kcaont n rrnzhtcjct..................................................................................................................................................29E.2-< Tfprmlhroh spnetrhkn lfn mosct n rrnzhtcjct....................................................................................................24E.2.> Rrnzhtcjc m jonlcsn mhtyr`rn..............................................................................................................................21E.4-8 Tfprfhpoh.............................................................................................................................................................6E.4-7 Yrcjc lfn tnocjc c mxnftscs.............................................................................................................................78E.4-1 Nrh...........................................................................................................................................................................72E.4-6 Tftrnsh euthrn n horct...........................................................................................................................................7E.4-89 Neuhdc`mnt n prcjct/tnocjct t mxnftscs.....................................................................................................71E.4-88 Mujrht ph prjhs (mosc).................................................................................................................................76E.


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E.-8 Bckhmdc nmnraontce c aontfns...................................................................................................................................843E.>-2 Bckhmdc c rrnzhtcjct mnt` t aontfns......................................................................................................................8-4 Y`tnmdchkc ecjce lfn p`tnmdchkc uo`r c hvukkct t uoct........................................................................................8-> Yrqnmlrcjnt n hvukkct t uoct, prponst j`khrn lfn trysmct n ponssfjn t aontfnvn.......................................8-7 cgcjc c oct lfn Bckhmdct t Mxnftscs.............................................................................................................8>4E.>-1 Hvukkcjc c cjp`muhr lfn neuckcbr.................................................................................................................8>7E.>-6 Jhtoh n trhmspcrcjct t aontfnvn, bcjvn cmlcvcluhkn lfn eur`rhvn t bcjvn

..............................................87-3 Ekcjh n horct prhm tès....................................................................................................................................817E.7-8 Aòzht.................................................................................................................................................................86E.1-2 Ly `t`scstnjnt pkus hmtnmht lrctvonksn.........................................................................................................286E.1-4 \cpnt n fluesct t nknetr`mnvn................................................................................................................................229E.1-< Gryjejbcjc lfn `t`ryjejbcjc............................................................................................................221

E.1.> Yrjbknlfon n j`lnkct Ghrqufhrv`m DhnjjnrnrBnrry pr bcècjcm n `t`scmtnzs.................................24>E.1-7 J`lnkcjc njpcrce c `t`scmtnzs s aontfns........................................................................................................247E.1-1 Wknrscjc c `tècjcs luen prl`rur flu`rnsfnmdm.........................................................................................243E.1-6 Rront aoctfprsfcrs rnzcstnmdhsf mlho D@

2....................................................................................................27

E.1-89 Yceht n e`jpnmscjct..........................................................................................................................................2>6E.1-88 \rhmspcrcjc lfn `t`scmtnzh..............................................................................................................................278E.6.8 \rnauns t rrctons...................................................................................................................................................217E.6.2 G`rdh n rmlnssn..................................................................................................................................................269E.6.4 Yrhmvnrczcjc.........................................................................................................................................................26>

E.6.< Mlcecjnt n tnjpnrhturhvn t ukth jbc umesc`mcjcm n rrmovn....................................................................234E.6.> Hdclcecjc c jurct qnkcz`r lfn khracjc c ehkdcujct zvàk`m maurtscm n jurct qnkcz`r.............................492E.6.7 _aonrcjc qnkcz`r tne jnrcstnjht e`mtr kk`fnt mah zaonrunsfjrch n jurct qnkcz`r lfn o` tura`rc..............494E.3-8 Yrdhetcjc shsc`r c ljct t cmlnvn bcj`rn.........................................................................................................422E.89-8 Jnehmczjc c vnprcjct t rrnaukkht`rvn t rrctons.............................................................................................423E.89-2 Nehsctntc c prl`rcjct t uoct...........................................................................................................................443E.89-4 E`mtr`kkc aòz`r c Q^N...................................................................................................................................4


11/387x

tfonsfth m 29D t kkàhrcturh luen prl`rur N>.>9 s j8.......................814

hbnkh 7.8 Tfnjbuo t lchphz`mct t vknrhvn pr lnmlscm aòz`rn (, jj2) lfn aohtscm n p`rct (k, j) pr lcsh kkòn pnjsf, p`zcdc`mc aontf`r lfn eusftnsf euktcvcjc...............................................................862hbnkh 7.2 Wknrht rnkhtcvn t rnzcstnmdhvn t mlrysfjn mlho hvukkct t uoct (sfcf Gca. 7.2) lfn prunsfjrct rnkhtcvn pr aontfn cmlcvcluhkn. Rnzcstnmdh n aontfns (r

k) jbcz`tr`fnt mah prbrsc aòz`r...................293

hbnkh 7.4 Rnzcstnmdh aontf`rn (`sn zc`kàocen) n eur`rs mlho hvukkct t uoct (r

K) lfn rnzcstnmdh n sftrnss euthrn t eur`rs (rH) pr tcpn t mlrysfjn bcjscn. Wknrht m mosc jhsn (s j8) lfn bhrhzvknrht

m mosc j`khrn (j2s j`k8).............................................................................................................................289hbnkh 6.8 Mosct prhmmarcrsn (D^) lfn sfujht`rnt tnrjcen (ALF) q ereòm lcsh euktcvhr t

kkònvn t mlrysfjn lrurut`rn pr t ehprdynr nml`praoujonm lfn hrrctur kukzcjcmn pk`t................................................................................................................................................................267

hbnkh 6.2 Ekhscecjc c lrurvn rut`r scphs tcpct t rrctons s rytct.......................................................................23D prvn rhstnvn eur sft sfmuhr mlrysfn.....................................................................4>8hbnkh 89.< Mo prjbknlfon n jnt`lhvn eryns`rn m lcsp`zcdc`m pr mlonscjcm n strnsct t bcjs lfn pr pràrhjcjcm n uoctons, q trnaòm hvhmthzfnt lfn lcshvhmthzfnt eryns`rn t tyrn.................................4>4hbnkh 88.8 Yrjbknlfon n prhaonvn t tnjpnrhturhvn pr jbcontns m eusftnt n tnjpnrhturhvn t sehosfjn t aontfnvn t pnjvn mah rho`mn ekcjhtcen t mlrysfjn, eu prhaont prdhet`fnm m

tnjpnrhturht q sfehetòm >9% ljtcj phs 2 f nesp`zcj m tnjpnrhturm n lfm...........................474

Kcsth n thbnkhvn m e`rmczhhbnkh E2.8.8. Yreuzcjc lfn ehrhetnrcstceht n lchphz`mnvn t mlrysfjn t aohtscvn t vhkvn t lrcts............81hbnkh E2.>.8 Erhfhscjc c bckhmdct mnt` t rrnzhtcjct pr jbuknsm bhrcsft`rn t pnjt`rns lfn mo aontfn

f`rct`mthkn t cz`kuhr t nesp`zuhr jbc jbuknsm bhrcsft`rn pr eusftn t mlrysfjn..............................23hbnkh 4.>.8 E`ncnmtt n sfprfhpons m trntscrh uo`rn lfn horh.........................................................................>3hbnkh E.8. E`mtrcbutnt n p`tnmdchkct ecjce tn nmtctntcto,

o..................................................................................66

hbnkh E7.4.8 Yrjbknlfon n vknrhvn prhqsunsn lfn rnzcstnmdhvn pr hvukkcm n uoct q sfprfhpntmah aontfnt.........................................................................................................................................................83 sn 2.9............................................................... j s-8pr (h) tèm lonrr

lfn (b) mo bcj buoqs`rn s bhsfeu jn (d) trhms`rjcjnt kàhrctjcen kcmnhrczunsne`rrnsp`mlunsn..................................................................................................................................................1>

Gca. 4-3. Ckustrcj c (h) snms`rvn pr mo scstnj e`vhrchmdn sftonkkhsf (eu m t jhot mo hmnj`jntr

s`mce trnprjhs`r lfn m t lohtft mo fcar`jntr ercpt`m) t j`mtuhr m mo lcrnejntn`r`kàoce lfn (b) phrcjnt bhz t umesc`mcjct t mo scstnjc e`vhrchmdnt sftonkkhvn..........................................................................................................................................................11

Gca.


13/387xcc

trfnqoh nknetr`sthtcen mlrjont mahrenss p`zctcvn mnt` jbc ht`jnt n fclr`aonmct lfn mahrenssmnahtcvn mnt` jbc ht`jnt n `escaonmct..............................................................................................................62

Gca.


14/387xccc

Gca. >-1. Ckustrcjc c fluesnvn rrnzhtunsn m lfn mah scprhqoh jn bcjsc, eu trna`fnt sn rrnzhtcjc vhksfeurtr(WTF) c prtfctfur mnt` sft sfujh n rrnzhtcjct t lrnotprlrnot lfn t sfprmlhr hrlfs jcmus htt phsqyruhr, mlre`f q rrnzhtcjc mnt` vhkaoht (WAO) sft mlrysfnsh mlrjont htco hrlfsmah htj`snrh lfn htco q njnt`fnt mah scprhqoh......................................................................................872

Gca. >-6. Ckustrcj c jhamctuls rnkhtcvn t rnzcstnmdhvn t sftrnss euthrn t prsfthtsfjn pr (h) mo bcj t cz`kuhr5 (b) mo eur`r aonr, t sfeurtr, n t kjuhr sc ho` n bhrct t e`sctur t pnjt`rns5

(d) mo eur`r t aonr, t khrt n t hsfpr......................................................................................................877

Gca. >-3. Jhrrlfmch n kkàhrctur mlrjont rctjct t trhmspcrcjct lfn prunsfjrcs s eur`rs mmcvnkn t mlrysfjn t prunsfjrcvn t sftrnss euthrn, pr D.......................................................................................877

Gca. >-89. Whrsch n hvukkcjct t eur`rs mah lndctc c khasftcs (L) lfn nmnraoch m lcsp`zcdc`m (Rm A)pr mo bhr t sfeurtr (a

HF: 89 jj s8) `sn pr mo pykk (a

HF: 299 jj s8) jn mo

prunsfjrc zc`kàocen (aKQ

) prno 89 jj s8............................................................................................871Gca. >-88. Mlcecjc c khasftcs rnkhtcvn (f) lfn prunsfjrcs s sftrnss euthrn (a

FR) jbc rctjcm n

vnsrmcns sc phrhsfce`fnt mah N>.D lfn mo nmnraoc mlcsp`zcdc`m prno 899 Q j2..........................................................................................................................873

Gca. >-82. Mlrysfcjc c tnjpnrhturs s scprhqns (vcoh n mlrprnr) sc rnhacj mlho mlrysfcjct ttnjpnrhturs s jonlcsct (vcoh n phmlrprnr)..............................................................................................81>

Gca. >-84. Yrcront lct`rn m (h) fluescm n cjp`muhr t mxnftscs m scprhqnm n tès q rnzukt`m mahcmputc c nmnraocs lcnkk`rn m mo lct t etfonkkt (jn vknrh p`zctcvn q e`rrnsp`mlòm jn mo flues

p`zctcv, A, brnmlh m tè) lfn (b) kufhtont e`rrnsp`mlunsn m tnjpnrhturm n tès m tfnkksc t mlrysfjn m tè............................................................................................................................................817Gca. 7-8. Lcharhj n tfonsftuhr q ckustr`m r`kcm n aòzhvn m rrnaukkcjcm n fluesnvn t D@

2lfn F

2@,

eu trna`fnm rruaehkcjnt e`mtr`kkunsngnnlbhdelfngnnlg`rwhrl(vcoht n mlrprnrh)............................868Gcaurh 7.2 Rruaehkcjnt n khracjct t uoct mah mo scprhqn aontf`rn, eu trna`fnm rnzcstnmdh n sftrnss

euthrn (rh), n eutceuks (r

d), n aòzs (r

s), n fhpscrs qnkcz`rn (r

c), n jurct qnkcz`r (r

w) lfn

n aontfns (rk).......................................................................................................................................................867

Gcaurh 7.4 Y`r`jntrh jn flues m jhs (`sn flues vcse`z)? (h) tcpc trhms-aontf`r c prsfthtsfj pr aontfn

hjst`jhtcen, (b) tcpc jn moeup r pr aontfn fcp`st`jhtcen..................................................................863Gcaurh 7.< (h) Lcharhjh n mo p`r`jntrc t tfonsft jn trhmzct e`f`r (p.sf. p`r`jntr HY< Lnkth, mah Lnkth Cmstrujnmts, Burwnkk, Dhjbrclan)? m et cmstrujnmt, mo p`jp prl`rnt m cmtnrvhk pr t tfhr

lf`jm n aontfns lfn j phs rnaocstr`fnt e`fh q hvukkc c uoct t sfprfhpnt mah aontfoh luen rrcturkhasftcm m lf`j mlrjont ly pcehvn t dhetuhrh. (b) Lcharhjh n fluesct n mo p`r`jntrc jnscstnj t fhpur, tcpce jn flues t vhzfluhr m aonmlon t mlnr `sn scstnjc ejbcjc ahznsf, eu

rnzcstnmdh mlho sfprfhpons prno aontfns kkàhrctnt mah rctjc c fluesct lfn khasftct n horct fyrslfn lhks. (d) Ckustrcjc c phrcjct t p`r`jntrct aontf`r Lndha`m TD 8, eu rnzcstnmdh aòz`rn (r

s)

prkkàhrctnt mah mlrysfcjnt m khasftcm mlrjont aontfns, ly snms`r t mlrjontj lfn motfhrs, eu sftrnsh euthrn (r

h: r

8) lfn rnzcstnmdht n lf`js (r

df: r

2) ohm t mo`furh, luen

fhjnmlsuhr sn rnzcstnmdht pr l` prbrs ohm prponstcj`rn jn mlrysfnsht n khasftcs prjnsl` prbrsc....................................................................................................................................................838Gca. 7->. Tfnjbuo t khe`rnvn t rnhacjnvn aòz`rn mlho lrcts............................................................................833Gca. 7-7. Tfnjbuo t rnhacjnvn aòz`rn mlho khasftcs..........................................................................................292Gca. 7.1. (h) Jhrrlfmch mlrjonta

klfn

kpr j`kkm m ly pnrculfh. (b) Mo sfnjbukk pr j`kkm

eu sft vròtuhr mo jhrrlfmcn mnahtcvn mlrjontaklfn

k(scjb`knt b`sf c rnnr`fnm

lsfjunsvn t uoctur jcr lfn scjb`knt n jbusfurh trnaòm bcjt m eusftn tfhtscrn).......................292Gca. 7-6. Jhrrlfmch mlrjonta

klfn

klfn

stne sh tèh tfhfnt m bcj cz`fclrcen lfn hmcz`fclrcen........294

Gca. 7.3. Kufhtoh tcpcen aoht mo lctn prakn aontfnvn t jnsct t snz`mct t j`kks (h), s bhsfeu jn

crrhlchmdm jbc eur`r (d) lfnaksc umesc`m c C (b) `sn

k(l)..................................................................29>

Gca. 7.89. Mo lcharhj n tfonsftuhr n khqnvn e`mtr`kkunsngnnlbhdelfngnnlg`rwhrlt prsfcrh m

mlcecjnt n khasftcs jbc hpnrturm aòz`rn..............................................................................................288Gca. 7.88. (h) lnrc (l) Gumesc`mnt j t l`bcsfjn pr prsfercjcm n rnhacjct aòz`r mlho jonlcsct (vcoh t phmlrprnrh) lfn umesc`mn t tonrh t prl`rsfjn (vcoht n mlrprnrh)...............................................282Gca. 7-82. cpnt n rnhacjct aòz`r mlho khasftcs lfn kclfoh rnzuktunsn mlrjont N lfn L

k..............................284


15/387xcv

Gca. 1.8 Mo ckustrcj senjhtce c pr`dnsct `t`scmtntce m bcj.................................................................................281Gca. 1.2 (h) Yhrhqcton senjhtcen n p`tnmdchknvn rnlès m sthln t mlrysfjn m zcmxfcrcm n trhmsp`rtct

t nknetr`mnvn pr `t`scmtnzm (senjh _) eu trna`fnm e`jpknsnt pr`tncmcen ek`r`kcen eryns`rnlfn trhmsnrcjcm n nmnraocs m qnmlrht n rnhesc`mct t ly `t`scstnjnvn jn flu`rnsfnmd mah YTCC,

trhmsnrcjcm n nmnraocs m YTC lfn lhvhrctonm sc e`meurrcj mxnftscn jn `tècjcm m YTCC.(b) Yhrhqcton senjhtcen n zcmxfcrct t trhmsp`rtct t nknetr`mnvn m jnjbrhmm tckhe`cln mah mlhroh nuoct m YTCC m rnluetcjcm n MHLY+m MHLYF, s bhsfeu jn `s`rckcjcm q rnzukt`m tne sh o`mnt

F+ m kujnm trhmsp`rt`fnm ohsft mah kujnmc prjns HYhzs.............................................................286Gca. 1.4 (h) Yrjbknlfon n rruaehkcjnvn eryns`rn t prsfcrh m ryjejbcjcm m nrrscr tne bcjt.2F++ 2n prhqs`m rnluetunscm q m uml sfe`m pr rnluetcjcm n èscaonmct. (b) Mo lcharhjn tfonsftuhr t e`jp`mnmtvn eryns`rn t rruaehkcjct t trhmsp`rtct t nknetr`mnvn (DC, DCC, DCCClfn DCW (: dctèr`j d èsclhz) ohm e`jpknesn ryjejbynsn...........................................................222

Gca. 1-. Yrkkàhrctoh n ryjejbcjct m lrct........................................................................................................244Gca. 1-84. (h) Khe`rnt n rnhacjct mlho lrcts pr Yj m lfn ra. (b) mootht t lfmh t arheuhrh pr t

trnauhr kufhtonm n xc scphs e`msthmtns ra`sn jn rat vròtuhr................................................................2>1Gca. 1-8. Yrhau c nmnraocs pr mo rnhesc`m ecjce q trna`m nmnraocm n hetcvczcjct (Nh) t rnhesc`mnt

lfn mlrysfcjct m nmnraocm n kcr mnt` (N)...............................................................................................272Gca. 1-87.Rnhacjc c ryjejbcjct mlho tnjpnrhturs............................................................................................274Gca. 1-81. Tcjukcjc c rnhacjnvn mlho tnjpnrhturs luen prl`rur N1.)...........................................273Gca. 6-8. J`lcecjnt dct`kàocen lfn uktrhstruetur`rn m jnrcstnjht eukj`rn t jsftnems (Bntukh pubnsdnms) aoht dcekct t praoujons..............................................................................................................26D jbc kuknzcjcm (rnaocstruhr sc % n kuknvn t fhpurh phs lctvn m mo jonlcs knouns mn 29D) t euktcvhrnvn tcpce t rrusfct

t snrnzct t zc q `sn ereòm mo jhs t jhlfn t g`ftc prhmmarcrs (Bnm Hv`m5 Fnllh,)lfn euktcvhrnvn tne t dckt kukzcjc juml t pnma`fnt mah c g`ftc prhmmarcrs c tnprt(Hmlnah5 Hj`s Bkhde).....................................................................................................................................267

Gca. 6-. Ttrueturh lfn umesc`mnt n tèr`jnvn......................................................................................................263

Gca. 6-7. Rndnpt`rt n lrcts bku tne bcjt..................................................................................................................238Gca. 6-1. Lcharhj n fluesct t sfmlrrcjct t scmohkct mlrcuns tneHrhbcl`pscs...................................................232Gca. 6-6. Rrctoh m lchjntr lfn pnsf n rytct t j`kks O`mha`kl/J3 lfn prvcocjc c j`lnkct kcmnhr

jn t lfmh t p`mlnruhrh..............................................................................................................................23>Gca. 6-3. J`lnknt snz`mhkn t rrctons s lchjntrct lfn arujbukkcjct t pnsfs s tfht pr < euktcvhr ponsfen q ehm pnrculfh poneon t mlrysfjn.............................................................................................23>Gca. 6-89. Jhrrlfmch mlrjont mujrct t qnkczhvn phrnmecjhtcen lfn pnsfs prumlcjthrn t rytct,

pr j`kkt Njprcrn mah pnj t dckht ohm rrhkkuhr m mcvnkn t erhfhsunsfjn m e`f tmlrysfjn t snz`mct sn t kmh ph-rrhkkuhr..................................................................................................237

Gca. 6-88. Rrctoh prkkàhrctnt mah mujrcjc c qnkczhvn pr mosc scprhqn/vkkcjc jn ehkcjcm n e`fs................236Gca. 6-82. Yr`luetc c j`lnkct t bckhmdct t ehrb`mct t prcrons snz`mhkn t `nrts pr ehrb`fclrhtn mah

eur`rh lfn erensh mah rutht, scphs mcvnknvn t mlrysfjn t mahrenss s pr`lfcjct,pr j`kkt Njpcrn...........................................................................................................................................49Gca. 3.2 Euzcjc c `t`scmtnzs mah D@

2lfn lrcth....................................................................................................48>

Gca. 3.4. E`mdnptc c strnsct zce.....................................................................................................................................486

Gca. 3.. Rnzcstnmdh mlho marcds lfn ehphdctntc `t scmtntce (tfctfoh n D@

2m lrct t ma`pur lfn

prqnmlrcj c D@2prno 8%) c mo brnzmcn t aontfnvn jhtur m eusftn clnmtcen aoht mo vctc................429

Gca. 3.7. E`mdnptc c strnsct..............................................................................................................................................428Gca. 89-8. Yr`dnsnt zc`kàocen eryns`rn jbc t dckht f`rj`mnt (H) lfn substhmdht n rrctons (B) usftròm mo vnprcj rrnaukkht r......................................................................................................................................426Gca. 89-2. Nthpht eryns`rn t ehkcjct bc`scmtntce t hdclct hbsfcsce..........................................................................449Gca. 89-4 Yhrhqcton senjhtcen n jhrrlfmcns mlrjont p`tnmdchkct t tura`rct (

p, n m`rjhkczuhr jn 8.9

eur : 9) lfn p`tnmdchkct uo`r trs`r () pr (c) jcrjbhotonm n pk`t t tura`rct eu, mlrysfcjc m p`tnmdchkcm `sj`tce e`jpnms`m trscsft rmcnm m (l.j.tf. l

/l: 8)5 (cc) jcrjbhotonm

n ponssfjn tura`rct (9 ; ( l/l)5 (ccc) ph jcrjbhoton t tura`rct jn prqnmlrcj e`msthmt tarcjdhvn t trnturh (jurn qnkcz`rn tnont t maurth)5 (cv) jcrjbhoton phscvn n tura`rct eu arcjdhtn trnturh prqmlr`fnm sc rnzuktht c teurrons qnkcz`rn jn jurn qnkcz`rn nkhstcen5 (v) sfnjbukk eujcrjbhotoh n tura`rct hrrcfnt praoht mo lchphz`mc t euzuhr t ......................................................44>

Gca. 89-. Nehsctntc c prl`rcjct t uoct (a kml n tfht/ea uo) c tr bcjs arheuhr eumlrnot lhkkcjct jn cz`t`pn ehrb`mc t jhturh m jhtnrchk aontf`r t tfhr.........................................................................4


17/387xvc

jhamctulh t mlrysfjn t Nk/Y

m(vcoht n phmlrprnrh) scphs j`lnkct D`whm lfn Ghrqufhr..............4

Gca. 89-86Gca. 88-8. Mlcecjc c tnjpnrhturhvn t rrctons lct/mht jbc t`knrhmdm mlho tnjpnrhturhvn t khrth

(jhtur sc % n qnkczhvn ek`rnmecjhtcen q tfctfcm maoyr`ss vcthk) t @pumtch duscmlcdh....................474Gcaurh 88.2 Whrsch n kkàhrctur n mlrysfnss s tnjpnrhturs aontfnhor m L, R

mc, r

hlfn r

kpr

h: 29D.....418

Gcaurh 88.4 Mlcecjc c tnjpnrhturs s horct jbc mlrysfnsm n tnjpnrhturs aontfnhor m khasftc rnkhtcvne`msthmtn t mlrysfjn (f, %) scphs Ned. >.8. Lcharhj senjhtcen n sfejbcjnvn t rrnzhtcjct vhkaoht lfn vhksfeurtr mlrjont mo aontfn lfn jonlcsct t sho...................................................................................................................................26Gca. E4.8.8. Kvczoh tnrjcen rhsts`rn n j`kneukhvn t phmahreuhrh t nmtctntct opr`lf`m mo kvczon mnt`

mah mo vhtr jn prqnmlrcj j t khrt (hmh n jhot)m mo vhtr jn prqnmlrcj j t ukt(hmh n lohtft).....................................................................................................................................................9Gca. E4.>.8.Yrqnmlrcjc c nmtctntnvno, d

o, sc mo umesc`m c p`zcdc`mct x pr j`kneukht q sfprfhpnm

scphs Kcaoct t Lyt t Gcde-ut.............................................................................................................................>3Gca. E4.1.8. Tftrnjbrcjc c aontfns lfn bcsftct t sho mlre`f q rrctnt sfpnotsch n nrs mah (h) m (d),

q òm m `rjh j hnr`lcmhjcen lfn j phe mah lrha..........................................................................72Gca. E4.6.8. Ckustrcj senjhtce c horct kkcjcsft o`-turbuknmt (sfcaontht n lrnoth jbc aontfn m lrnotcjcm n

nrs) q rronlfcm jbc scprhqnm n mo aontfnon t sfnsft, luen trnauhr mo mmsftrns pntz`rn(sfcaontht n lrnoth t sfeurtrh), vhtrm n turbuknmds (sfcaontht n fhreuhrh) lfn trhsfscm n

sftrnss euthrn nnetcvn, bk.............................................................................................................................7.8. Yrunsfjrct lfn rnzcstnmdht n prsfcrh m fluescm n hvukkct t uoct q sf`qr`m trhmspcrcjcm,

sc e`jp`z`fnm m mo rront nknetrce.............................................................................................................847Gca. E>.>.2. Kufhtoh m vknrht n ma`pons t prqnmlrcjct t hvukkct t uoct (d*

wv) lfn prponss j`khrn

(M*wv

) scphs tnjpnrhturs...............................................................................................................................8Gca. E7..8. _`mht n prhrth t ponsvn t sftnaut t prsfcrh m trhmspcrcj lfn `t`scmtnz...........................836Gca. E1.8.8. Yhrhqcton senjhtcen n trn nthphvn t `t`scmtnzs m ek`r`pkhstn.........................................................28>Gca. E1.4.8. rn rruaehkcjnt n fluesct t nknetr`mnvn, eu trna`fnt r`kc sfuj c rmlscsfj q kuhm

nrrnlèscmh (GL) m fluescm nknetr`mce o`dcekce (vcoh n trhsf), dcekce (vcoh n mlrprnr) lfnpsnul`dcekcen (vcoh n pcezuhr).......................................................................................................................229

Gca. E1.4.2. J`lnkc senjhtce pr mo phrhqcton m snrc t ly `t`scstnjnvn t `t`scmtnzs, eu trna`fnt st`cec`jntrch n het`rvn t mlrysfj t prsfcr m rnluetcjcm n D@

2m mo ehrb`fclrht

({DF2@})...........................................................................................................................................................229

Gca. E1.4.4. Hspnetn nmnraontcen t fluesct `t`scmtntce t nknetr`mnvn.....................................................................229Gca. E1. bcs`sht ehrbèsckhz/`secaonmhz) q vnpr`m

sc pceh n lnazcjct pr `t`scmtnzm lfn `t`ryjejbcjcm....................................................................221Gca. E1.>.8. Ckustrcjc c trn umesc`mnvn q prsfcom j`lnkcm Ghrqufhrv`m DhnjjnrnrBnrry

t `t`scmtnzs...................................................................................................................................................24>Gca. E1.7.8. Khe`rnt `t`scmtnz crrhlchmd pr aontfn D

4tcpcen t kkàhrcturh luen prl`rur N1.2.8

lfn N1.2.2 pr mo lchphz`m vknrhsf t ralfn x

h(vknrht phrhjntr prvn rhstnvn eur spndce`fnt

mlrysfn.............................................................................................................................................................247Gca. E1.6.8. Whrsch n prno tnjpnrhturs n `t`scmtnzs brut` (Ops

D@2), ryjejbcjct pkus

`t`ryjejbcjcm (Or+prD@2) lfn `t`scmtnzh mnt` (O

D@25 sfcf N1.6.8).Or+prD@

2fhjnmls`fnt

sn eh mo X89

prno 2.4.........................................................................................................................................29

Gca. E1.6.4. Xhre nknetrce q trna`m rnzcstnmdht q mlceòm `t`scmtnzm, ryjejbcjcm lfn`t`ryjejbcjcm........................................................................................................................................2>9

Gca. E1.89.8. Jhrrlfmch fcpnrb`kcen n clnhkczuhr mlrjont fluesct `t`mce `t`scmtntce rms mscprhqnm n scprjn t aontfns lfn rctjcm n tfctfons mnt` t D@

2pr mo bcj D

4.................................2>6

Gca. E6.8.8. Yr`knt aohts`rn t rrctons, tura`rc lfn hetcvctntc c esckàkuehm nml`trhms-akce`sckhzs(VN) m rrmo t phstrnsuhrh.........................................................................................................................217

Gca. E6.2.8. Rcsfprmlhroh n huescms aoht qntscs arhvctr`pcen tneHrhbcl`pscs.................................................269Gca. E6.4.8. Mo jnehmczj fcp`tntce c prhmvnrczcjct.............................................................................................26>

Gca. E6.7.8. Yr`knt aohts`rn t rrctons, tura`rc lfn hetcvctntc c esckàkuehm nml`trhmsakce`sckhzs (VN) m rrmo t phstrnsuhrh........................................................................................................................494Gca. E89.4.8. Jhrrlfmch mlrjont `t`scmtnzs mnt` (O

D@2) lfn trhmspcrcjct (O

wv) tne sh mlrysf`m

prunsfjrch aòz`rn..................................................................................................................................4


20/3878

N E

8. Fyron

8.8 Gczc`kàoch jonlcs`rn? preuczcjc, `bonetc n rmlsch

Gczc`kàoch jonlcs`rn (ne`czc`kàoch) sft mo lcscpkcm bc`kàocen q stulc`m hekcjhtczcjcm hght-

sfeurtr lfn prsfthtonm hghtaoht mlho eusftnvn jonlcs`rn t mlrysfunsfjn. Ho` sft mo sfenmd

nespnrcjnmthkn q `rvhtnt t sfponaò jnehmczjht czc`kàoce jbc bhzm n vròtcjnvn ne`kàocen.

Ne`czc`kàt (`sn ne`kàt czc`kàoce), hlrnsò sfton ne`kàocen kclfur jn e`mtr`kknt jbc rrctonm,

rcpr`lfcjcm, jbcontnsm, b`kkeum, sfprmlhronm aonàrhcen t bcjvn, phsc et` pr`dnsn ohm t

mlceuhrh mah mlrvnprcjnt jclcs bcjvn jn jonlcscm n tyrn czce, ecjce n bc`tce. Et` j`lnkn lfn

jnehmczjh ne`czc`kàoce juml t mh mlcfjòm pr t euptuhr l`jntfmcnm gumesc`mhkn t trhothvn

bcj`rn spndccen. sftont t dckht u ohpcm praocaon ne`czc`kàt n buròm mah mo mcvnk j c khrt

cmtnarcjc, l.j.tf. mah ne`kàoch m euptcjcm n sho j t aonr, prgsfc pynton q n ehm `rcaocmm mah

sfenmdht n buoqscs, f`rtceukturs, pykkthrcs lfn jonlcsct.

Njrtcjnt czc`kàoc jonlcs`rn lfn ne`czc`kàoc ohm tfuhosn scm`mcjn, p`r czc`kàoch

jonlcs`rn sft j n prqnmlruhr m czcem jonlcs`rn t mlrvnprcjnvn mlrsh ne`czc`kàoch n vtfnescm j sfuj tne mlrvnprcjnt bcjbcj lfn bcjehgsf. Rronlfcjcsft mlrjont etyrn ly

njrtcjnvn sft phrhpkqynr njrtcjc czc`kàoc jonlcs`rn, snpsn m euktcvcjcm n suesnssfj t

pnjvn grut`rn hp` bcjvn buoqs`rn m praoctfsc, onjc t cmtnrnsuhr pr rnhacjnt hghtsfeurtrh mlho

strnsnvn jonlcs`rn jn t dckht et` bcj prbhkknm lfn rnhaòm m l` snz`m.

Yrsfthtoh mlho jonlcsct ckk`m m mcvnk j`kneukhr lfn qnkcz`r, eu zbuk`fnm eusftnt jonlcs`rn,

lfn eu rnhkcz`fnm rnhacjnt mlho mlrysfcjnvn m jonlcs. Luen ckkuhr mah et` jnehmczjh czc`kàoce,

ehrhetnrcstceht j`rg`kàocen t bcjvn bfnm t rmlscsfjn m mcvnkcm n tr bcjs. Tfponacjnt

ne`czc`kàocen ereòm t euptuhr jnehmcstce m mo mcvnk j t ukt cmtnarcjc? czc`kàoc, bcècjc,

bc`czce, bc`kàoc j`kneukhrn. Rnhesc`mnt jnthb`kcen qnkcz`rn lfn `rahmczcjc struetur`r (j`rg`kàoce

lfn hmht`jce) ohm cmstrujnmtnt bc`kàocen jn t dckht `rahmczjht prl`rcm eusftn jonlcs`rn t

dhetuhrh, c sfjhmacm ht`, `sn prsfthtnm mlho tyrn.

Eusftnt jonlcs`rn s bhsfeu jn mlrvnprcjcm jn jonlcscm prbom ht q mocfnt sc ctmnss,

l.j.tf. jumlsch pr rrcton lfn rcpr`lfcj m mo lcjnmsc`m fhpscm`r lfn e`f`r. E`jbcmcjc c prsftht-

ons czc`kàocen lfn j`rg`kàocen sft vnhmrcsft c rmlscsfj pr bcjt, phsc ht` ohm t phkvczsfjn

m fhbcthtcm n tyrn lfn eusftnt n onts ohm t prdhetuhrh mah khrjch lfn mujrc c bcjvn cmlcvcluhkn j

vntn. Mlrysfn mah ehgsft q u khra`fnm ghet`rvn t phghv`rsfj n mlrysfuns jonlcs`r sc mxnftsch,

tfhtscrh hp` prjbytont, bcjt mue ohm m aonmlon t khra`fnm, n esftu, cu lufnt t prbhkkòm et`

eusftn mnahtcvn `sn mlrysfn l` t zfluenm.

Lcsh bcj ehm mo ahj aonmnsf t jhfmctsfjn t dckht mlcfjòm m prsfthtonm mlho eusftnvn

t mlrysfunsfjn. Nezcst`m fcp`tnzh sn ey mujr c jhlf aonmnsf juml t sfpona`fnt ponsrcsft mah

mnvòh n spndcnvn bcj`rn pr tou prsfthtur mo ahjn j t aonr eusftnsf.

8.2 Gczc`kàoch jonlcs`rn n bcjvn

Ttulcjc c czc`kàocs jonlcs`rn t bcjvn jnrrnt erynscsft jn gumesc`mcm lfn pnrg`rjhmdm n bcjvn

m jonlcscm n tyrn. Mlrysf`rnt jonlcs`rn j`lukòm tfnkkscsft p`tfuhosn t aoctf hspnetnt n rrctons

lfn zfvckkcjct t bcjvn. \ euptuhrct n czc`kàocs jonlcs`rn sft tfnkbs`rn pr przaonlfonm n

vnmlml`lfonvn `ptcjhkn pr mo spndcn hp` euktcvhr t dhetuhr jn qkkcj jcmcjczcjcm n mlcecjnvn

mnahtcvn hp` ljprursn t eusftnvn jonlcs`rn mm`ptcjhkn, lfn j`lccecjcm `sn ercocjcm n


21/3872

G J (N) Y

jcer`jonlcsnvn q òm m pr`lfcjthrc jhescjhkn (rho`mczcjc). Eo` lcscpkcm lhkk`fnt pr tfnescm

tne jnehmczjht m bhz t czc`kàocs jonlcs`rn m mcvnknt bcècjcen, bc`czcen, j`kneukhrn lfn t

czc`kàocs s tr bcjs.

Yrpckcjc c mo lhthbhzn t czc`kàocs jonlcs`rn sft tfnkbs`r m npèm n qmlrunsfjrcs

buoqs`rn eu cmputnt buoqs`rn p` c mmsftr`fnm aoctfmo n j sfuj mo e`mtr`kkc t rrnpt. Hrtceuot

sfenmd`r t jphrsfj m kclfon jn rnhacjnt czc`kàocen, sc lfn ht` t rrctons lfn zfvckkcjct t pnjvn

grut`rn mlho jonlcsct, ehm hlrnsuhr zhe`mcsft mo rnhacj bcj`r t vnhmt `sn t sfujcsft mlho

mlrysf`rnvn jonlcs`rn t sfujcsfth. Jnaoctfht, ohm t phet hrtceuot q cmtnaròm czc`kàocm

jonlcs`rn jn rrctonm n zfvckkcjcm n bcjs.

8.2.8 Ghet rt jonlcs`r t stulcuhr m czc`kàocm jonlcs`rn t pnjvn8

Ghet`rt jonlcs`r (hbc`tce) j jn mlcecj n q

nlfn ohm stulcuhr j cmtnmscvcsft m czc`kàocm

jonlcs`rn t lrurvn grut`r ohm tnjpnrhturh,

khasftch, cmtnmsctntc c lrcts, gurmczcjc jn uo lfnjcmnrhkn lfn mcvnknt n D@

25et` ohm phrhjntrh lfn

burcjn q prdhetòm rrctonm n mo bcjn lfn mlcecjc

c tyrn vhrnt mah cmtnmsctntc c tyrn. M ghet`rt hbc`tce

ekhscce`fnm nlfn sfuj mlcecjn t tonrh, t dckht

vntj rrhkkfnr ohm t l`bcsfjn pr lrurt grut`r

(nrh sc sfprmlhrs c pohkjct lfn ghrrhvn) hp` hsphe

t l`bcsfj, jhlon ljtuns (rrnznt o`mczunsn `sn

ml`tsct). C hsftuquhoturc tcpc czc`kàocecsft m`rjhk,eu jhescjcz`fnt pnrg`rjhmdh czc`kàocen n hrrctsfjn,

sft prohsftcj mah rrnaukkc, prvn ml`sfth

euktcvcjct m jonlcsn t jbròturh. Gca. 8.8 rnmlct lfn

arup`m ghet`rt jonlcs`r jn mlcecj m gumesc`mcjcm

n lrurvn grut`r n q u sfehetòm htyrn strns.

8.4 Xhsoh jscjlfmsn/stulcj`rn m czc`kàocm jonlcs`rn t pnjvn

Yràrnsc m czc`kàocm jonlcs`rn t pnjvn, hsftu sc m lcscpkcmh t tonrh, e`mscst`m m dcekn t prsrcturh

vròtcjc `sn nespnrcjnmtcjc q mlcqnm mah hmhkczh n t lfmhvn lfn marctoh n prpumcjc c fcp`tnzhvn

kclfur jn sonkkonm n bcjvn m scstnjnt jonlcs`rn (Gca. 8.2). M l` nthp, cmg`rjhdc`mc lfn fcp`tnzht

juml t onm dcks`rn`sn shsc`rn, jn j sfuj `sn j phe tfnes tne prl`rcjc nespnrcjnmtnvn t

e`mtr`kkuhrh pr `grcjcm n t lfmhvn t mnvòsfjn.

Nthpht ckknsthrn t fukujtcjct prcrnm t `gròm mo prsfercj j dcks`r t scstnjct? mo pons n

jcr n fukujtcjnvn t fnrsfjn m ne`kàoc ecsftn t bmtn erynscsft jn ekhsccecjcm n kkònvn t bcjscs,

n sfuj j phe pnsf ecsftn fukujtcjc pr t zbukuhr pr`dnsnt bhz q prdhetòm sfprmlhronm n

bcjvn. Jnaoctfht, prjcrscjnt m t euptuhrcm n l` scstnjc ereòm mo qhson j shsc`rnjbsftntur

m mo`furct n jnehmczjhvn bhz. Ycercsft `bonetcvc c lyt sft hc q sym`m nlfn j`lukc c czc`kàocs

jonlcs`rn t pnjvn, n j e`merntcsft, t grò mo prnzhmtcj t bc`czces jonlcs`rn lfn czc`kàocs s

Gca. 8-8. Ghet`rt jonlcs`r (hbc`tce) jn mlcecj m

zc`kàocm n lrurvn grut`r

pnj m et jhtnrchk, jn pnj n sfpnsf fnr lrum`r mmeuptòj pnj n sfeurrn grut`rn p`r nlfn pr prl`rcj sc bcj zbueurunsn n jphstho pr kml

lrurc


22/3874

N E

rnhacjnvn t lrurvn

grut`r jn qkkcj

phrhqctonm n mo bhz

shsc`rn pr stulcjcm n

pr`bknjnvn ne`kàocen

lfn buoqs`rn. Escsò,

j sfuj sn sh `grcj

c mo cmg`rjhdc`mc t

tfnkkuhr prsfercj`r

jbc jnehmczjht

czc`kàoce m mcvnk

bcècjce n j`kneukhr

jbc rnhacjnt n lrurvn

grut`r mlho strnsnvn

czc`kàocen (qhson dck-s`rn) enjc symuhr t

vnml`scj tfnescm tne

jnt`lht n vknrscjct t

etyrn strnsnvn (qhson

shsc`rn) luen c `gruhr

stulnmtct hgtsct n

mnvòsfjn pr t

mlrjhrr stulcjn

n e s p n r c j n m t h k n .

Eo` qhson rufnt nlfn m prhetceht/pum khb`rht`rcen luen trhotuhr j sfuj tnemceht gusf`rn lfn

cmstrujnmthkn sn sh ht` khb`rht`rcen jn ehrhetnr j`kneukhr. Jnaoctfht, phvhrscsft gèusct m vn`rct

Gca. 8-2. R`kc c j`lnknvn m fukujtcjcm sfenmd`r

E.8 Gczc`kàoch jonlcs`rn m npèm n mlrysfcjnvn ekcjhtcen (mar`fons ak`bhkn)Mlrysfcjnt ekcjhtcen sft mo njrtcj q c rngnr`fnt rml`j e`jpknesct t vhrchdc`mnvn, q prno lcsh lnehlhvn, p` mlce`m mjmyr l`jntfmsn jbc ekcjm ak`bhkn mlcecjnt n s dcks pnrdnpt`fnm nlfn m mcvnk vnml`r. Tgclh n erecjct sfenmd`r sft teuptò lfn preugczò `rcaocmm, mhtyrm lfn mlcecjnt n lueurcvn vnprunsn jn qkkcj cmlcvcluhkczcjcm n e`rrcaocjnvn pr-sfthtsn t jumlsfjn. Mlrysfcjnt ekcjhtcen ehm mo mlcecj t lrnotprlrnot buoqs`r, erynscsft sc?

rrcton n tnjpnrhturs scprghqs`rn jn 9.8> pr lnehl5 zvàkcj t sfpnsftscs s tnjpnrhturhvn t ukth t sehosfjn (marcdh)5

sfpnsftcj c knft c tnjpnrhturhvn t khrth t sehosfjn5

zvàkcj c hjpkctulhvn (kufhtonvn) lct`rn t tnjpnrhturs5

rrcton n rnsfonvn (scl`j`s m hktctulh jnshthrn lfn t khrth), jnshthrcsft 2 -


23/387

N E

Luen qnm sn scstnjnt bc`kàocen ohm sfuj e`jpknesn, rhkkfnr juml t hrrcfnt prsfercjc

c pk`t jhtnjhtce`r c sonkkons s tyrn. Yrhmlho mnvòctnm fhjnmlscjn tfonsftunsn kclfur jn sonkkonm

n scstnjct lfn prbrsct prehts q l` t prgsfcfnm m stulcj. Ml`sfth lntyrh j n vsftcr m

mlrtcjcm n l` j`lnkc jhtnjhtce`r sft przaonlfoh n mlrysf`rnvn. Y` hq n rmlscsfjn m

mlrtcjcm n j`lnknvn t l`bcsfjn sft vhkclcjc lfn tnstcjc c j`lnknvn. Lcsh prno prphrscvn eryns`rn

t j`lnknvn jhtnjhtce`rn lfn jmyrht sn sc ht` juml t prl`rnm ohm prjbknlfur m vcocj?

8. Yrbom p`fcjn t sheth t fcp`tnzhvn t`mh

2. Ehrhetnrcz`fnm mah t qnmct t tnstunsfjn

4. Juml t sfponaòm `sn prsferuhom mo mujr t jhlf vròtcjnsf t mlhrh m mo g`rj t

prjbknlfur

. Juml t prl`rnm pr t phrhsfceuhr sonkkonm n scstnjct m e`jbcmcjn eusftnsf t phpr`vuhrh,

vnhmrcsft m rhstnt eur nespnrcjnmtcjc sft tnont c eusftunsfj (nespnrcjnmtnt m sfehkk

t aonr) `sn m tfnkb c phjumlur (stulcjc c ekcjs ak`bhkn)7. Juml t prl`rnm sc cmstrujnmtn jnmhxfunsn, p.sf. m scstnjnt jbsftntsn t vnmlcj-jhrrons

pr pràrhjcjcm n sfrbcjnvn har`tnemcen pr t jhescjczuhr ctcjcm

1. Juml t prl`rnm m lcham`stcecj, p.sf. pr clnmtccecjcm n sjumlonvn t bcjvn buoqs`rn

Ly zbhtcjnt n gumlct ohm zfvckkuhr rnkhtcvcsft rcsfthzc jn gutonm m prl`rcj t scstnjnvn nespnrt lfn

prl`rcjcm n tyrn m jbsftntonm n vnmlcj-jhrrons. @rvhtnm t cmehpsukòm mo`furct n nespnrtvn m

mo snrc rrnaukkhsf q juml t zbht`fnm, mlr t tonrh m lcham`stcecjcm n rrnaukkcjnvn. \cphr c esho

qhson sft phscaurch m l` praocaon lfn pnsfcjc c tyrn scphs rhstct pr t hrrctur m mo e`mekuzc`m.

Ml`msn j`lnkcjc jhtnjhtce`r sft prl`rur aonrscsft m sfenmdh t jbsftnturh j tnpr m czce

(jntn`r`kàoch), lnrc v`m prl`rno phe m stulcjn czc`kàocen lfn ne`kàocen.

\cpnt n j`lnknvn

M et dcek knesc`mnsf l` t trhot`fnm mo sr j`lnknsf, q mah fcp`tnzh rnkhtcvcsft t phtnstuhrh

(j`lnknt n prl`rurh m sonkkonm `ptcjhkn aòz`rn), tne j`lnknt ponsrcsft t tnstuhrh (sc ohm, tn`rct),

n lnrc tne j`lnknt n tnstuhrh jcr (sc ohm, kcaont sc ht` q trhotòm pr`dnsn czcen t jcrmo`furh sc

lcguzc`mc), eu m eusftn t dhetuhrh, juml t tfnjc jn scaurc q phsòh ml`lf m l` rhst.

Tfujcdh n j`lnknvn mlhfnm m ly arupn? ht` q mlcfjòm pr t prjcrsuhr t euptuhrcm

n czc`kàocs s lrurvn grut`r lfn mlrvnprcjnt n tyrn jn jonlcscm sc lfn ht` q symòm t `gròm

esfckkcj jnmhxfuns pr pnjthrt. \ phrt ereòm mo qhson sfenmd`rn `sn jnehmcstcen, mlrsh

t lytt jbsftntnm m jhrrlfmcn phe h sfuj t g`rth njpcrcenmlrjont rnhacjnvn t bcjs lfn

mlrysf`rnvn jonlcs`rn eryns`rn. \ne j`lnknt njpcrcen mue bfnt hsmo `rvhton pr t prsferuhr

jnehmczjht n prgsfcr lfn cmg`rjhdc`mc c prl`rur h prc`rcpr mlrtcjcm n tyrn sft jcmcjhk. Mah

hmh tontr, j`lnknt jnehmcstcen mlrt`fnm luen prl`rur mo`furc mah pumcjn t jphrsfjn. J`lnkc

jnehmcstce `rvhtnt t sfponaò mo lueurc m mcvnk j t f`kkscsfj `rahmczcjc. _aonlfoh n qhsons

j`lnkunsn vhrnt mah `bonetcvc erecj`r c p`shj. Ml`msn t ly tcpnt n j`lnknvn juml t prl`rnmpr phrhsfcecjn, qhsoh jnehmcstcen eh mo bonet j t aonr pr prl`rcjn t praoctfsuhrh lfn juml

t ò m prphrcjn t rmlscsfjn m t euptuhr. J`lnknt n scjukcjct t phrhqcturh m et b`tcj

phrhqnscm mlrtcjn j`lnknsf t jbsftnturh m t euptuhrcm jnehmcstce, ml`msn juml t prjbhom


25/3877

G J (N) Y

mo sr e`jp`mnmtsf t prvcouhrh njpcrcecsft. M hghtaoht, ht` `gròm phrhsfcecjn j t sheth t

sonkkons s scstnjct m mo lchphz`m t aonr eusftnsf. Yhvhrscsft, lufnt br euolns eur `rvhtnjc t

prl`rcj dckcml` j`lnk ohsft lchphz`mct t eusftnvn m t dckht sft mlrtuhr lfn eo` mue lufnt br

eurr pr j`lnkn trscsft njpcrcen.

Mo sfnjbukk c mo qhson njpcrcen sft prl`rcjc c tnemcehvn sthtcstce`rn t rnarnsc`mct, q

ohm rnkhtcvcsft `bonetcvn pr t prsferuhr lfn phrhsfceuhr kufhtonm m rnmlcjnmt mah pcephjoh n

kufhtonvn t j`tct mah mo vct m tontrcm. Ey kkò j`lnkc juml t `grò mo prsfercj t l`bcsfj t

scstnjct luen prl`rur tnemceh rutcm ph mnvòm n hsmo mo`furcn czc`kàocen. Jnaoctfht, eo` qhson

juml t bfno sfuj j ncehsn luen prgsfcr mo`furct czc`kàocen pr przaonlfonm n mlrysf`rnvn

t j`tct t stulcuhrh lfn pr t suaonruhr g`rjht n lufurh t jhrrlfmcnvn. Yrhmlho, rnzukt`m sn eo`

qhson mue sft trscsft n mlhr mah qhson jnehmcstcen lfn m ghet, sfuj j`lnkn njpcrcen prcrnm t

zfvckk`fnm m jnehmcstcen phsc ohm prjcrsuhr.

Wn t qnmct njpcrcen `sn jnehmcstcen, j`lnknt juml t onm lntnrjcmcstcen`sn stèhstcenlfn

lcmhjcen `sn sthtcen. \ne j`lnknt lntnrjcmcstce, ùtput-c prdhet`fnt phsc ohm t mo`furh cmputnt,

mlrsh j`lnknt stèhstcen, prgsfcom mo nknjnmt rhsts`r sc pons t tyrn. Tfujcdh n j`lnknvn mne`czc`kàoc ohm lntnrjcmcstce, erynscsft pr tfonsftsc lfn v`kctsfjrc, p`r ohm prl`rur nlfn

j`lnkn stèhstcen, p.sf. scjukcjc c sneunmdhvn rhsts`rn t j`tct, lnprtcjc c lrcts m eur`rh, prfhpoh

n phtàonmvn `sn pkknmcjc c vnzvn.

J`lnknt lcmhjcen prgsfcom trhotcjcm n vhrscs e`f`rn t mo pr`dnsc n, escsò, ohm

vnhmrcsft t l`bcsfj pr scjukcjcm n pr`dnsnvn t tckkh sc rrctoh lfn pr`lfcjc c bcjs, q cmtnaròm

mlrysfcjnt zfvckkcj`rn lfn jonlcs`rn aoht pnrculfhvn t aohth. Nezcstòm sfuj sfnjbuo j`lnknsf

t ne`scstnjnvn lcmhjcen, t scjukcjct t bcjvn buoqs`rn hp` nlfn j`lnkcjct ekcjhtce. Jnaoctfht,

et` scjukcjn e`jpoutnrcen e`jpknesn rrhkkfnr juml t tnst`fnm m euptcjcm q czcehmtt prl`rcm

snpsn prjbhom mo mujr t jhlf mlrysf`rnsf lfn fhjnmlscjnsf. Tcl`q`gt, juml t `gròm mo

cmg`rjhdc`m t l`bcsfj pr mlonsfjrcm n bcjs buoqs`rn hp` scstnjnvn t tonrh mlho mlrysf`rnvn

jonlcs`rn.

Hmhsonkkths, j`lnknt sthtcen prl`rnm pr scstnjnt jn aonmlon t mlnr (stnhly sthtn) `sn pr

prsfercjn t tfonsfth t rnzukthtct prgumlcjthr. Yr sfnjbukk, sfuj prno j`lnknvn t trhmsp`rtct

t prsferuhrh m et b`tcj jhrrcm m e`msclnrht vntj aonmlonm n mlnr, prhmlho juml t

e`msclnr`fnm sc j`lnkn sthtcen, hsftu sceumlr rhstc c j`lnknvn t pr`lfcjthrcs eu pr`lfcjthrch

prgumlcjthrn phrhsfce`fnt mprjont neuhdc`mct t rnarnsc`mct t tfonsft mlrjont pr`lfcjthrcs

lfn lcsh mlrysf`rnvn t j`tct aoht snz`mct.

Yrvn j`lnknvn jhtnjhtce`rn, nezcstòm sfnjbuo t tonr eu prl`rnm j`lnknt czcen. Yr

sfnjbukk, qhrqnt nknetrcen juml t prl`rnm pr t j`lnkuhr lcguzc`mcm lfn pr`dnsn t tonrh trhmsp`rtc

lfn jn scstnjn e`jpknesn juml t ont j n tfonsft pr tu prl`rur sn sh jn hbstrhesc`mnt

jhtnjhtce`rn e`rrnsp`mlunsn.

Mo tontr ekhs j`lnknsf, t dckt mue ohm lntyrcjcsft shsc`r, p`r juml t e`mtrcbu om

aonrscsft m t euptuhrcm ohm nlfn j`lnknt e`mdnptuhkn. Etu prgsfcfnm e`mdnptn t praoctfsfjn, t

tckkh sc, ekhsccecjc c bcjvn m pnscjcstn lfn `ptcjcstn jbc bhzm n rnhacjct mlho tfhtscrs sn j m

praoctfsc, zfvckkcjc c hsho q sft njrtuhr tn`rch n strhtnaocs bcj`rn. Eo` qhson `gr`m mo jnt`l jnvknr pr rhdc`mhkczcjcm n spndchkczcjnvn t aonrh ne`kàocen tne bcjt lfn eh t bo jn fhjnmlscjcm

sn nezcst`m mo mujr c euczuhr c htyrn q ohm quhotur strhtnaoc phrs`rn m lcsp`zcdc`m t bcjvn.

M et rhst, mo tcp spndchkczcjc pr mo tcp nezcstnmdn lfn aonmlon fhbcthtc prcrnt t pnmaò suesnscm


26/3871

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m jonlcsn t tonrh. J`lnkc d`jpntct`r-strnss t`knrht`rrulnrhk (DTR) sft mo sfnjbukk vnhmrcsft c

guqcsfj c zbhtcjct t esho qhson lfn juml t sfponaò jn sfuj suesns rnhacjnt mlho strnsct. Ml`msn

mo j`lnk e`mdnptuhk, sft c fhpur pr hmhkcz shsc`rn, phsc neuckcbrht mlrjont e`meurrnmds, strnsct

lfn sfqntscjct tne bcjsch juml t shsc`rcz`fnm lfn phrhqctnm arhcecsft knftscsft.

Wctnt n gumlct eh phtur mo cmtnrns t vnhmt m zfvckkcjcm n bcjvn vcrtuhkn m e`jpoutnrh `sn

ht` q ohm mo`fur sc j`lnknt bcj`rn gumesc`mhknstruetur`rn(GTYJ). J`lnknt gumesc`mhkn struetur`rn

e`jbcmòm j`lnknt hrectnetur`rn `sn struetur`rn jn j`lnknt jbsftntur m pr`dnsn (YBJ) pr t

hmhkczuhr pr`bknjn eu strueturh fhpscm`rn 4L e`mtrcbu`m tfnkbscsft m l` sfponacj t sonkkons s

scstnjct. E`jp`mnmtt n jbsftntur m pr`dnsn prgsfcom j`lnknt n gnm`kàocs bcj`rn, sfprmlhronm

n ehrb`fclrhtnvn mlrjont `rahmnvn lfn j`lnknt n g`t`scmtnzs lfn rrctons s eukturhvn. Y.sf. scjukcjc

ncehs c g`t`scmtnzs s bcjvn buoqs`rn, ere`m o` vntj jhrrlfmcnm n tfonsft t jbsftntur m

pr`dns mlrjont g`t`scmtnzs lfn lrcts s cmtnrdnptuhr, p`r aoctfhsftu cmg`rjhdc`m jbc e`jp`zcjcm

aon`jntrce t aontfnvn m fhpscr pr t jumlsuhr kkàhrctonm n mlrccjct t l` aontfnon. Tcjukcjc c

hrectneturs s bcjvn sft stcjukuhr sfuj mah zfvckkcjc c scstnjnvn K mah Kcmlnmjhynr. Eo` qhson

`gr`c mo pr`dnlurn ctnrhtcvn (kkàhrcton t mophsmosfjn) pr t snkctur vczuhkczcjn bcjsf aoysjrnhkcstn jbsftntur m mo mujr t euczuhr nknjnmtsf lfn snrc rrnaukkhsf t tfonsfth pr sftcjcm m

snrc. J`lnknt gumesc`mhknstruetur`rn bcj`rn ohm vnhmrcsft t l`bcsfj pr stulcjnt n lueurcvn t

e`meurrnmds mlrjont lfn brnmlh spndcnvn eu `gròm jumlsc pr t fukujtuhr jbc mlrvnprcjnt

lfn prhphvnprcjnt n t pumuhrct m mcvnk kèhk (p.sf. aontfn) lfn ak`bhk (p.sf. eur`r). M jmyr t

maohsfjn, GTYJ gròm cmstrujnmtn pr prjcrsunsct n bcjvn pr t fukujtuhr jbc cln`tcpnt bcj`rn

q ptcjczòm g`t`scmtnzm lfn escsò pr`lfcjthrcm lfn rrctonm.

M j`lnknt n tfonsfth jhtnjhtce`rn mo rnhacj preucz`fnt sc mo gumesc`m phe h sfuj

e`jpknes c mo snrcn mlrysf`rnsf prdhetunsn t sfehkkzuhrh mah mo sr e`msthmtnsf `sn phrhjntrhsf

t prvcouhrh. Hmhsonkkths, m j`lnkn j e`jpknesn, lhkkcjc mlrjont mlrysf`rnvn prdhetunsn

(lrnotunsn) lfn rnhacjct juml t ont c turbukkt, c sf`qruhr jn gnnlbhdes e`jpknesn lfn stulcjc

prqnmlr fnt m scstnjcm m praoctfsc.

Yrvcocjc j`lnknvn lfn prkkàhrctoh n phrhjntrhvn

Msn luhj t ent vknr m g`rjukcjcm n mo fcp`tnzn `sn pr phrhsfcecjcm n t hrlfjns s scstnjct,

l` vròtcj c br lufnt t rnluet`fnt m mo e`rmcz t tfonsft. Mnvòctnt prvcocj (cttcma) khe`rnon

`sn pr`dnlurn ehkcbrcjc pr t lnrcvuhr mo prjbknlfon jhtnjhtce`rn t t lfmhvn. Neuhdc`mc

prjbknlfs juml t prl`rnt pr t phrhsfceuhr vknrht n hrlfsfjn sc nlfn pr t `gruhr cmg`rjhdc`m

pr t e`mcrjuhr `sn rnguzuhr mo j`lnk tn`rce.

Yr sfnjbukk, msn sft br mo snrc vròtcjnsf pr rctjcm g`t`scmtntce, fhpc c phr m hmhkcz

l` t csftn arhcecjc c g`t`scmtnzs (m b`sftcm n `rlcmhthvn, jnqmsn jn aohs, sft mo mlrysf`rn n

vhrur) eumlrnot rrnzhtcjct (m hbsfcs). J tno juml t rvhtnjc t prvcoòj mo vco prjns vròtcjnvn

luen fhjnmlsuhr sn pceht ohm sfnjbuo t vnhmt t mo jhrrlfmcn t praoctfsfjn. Tcl`q`gt, eh

phe aohsh q t aoctfh pceht t bcnm m lrnotz snpsn mlrysfòm aoctfhsftu nlfn ghet`r t tonr (t tckkh

sc tnjpnrhturh). Neuhdc`mc c vcos j t prvcouhr (s bhsfeu jn lcsh prsfercjn t ahbcjct) `gr`m mo

prjbknlfon jhtnjhtce`rn t vròtcjnvn. Rnarnsc`mc c sfujcsft jumls`m t prvco`sf m t mootme`f lcsh mlrysf`rn V.

Yr l` snrc t vnhmt pcehsf eh mo mujr t phguml neuhdc`mnsf q c prvcoòm ht`, ml`msn

lcsh juml t onm tnont e`jpknes pr tu jhrr m e`msclnrht, mlre`f q juml t ent lcsh tcpn t


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tfonsft q prvco`fnm emhqsfj. Jnaoctfht, lufnt t jbhoj phrhsysf arsfrm n @ehjct (phrcjc

q fcp`tnzht mue lufnt t sfujcsf`fnm prtno mnvòs). Eo` l` t tf`t q, eur prbhkknjc jn zaonlfonm

mlrjont ly j`lnknvn hp` fcp`tnzhvn t prsfthtsfjn, lufnt t zaonlfcj j t tfonsftm.

Whkclcjc c j`lnknvn

Tfpnsf hraujnmt`fnt sn j`lnknt n bcjvn buoqs`rn lfn j`lnknt n tonrh lufnt t vhkcl`fnm `sn

vnrcce`fnmprphrh prl`rcjct, p`r eo` mue sft shetscsft n jumlur snpsn ht`, m praoctfsc, mue

prghqsòm mo fcp`tnz q juml t rrz`fnt p`r mo arupcj fcp`tnzhsf t vnuhrh. Yrhmlho, vhkclcjc

strcet, sc juml t prl`rno pr mo kcao czce, mue sft c jumlur p`r vntj juml t tnst`fnm lfn

shsc`rcz`fnm prvcocjnt jn mo snrc t euczuhr t lfmhsf nespnrcjnmthkn o` nezhetn.

Wknm t tfnesòj sn nezcstòm ly e`jp`mnmt t praoctfsfj t ahbcjct m phrhsfcecjnt n

j`lnkct? c phrc kcml mah ahbcjnt m prkkàhrctont n phrhjntrhvn t mnvòsfj aoht pr`dnsct t ehkcbrcjct

t j`lnkct mlrsh c lytc kclfnt jn ht` ahbcjn q kcmlcm mah lsftcjc c vnt j`lnkct (q`gt sc rnzuktht c

jbctfonsftcjct hp` sc rnzuktht c t euptuhrct t phshet t pr`dnsct).

8.4.2 Yrl`rcjc c nespnrcjnmtnvn

Ghzh vròtunsn lfn nespnrcjnmthkn n erecjct sft p` hq n rmlscsfjn sh ghzh n j`lnkcjct. Ttulcjnt

n jcrckkth vròtunsn, t hsho mhtyrn q eh ehrhetnrczuhr mo pons t jcr t fukujtcjnvn ne`kàocen m

t ehkuhrm, eu jbsftntnjc m mlrysfunsfjrcm mhtyr`rn t ghet`rvn jonlcs`r jn cmtnrns, juml

t ont n euczuhr lfn n vsftcr pr tu cmtnrprntuhr. Eo` pr sfehe t e`jpknesctntct q ehm vntvntcu

scstnjnt mhtyr`rn lfn prcronm q t ml`lfcm bhsfekclfon (e`rrnkhdc`mn) mlrjont ghet`rvn t tckk sc

tnjpnrhturh lfn mlrccjc lcnkk`r. Yr et hrsyn, zhe`mcsft kcml mnvòh q, mprjont nespnrcjnmtn t

e`mtr`kkuhrh, t juml t jhmcpukòj ghet`r jonlcs`r t mlrysfj m jmyr t phvhrur.

Nezcst`m jumlsch pr t rnhkczuhr nespnrcjnmtn jn phe h sfuj mlrfyron prno jonlcsct mhtyr`r

\hbnkh 8.8 Tfehkk t mlrysfjn t j`lcgcecjct nespnrcjnmthk t jonlcsnvn rrmo`rn lfn jbctès`rn.

Tcjb`kc Vtrna`m e`jbcmcjnt o`-prhetcen

\rscsft \rscsft

hrtcgcdchkn Jonlcsc hor`r mhtyr`rn

Jonlcsn t

e`mtr`kkuhrh

Ehbcmntn jn

lrct

Ehjphth

snrrhsf

Ttrnfh, rronth

mhtyr`rnGusf

\rscsft

hrtcgcdchkn

Jonlcscrrmo`r

\rscsft

mhtyr`rn

rntscr

usfqynsn x

Bhz cmnrtn+ trntscrusfqynsn

x

è (lf)m vhz`

Gusf jnpknfrcjlfn uocton

x x

Nespnrc-jnmtntrhpchmtcjc

x x

Mhtyr`rn x x Wntj

vròtcjn


28/3873

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(\hbnkh 8.8) lfn phe h sfuj e`mtr`kk t shet t mlrysf`rnvn t dhetuhrh. M praoctfsc, nezcst`m mo

trhln`gg(e`jpr`jcs) mlrjont e`mtr`kkct t jcr t jonlcsct lfn mlrfyrons jcmcjhkn jn jonlcscm

mhtyr`r, jn e`jbcmcjn j prhm emlct t jhot m et thbnk luen `gruhr mo cmg`rjhdc`m j prndcz

p`r o` lntyrcjcsft j t shet t rnhacjct t bcjs mlho ghet`rvn cmlcvcluhk. Nespnrcjnmtnt gusf`rn

vuhom mah e`mtr`kkc jonlcs`r c phet p`r, pr sfehe sn eusftnt ohm jn aohs j prhm htyrn mhtyr`rn

sn sh m snrrh `sn lf`jh jn jonlcs t e`mtr`kkuhr, l` rnzuktht c prgtuhr m gusf eh j sfuj aohsh t

kclfnt jn sonkkonm n bcjs m eusftn mhtyr`rn. Yr et hrsyn, e`ft n gumlct eh phtur mo rrcton t cmtnrnsct

pr erynronm n nespnrcjnmtnvn, eur sft n jumlur, m eusftn sh j prhm eusftnvn mhtyr`rn5 sfnjbukkc

j c jcr sft stulcjc c mlcecjnvn p`tnmdchkn t prqnmlrcjnvn t khrth t D@2luen prl`rur scstnjnt

n phsurcjct t lyèsclct t ehrb`mct ph hor (GHDN). Yr ght t enq, sft j n vsftcr t j`lcce`sf

tnjpnrhturht n horct m scstnjn mhtyr`rn lfn, ml`msn mar`foh n tès juml t rnhkcz`fnt rnkhtcvcsft

knft, j`lccecjnt n jonlcsct hor`r erctce, brnmlh mo kkàocen ne`m`jcen, luen ruhotur kufhtonm mhtyr`rn

t mlrysf`rnvn jonlcs`rn t tonrh, sft j n vsftcr.

Wn sfehkkvn t mlrysfjn t jonlcsct czce, rnzukthtnt n prgtuhrh vhrnm m mo sfehkk t dhetuhr

mah jonlcsc bc`tce (e`meurrnmdh, phtàonmt, nto.). Tfujcdh n stulcjnvn t prsferuhrh m et b`tcjekhscce`fnm sc hutne`kàocenphsc ht` trhotòm sonkkonm n mo spndcn t cz`kuhr. Jnaoctfsn mah stulcjn t

tckkh juml t prgt`fnm sfuj cmg`rjhdc`mn ne`kàocen t vkngsfjn, ht` juml t ohpcm ponsrcsft mo

sfponacj t l` lueurcn ne`kàocen. \ phetm m sfuj ne`scstnjn buoqs`rn t rmlscsfjn, tcpc j

c rmlscsfj c e`meurrnmds bc`kàocen sft hc mah bcjt n s moots spndcn, mlrsh ghet`r bc`tce t

tonr t tckk sc ljtunsct lfn sjumlont juml t e`mtr kk`fnm ngnetcvcsft.

M prhetce, zaonlfoh n scstnjct nespnrcjnmthk vhrnt scphs `bonetcvhvn t vnhmt. Th j c

f`kkscsfj sfponacjc jnehmcstce `sn j`lnkc q ere`fnt pr l` lueurc, hq j n jhlfn l` t ont

mnvòh pr nespnrcjnmtn t e`mtr`kkuhrh. Tcl`q`gt, m et rhst bfnt n rmlscsfjn t jcmcjcz`fnt

mlrfyroh jbc rrctonm m`rjhkn bcj`rn `sn t zflrvonkkt m ht q Nvhms n eh quhotur pkhmt sthkecma.

_he`mcsft sft n mnvòsfjn t erynoj mo ahj nespnrcjnmtnsf, mah ht` m eusftn tnont t e`mtr`kkuhrh

m lcsh m gusf. Et` t gumlct ohm t mnvòsfjn pr t e`mcrjuhr l` j`lnk q n eh prnohrlfonm mah

jonlcsn t e`mtr`kkuhrh.

Nezcstòm sfuj rrnzcqn t jbsftntons s tnprjc m jonlcsn t e`mtr`kkuhrh, sc hc m tnjht m

vcocj t stulcjnvn jn hmtctrhmspcrunsct, luen `gruhr mo sfnjbukk t jcr t pr`bknjnvn. \hsfj eh mo

nvclnmd t aonr sfenmd`rn sn, jhtnrchkc c euktcvuhr m gusf sckknt sfuj mlrysfj mah hc c rrctur m

jonlcsn t e`mtr`kkuhrh lfn vntj m phe rhstn, hrsynoh n etco mlrysfcjc sft pk`tscsft n euptunsfjn.

Mo sfnjbukk onpnt mah rnhacjc aòz`r sfuj c mlrysfj mlho p`tnmdchkct uo`r bcj`r t trnauhr mah

bcjt n rrcturh m gusf lfn jonlcsn t e`mtr`kkuhrh.

Yr`bknjnt n sfehetuhrh mah cgtcjc c mlrysfj c bcjvn jn jonlcscm n tyrn m jonlcsn t

e`mtr`kkuhrh lfn m gusf eh phsòh pr stulcjnt n e`mtr`kkcjct t hvukkcjct mah aòzht. J`rg`kàoch

n bcjs sfnmo`fnt mlrysfj mlrjont etyrn jonlcsnvn sc rnzuktht c rrnzhtcjnvn t mlrysfjn lfn

sfprmlhrons spnetrhkn.

Lcsh tcphrn t jonlcsct ohm j t knfth pr tu e`mtr`kkuhr sn sh t tonrt. Ttulcjnt gusf`rn jbc

t usfqynrcm n bcjvn lfn aonmlonm n uoct, pr sfnjbukk, ohm erynr pr jbc moqcml vont, p`r vntj

m 29 vctnt n gumlct ohm br `rvhton t l`bcsfjn pr t e`mtr`kkuhr tnjpnrhturm m gusf. Y`r nmlnthmc, stulcjnt n tnjpnrhturs ehm t bom jn jbsftonkkonm n eur`rs bcj`rn lfn mlrysfcjct t mo

lchphz`mc t aonr t ghet`rvn t tonr m t mootm e`f. Yrl`rcjc c nespnrcjnmtnvn jn trhpchmtcjn

rndcprèn, t tckkh sc ht` t mlrjhrrh m e`psftnt erecj`rn t Cmstctudc`mct Dhrmnacn, gròm mo tnemce


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t guqcsfjn pr stulcjcm n mlcecjnvn t jonlcsct hor`r ph prl`rcjcm n jonlcsnvn t e`mtr`kkuhrh.

Jhtnrchkc pr euktcvcj m t aoctf sctnt m tè mah c mootc burcj jhescjcz`m p`tnmdchkcm pr stulcjcm

n jonlcsct hor`r m et tcp nespnrcjnmtc.

@rvhtohn prl`rcjct t jonlcsnvn t e`mtr`kkuhrh pr t cjctuhr t aoctf tcphrnt n jonlcsct mhtyr`r

sft nmln n lnbhtunsfjn. E`jpknesctntc jonlcs`r c sftuhr prcrnt t znrò prphrscm eryns`rn t

jonlcsct t e`mtr`kkuhr.

8.< Yrsfthtoh lfn pkhstcdctntc gnm`tcpce

Lrurt grut`r rrctnm lfn rcpr`lf`fnm m jonlcsn e`jpknesn t e`jp`zuhrh mah mo jhamctul

ghet`rsf hbc`tce (ph ont) ecjce lfn czce, q mlrysfòm m e`f lfn scphs vnml`lfons aonàrhcen.

Et` ghet`r hbc`tce prgsfcom dckscm n horct lfn kuescm n tco (nrm), cmtnmsctntcm lfn dckscm n

lrcts, tnjpnrhturm, lcsp`munsfjrcm n uoct, usfqynsct jcmnrhk lfn prqnmlrcjnt n nknjnmtvn

aourj, ercpzcjcm, jonlcscm ecjce tès`r (pF lfn p`tnmdchkcm rnlès), nto. _he`mcsft, kufhtont n

etyrn ghet`rvn jonlcs`r ohsft lchphz`mnvn m`rjhkn sf`qr`fnm jn phsòh mnahtcvn bcècjcen

lfn czc`kàocen pr lrurt grut`r. Lcsh prno etyrn phsòhvn prgsfcom aonmnrcjcm n rnhdtcvn `xyanmspndcns(R@T), zvàkcjcm n qmlrunsfjrcs jnjbrhm`rn, rrctonm n lnmhtyrcjct pr`tncmce, j`lccecjcm

n neuckcbrct t o`mnvn, rrnaukkcjcm n jnthb`kczjct hp` nlfn ljtcjcm czce. Mo mah qkkcjnt eryns`rn t

etco j`lukc sft phrhqctoh n mo emlvsftrcjc sn sc et` lrur grut`r prsfthtnm lfn rnhaòm mlho

jonlcsct hbc`tce.

Bcjt ehm jnehmczjh t mlrysfj q u jumlsòm t jbcontòm n sfpnsf nlfn t zfvckk`fnm

m jonlcsn e`jpknesn eu ontòm. Yrsfthtohmlho jonlcsct ehrhetnrcz`fnt mah mlrysfcjnaonmntcenm

tr p`pukkhtm t cesuhrh jn ehkcjcm n e`fs m sfuj brnzmc. Hmhsonkkths, eh rnhacjn q mue ereòm

j`lccecjn aonmntcen t rnoh, n msn rnhacjc c mo cmlcvclc prjcrs`fnt aoht nesp`zcjct t prsrctur mlho

eusftnvn t rnoh jonlcs`rn enjc t boj jn hekcjhtczcj. Et` rnhacjn qufnm pkhstcdctnt gnm`tcpce

lfn ohm mlrysfcjn o` t prfnrsfjn m czc`kàocm sn j`rg`kàocm n cmlcvclct q juml t prhps`fnm

msn eusftnt jonlcs`rn jbcz`trunsn mlrysfòm. Mo sfnjbukk c prsfthtsfj sft rrctoh n bcjvn m

tèh snrpnmtcmn, t dckht ehrhetnrcz`fnm mah khasftch n phet, prqnmlrcjc c ukt c jherùsfqynsvn lfn

mcvnknt n khrth t jnthknvn t rmlh. Yrsfthtoh n bcjvn q rrctnm m et` tèh eh ereuhr mo j`lccecj

aonmntce spndcce q zvàk`m tfctfonm n hrsnmct, luen sfjhmaur tèscdctntcm hrsnmce, prh enjc t boj

jn mo jnehmczj sfjhmas. Ykhstcdctntc gnm`tcpce kclfnt jn bc`scmtnzm n j`kneukhvn hrsnmce-kclfsn

jn pnsf t vàk j`kneukhrn, t quhoturh ctènkhtcmh, q zvàkòm tèscdctntcm mah hrsnmceu. Escsò,

prsfthtoh aonmntcen s bhsfeu jn pkhstcdctntcm gnm`tcpce prbom t`knrhmdm n praoctfsfjn t bcjs

mlho nestrnjnvn t jonlcsct hbc`tce.

M et j`luk, j sfuj sn sh pr prsfthtonm, onjc t cmtnrnsuhr pr pkhstcdctntcm gnm`tcpce,

phsc luen qnm sn ey b`tcj c sfrbnm stulnmtvn t jhstnrct sfenmd`r m sfenmdht f`rtceuktur`rn

hp` ereunsn m et` sfenmdh, eh mo ehrhetnr hpkcehtcv, q kclfnt jn czc`kàocm n pr`lfcjct sn sh jn

ne`kàocm n spndcnvn.

8.


30/38788

N E

pnjthrch n sfgrytz`m pr t cjp`muhr

g`rjh lfn gumesc`mn t v`kctsfjn.

Gnm`tcpcheh t bo jn lcgnrnmdcjcm m

zfvckkcj mlrjont cmlcvclvn q ml`lf

m rhp`rt jn khrjcm jonlcs`rn lfn

vhzfl`m t nezcstò nlfn eur mcscj mah

ek`mcjc c mootct jhtnrchk aonmntce. Lrurt

grut`r ehm mo pkhstcdctnt t khrt pr

sfehe t ghetct sn ohm sfujvonhr

lfn ehm mo dcek onts`r e`jpknes.

Moe`fscsft, ey pkhstcdctnt rrctnt pr

sfehe sn prcv`fnm hrtccdchkcsft mah

sthlc rcm`r lfn ohm t prcrurh pr tu

jhmcpukuhr.

Mo sfnjbukk c pkhstcdctntctt zfvckkcjct gnm`tcpce sft rrctoh

e`jpnmsunsn mprjont t dcks bcjh n

mlrysf`m jhlfscm rnkhtcvn t ponsvn

trup`rn lfn rrmo`rn pr tcu prsfthtur

khrjcs s eusftnvn jonlcs`rn (Gca.

8.4). Rrctoh e`jpnmsunsn n `rahmnvn t

bcjs sft m aonmlon t neuckcbrò

lcsp`munsfjrcm n burcjnvn

jonlcs`rn. Escsò, jhsh rnkhtcvn n

rrmos mlrysf`m m gumesc`m t zflrnot

jn ponkk`rcm n tès lfn n mooth ao vknm

pr eur`rm (tr ponsm jbctès`rn)

m rhp`rtcm n sho jn lcsp`munsfjrcm

n lrcts. Mo sfnjbukk c mlrysfj c

prsfthtons sft kcrch n bcjs pr t

ereuhr mo fhpscr `sn jhs t lufur,

q juml t mlrysfò m rhp`rt jn burcjnt nezcstunsn m jonlcscm n ohsftj `sn m prl`rcjcm

q c bm tnemceh (Gca. 8.


31/38782

G J (N) Y

rnhacjcm mlho jhmcpukcjnvn. Eo` mh `m m e`mekuzc`mcm sn nezcst`m mo pkhstcdctnt c zfvckkcjct q lnk

m phf mah mlrysfunsfjrch n jhlfscs s bcjs lfn n ponsvn t sho lfn eo` zbuk`m nezcstnmdm n

mo kcrcn gnm`tcpcen t khrt. Mlrysfunsfjrch npcaonmntcen n khrt (m jmyrm n prl`rcjct t g`mlct

aonmntce) c jumls`m bcjvn t prsfthtnm jn eusftnt n mlrysfjn luen mlrysfuhr sonkkonm lfn g`rjm,

p`r o` `bonetcvht n rrctons lfn rcpr`lfcjct. Yr th br et, bcjh lufnt t lco t knxò et` eusftn,

tuh e`jumceò `rahmnvn t mlrysfjn, n t bhsfernmlò rnhacjnt n tyrn, mo sonkkon q e`mcrj`m

nezcstnmdm n mo rhp`rtc bhsfeeclfs cmtnmscv.

KC\NRH\^R YK@\T^NTN

Tc pons n etco Ehpctukkc, stulnmtc lufnt t stulcò nlfn?

YONTH CC. HMHKC_H N TCT\NJNWN, J@LNKN\ LFN TCJ^KCJC m dcekcm n knesc`mnvn t b`tuhr, Eukkho

(2996)Ne`czc`kàoch n Lrugrut`rvn. \rcptce

KC\NRH\^R N RNE@JHML HR YR 8-4-8B``tn EO, O`mns OQ, Ycdenrcma MB (8337) Y`tnmtchk usns hml kcjcthtc`ms `g j`lnks.Har`m`jy Oùrmhk66, 19B`x ANY, Fumtnr QA, Fumtnr OT (299>) Tthtcstcds g`r Nxpnrcjnmtnrs? Lnscam, Cmm`vhtc`m hml Lcsd`vnry, 2ml nlm. Qckny, Mnw S`re.Ehma J_, ln Rnyn Y (2991) H jhtfnjhtcdhk hppr`hdf nstcjhtcma sùrdn hml scme gumdtc`mcma `g d`jpntcma `rahms. Cm

Gumdtc`mhk-Ttrudturhk Ykhmt J`lnkkcma cm Ykhmt Yr`ludtc`m(nls W`s O, Jhrdnkcs KGJ, ln Wcssnr YFB, Ttruce YD & NvnrsOB), pp. 7>-1


32/38784

N E

YONTH C?

BC@GC_CEH N JONLCTC\

Eo` pons `gr`m mo phrhqcton t phrcjnvn bhz t czces s jonlcsct q ohm t mnvòsfjn pr t euptuhr

czc`kàocm jonlcs`rn sc lfn prsferuhm hspnetn t mlrysfjn t ghet`rvn jonlcs`r `sn hbc`tce.

\fuhosn t aoctf pr`dnsnt lfn lueurct czc`kàocen ohm t vhrurh mah mcvnkc c ghet`rct jonlcs`r, p.sf.

tnjpnrhtur hp` rrnzhtcj c khrt hp` c ukt, jhmasc hp` tnprc usfqynscsf jcmnrhk, eusftn tfhtscrn hp`

prjbyton, nto. Jhlon, tfnkbc c esho lcscpkcmn sft prsfercjc c pr`dnsnvn onts`rn sc gumesc`m c mo ghet`rc

jonlcs`r. Rronlfcjcsft, mo e`jp`mnmt c rmlscsfj c pums stulcj`rn t stulcunsvn t czc`kàocs

jonlcs`rn eh t bo jn jhtonm n mcvnkct t ghet`rct jonlcs`r lfn prdhetcjcm sn eur ey ghet`r sft

m mcvnkn `ptcjhkn lfn eur prbm strns. Eo` ere`m phsfjhmasfjrcsft lcsh mo`furc bhz t czces

s jonlcsct n vnhmrcsft, ht` q ehm t bom jn jhtonm n mlrysf`rnvn jonlcs`rn. Lnrcvcjnt lfn

j`lnknt jhtnjhtce`rn t phrhqcturh gròm mo bhz t l`j`sl`sfjn pr prl`rcjcm n jnt`lhvn lfn

cmstrujnmtnvn ne`czc`kàocen q jhscm mlrysf`rnt jonlcs`rn. Mo`furct phrhprhen q stulnmtt ehm

jhrr m j`luknt Gczce lfn Jntn`r`kàoc lfn Jhtnjhtce ohm jsn t johgtunsfjn pr t euptuhr

neuhdc`mnt lfn j`lnknt n phrhqcturh m et ehpctukk. Wn esho, stulnmtc l` t aono sfuj cmg`rjhdc`mtn`rce lfn usftrcjn m lcsh pum khb`rht`rcen lfn sftòdh t Eukkho (2982) Jhmuhkc Khb`rht`rce c

Gczc`kàocs Jonlcs`rn t Lrurvn Grut`r, W`k. 8 - Jnt`lht lfn Cmstrujnmtnt Gusf`rn. (luen qnm sn

l` c rngnr`fnjc vhzflcjcsft, l` tc rngnr`fnjc sfeurtcjcsft Jhmuhkc).


33/3878

N E

2. Rrnzhtcjc

2.8 FyronM et ehpctukk l` t trhotòj phrcjnt bhz t czces s rrnzhtcjct q mnvòctnm pr czc`kàocm jonlcs`rn

lfn, l` t prsferuhoj hspnetn t mlrysfjn t ekcjs s rrnzhtcjct brnmlh pnjt`rnvn. Yonsh n gumlct

n ehpctukkct trhot`m j m f`kksc sfmlrrcjnt n vròtcjnvn jn mlonscjcm m khrasc (rnj`tn snmscma) t

bcjvn lfn eur`rhvn t pnjvn pr prkkàhrctonm n vn`rcvn bc`czcen t rmlscsfjn, sc sft trnaunscc scprghqns aontf`rn lfn sfpmlhroh eml`rn n aontfnvn.

E`jpknesctntc c sehosfj c ekcjs s rrnzhtcjct mmeupt`m sn sft n phjumlur q m et

trhotcj tc sfjhmanjc lnrcvcjct t tfonsftcjnvn hp` j`lnknvn t tfonsfth q juml t prl`rm mah

ne`czc`kàt hp` f`rtceukturcstt.

Lrcth n luesfjn, q prgsfcfnt m lchphz`mcm mlrjont


35/38787

G J (N) Y

2.2 Hspnetn czcen t rrnzhtcjct

fiziologjia mjedisore (ekofiziologjia) e pemeve

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