Fire in the wetlands/ Fire in the wetlands/ peatlandspeatlands of of

Indonesia: Problem and solutionsIndonesia: Problem and solutions

Unna Chokkalingam & SuyantoUnna Chokkalingam & Suyanto

Forest fires Forest fires PeatlandPeatland firesfires

Thick black haze blankets JambiJune 30, 2004, The Jakarta Post -Thick black haze from hundreds of

hectares of peat fires

Government to file lawsuits against Government to file lawsuits against

10 10 RiauRiau companies. companies. July 19, 2004July 19, 2004

The Jakarta PostThe Jakarta Post -- Local authorities Local authorities attempted to extinguish the fires, but attempted to extinguish the fires, but

faced difficulties as most had been lit on faced difficulties as most had been lit on peat land. The haze …..peat land. The haze …..

Dreaded haze returns to Dreaded haze returns to PenangPenang

August 11, 2004August 11, 2004

The Star OnlineThe Star Online

(Brad Sanders, Riau, 2004)

Meluas, Kebakaran LahanGambut Sejuta Hektar

October 11, 2004Kompas Cyber Media -

Palangkaraya

Koran Tempo October 16, 2004Kabut Asap Akibatkan Efek Kaca

PALEMBANG - Kondisi asap diProvinsi Sumatera Selatan

Asap Kembali Selimuti PalangkaSeptember 24, 2004Banjarmasin Post

PeatlandPeatland firesfires––what is the problem?what is the problem?

�� Large areas of Large areas of peatlandpeatland -- 17 million ha, 10% of 17 million ha, 10% of Indonesia(RePPProtIndonesia(RePPProt) )

�� Valuable forest biodiversity, carbon sinks, hydrology, fisheriesValuable forest biodiversity, carbon sinks, hydrology, fisheries

�� Last frontiers under development & population pressureLast frontiers under development & population pressure

�� Increasingly frequent widespread fires in Increasingly frequent widespread fires in peatlandspeatlands

�� 1997/98 El Nino 1997/98 El Nino -- 2.1 million ha or 18% of area burnt (Tacconi)2.1 million ha or 18% of area burnt (Tacconi)

�� But drained/logged But drained/logged peatlandspeatlands becoming major annual fire flashpointsbecoming major annual fire flashpoints

www.lib.utexas.edu

PeatlandPeatland firesfires––what is the problem?what is the problem?

�� Larger environmental impacts than Larger environmental impacts than drylanddryland firesfires

�� Thick smoke/haze Thick smoke/haze –– 60% of 60% of regional haze in 97/98 (ADB) regional haze in 97/98 (ADB)

�� Carbon emissions Carbon emissions –– 0.80.8--2.5 2.5 GtGt C in C in 97/98 (Page et al)97/98 (Page et al)

�� Difficult to access, control & Difficult to access, control & suppress firessuppress fires

�� Difficult to maintain in sustainable Difficult to maintain in sustainable alternative land usealternative land use

�� Difficult to restore the ecosystemDifficult to restore the ecosystem

�� Downward spiral of degradation Downward spiral of degradation and longand long--term fire problemterm fire problem

�� Need to understand & address the Need to understand & address the underlying causes underlying causes -- a more a more permanent solution permanent solution

Yayat Ruchiat Ivan Anderson

Joint CIFORJoint CIFOR--ICRAF researchICRAF research(Funded by EU & ACIAR)(Funded by EU & ACIAR)

�� Patterns and underlying causes of the Patterns and underlying causes of the wetland fireswetland fires

�� Impacts on forest resources, biodiversity, Impacts on forest resources, biodiversity, carbon & local livelihoods carbon & local livelihoods

�� Policy recommendations to reduce the Policy recommendations to reduce the unwanted fires & negative impactsunwanted fires & negative impacts

Middle Mahakam peatlandsEast Kalimantan

Multi-Stakeholder Peatland Workshop Sumatra

3 wetland sites –Southern Sumatra

Integrated interdisciplinary research Integrated interdisciplinary research

Field surveys for vegetation, soils, hydrology, land use history & fire history

Land cover classifications &Fire maps Socio-economic surveys

in the villages for land use & livelihood change

I. Middle I. Middle MahakamMahakam peatlandspeatlands

CanalsPeat depth: 8 m ave, >15 m

Basin:500,000 haPeat:230,000 ha

Carbon stocks:0.5 Gtonnes2150 t/ha

FireFire 45%24%

17% 72-85%

Ignition sourcesIgnition sources�� Local communities Local communities

and migrants in the and migrants in the course of fishing and course of fishing and other resource other resource extraction in the extraction in the swampsswamps

Causes of annual firesCauses of annual fires�� Frequently burnt Frequently burnt accessible flooded areas accessible flooded areas

adjacent to rivers, lakes & canalsadjacent to rivers, lakes & canals

Develop, maintain, Develop, maintain,

locate, and access the locate, and access the

pools of water containing pools of water containing

fishfish in the nearby in the nearby

degraded peat forestsdegraded peat forests

Maintain and Maintain and expand open expand open floodplain & lake floodplain & lake habitats for habitats for fishfish, , and facilitate boat and facilitate boat travel in the wet travel in the wet seasonseason

Clear the vegetation Clear the vegetation

along waterways to along waterways to

prevent encroachment prevent encroachment

& improve access for & improve access for

extracting extracting fishfish & &

other resourcesother resources

Causes of widespread El NiCauses of widespread El Niñño fireso fires

�� 1982/83 El Niño fires:1982/83 El Niño fires:�� Spread from annual burn Spread from annual burn

areas to adjacent dry forested areas to adjacent dry forested swampsswamps

�� Possible increased activity Possible increased activity within adjacent swamps itself within adjacent swamps itself due to drought hardshipdue to drought hardship

�� 1997/98 El Niño fires: 1997/98 El Niño fires: �� Burning by local communities Burning by local communities

and migrants in the course of and migrants in the course of turtle & tree bark harvesting turtle & tree bark harvesting everywhere including interior everywhere including interior forest areas forest areas

ImpactsImpacts

% cover

7.12.82.0Cloud

0.13.10.10.7Water

30.110.711.315.4Sedge-grasslands

33.011.418.119.3Scrubby vegetation

20.01.35.99.8Open canopy forest

5.18.010.7Medium canopy forest

4.462.754.052.9Closed canopy forest

2000199719921987Peat vegetation type

Recovery potentialRecovery potential

But very flammable - dead trees, dense understory, lianas, open canopies

Another quick El Niño fire - more intensive & severe, long-lasting damage

Slightly-moderately burnt interior forests (19%): good potential

Severely burnt interior forests (41%) can also recover if left alone. Rarely visited in typical years.

�� Once degraded (as in 1998), accessible areas Once degraded (as in 1998), accessible areas susceptible to repeated annual burningsusceptible to repeated annual burning

�� Forests Forests grassy floodplains lakesgrassy floodplains lakes

Repeated firesRepeated fires

Driving forces behind widespread Driving forces behind widespread community fire usecommunity fire use

�� Fire is a key community land use tool in Fire is a key community land use tool in peatlandspeatlands. N. No o effective alternatives or incentives to avoid or control effective alternatives or incentives to avoid or control fire use fire use

�� People using the People using the peatlandspeatlands value fish more than the value fish more than the peat forests. Not alarmed when repeated burning peat forests. Not alarmed when repeated burning degrades the forestsdegrades the forests

�� Technology & infrastructure development Technology & infrastructure development have have increased the importance of fishing increased the importance of fishing ––leading to more leading to more use of fire use of fire

�� Communities using the Communities using the peatlandspeatlands have neutral or have neutral or positive views on how fire affects hydrology, fishing positive views on how fire affects hydrology, fishing and livelihoodsand livelihoods

Driving forces behindDriving forces behind the 97/98 the 97/98 droughtdrought--related firesrelated fires

�� New, highNew, high--value markets emerged value markets emerged for turtle meat, & for tree bark for turtle meat, & for tree bark --commercial mosquito coilscommercial mosquito coils

�� Local government permitted quotaLocal government permitted quota--free collection of turtles to ease the free collection of turtles to ease the drought crisis, withoutdrought crisis, without sound sound understanding of environmental understanding of environmental consequencesconsequences

�� Extremely dry conditions in both the vegetation and peat, Extremely dry conditions in both the vegetation and peat, and high winds enabled fires to easily ignite and spread. and high winds enabled fires to easily ignite and spread.

�� Low river levels and transport difficulties constrained regular Low river levels and transport difficulties constrained regular livelihood options such as fishing. Alternative sustainable livelihood options such as fishing. Alternative sustainable options not apparentoptions not apparent

II. Community Fire Management, Resource II. Community Fire Management, Resource Change & Livelihood Impacts in the Change & Livelihood Impacts in the

Wetlands of Southern SumatraWetlands of Southern Sumatra

� Large fires in wetlands of southern Sumatra in 1987, 91, 94, 97/98

� Community management systems important

� Some large-scale developments

SugihanSugihan

MesujiMesuji

Fire Patterns

Sugihan

42% 82%

48-73% 41%

Ignition sources: mainly local fire useIgnition sources: mainly local fire use

�� Non El NiNon El Niñño Years (all livelihood activities on o Years (all livelihood activities on

the swamps):the swamps):

� To keep the riverbanks and village neighbourhoods

free of vegetation and wildlife

� Fresh grass growth for cattle

� Accessing the swamps for wood and fish harvesting

� Incidental fire use in logging and fishing areas (such

as for camping)

� Transmigrant agriculture

�� Additionally in El Nino years: Additionally in El Nino years: SonorSonor

�� No attempt to control fire spread in wetlands No attempt to control fire spread in wetlands

–– can be extensive in El Nican be extensive in El Niñño yearso years

� Sonor is a system of traditional rice cultivation practiced only during long drought periods that allow complete burning

� Extensive system of cultivation with low labor demand and low inputs

� No efforts to control the area burned

� Most of the communities that practice sonor are local people, but transmigrants also adopted the practice

� During the fallow period, the cultivated wetlands mostly regenerate into dense stands of Melaleuca cajuputi(Gelam)

SonorSonor/Swamp Rice Cultivation/Swamp Rice Cultivation

ProductionProduction

Site

Productivity per ha (ton/ha) in average

Wetland Paddy1

Upland Paddy1

Sonor Paddy2

BPS Data (PRA Survey)

Air Sugihan 3.0 0.0 2.1 1.6

Mesuji 4.4 2.6 n.a 2.2

Photo by David Nance

Food SecurityFood Security

5664 5058

29427

2661

87010

19401

7983 9104

0100002000030000400005000060000700008000090000

100000

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Year

Amou

nt

Area (in ha)

Production (in ton)

Sonor paddy production contributed significantly to the total rice production for the Air Sugihan sub district in 1998, increasing by

67,609 tons or 350%.

Causes of ignitions: Companies Causes of ignitions: Companies vsvscommunitiescommunities

�� Logging concession staff in logging areasLogging concession staff in logging areas

�� Oil palm development in partnership with Oil palm development in partnership with communities communities –– limited fire after initial clearinglimited fire after initial clearing

�� Arson in disputes between companies & Arson in disputes between companies & communities over land tenure in coconut palm communities over land tenure in coconut palm plantationsplantations

�� Commercial logging & Commercial logging & draining created access draining created access to new areas, increased to new areas, increased fuels and drying fuels and drying ––expanded community expanded community practicespractices

�� Developments brought Developments brought more people into swampsmore people into swamps

�� Annual burns part of Annual burns part of transmigranttransmigrant agricultureagriculture

�� TransmigrantsTransmigrants also adopt also adopt local practices with local practices with agricultural limitations on agricultural limitations on drained swampsdrained swamps

LargeLarge--scale developments scale developments (Commercial (Commercial

logging, transmigration & plantation)logging, transmigration & plantation)

made wetlands fire pronemade wetlands fire prone

Ecological Resource Changes as Related toFires and Land Use Patterns Sugihan

Closed Canopy Closed Canopy GelamGelam ForestForest

Open Canopy Open Canopy

GelamGelam ForestForest

Mixed secondary forestMixed secondary forest

Grassland w. Grassland w.

GelamGelam seedlingsseedlingsGrasslandGrassland

Livelihood changes Livelihood changes -- SugihanSugihan

1

2

3

4

5<

195

5

1995

5-60

1961

-65

1966

-70

1971

-75

1976

-80

1981

-85

1986

-90

1991

-95

1995

-00

2001

-02

Year

Rel

ativ

e im

po

rtan

ce

Fisheries

Forest extraction

Sonor

Gelam extraction

Migratory labour

1

2

3

4

5

< 1

955

1995

5-60

1961

-65

1966

-70

1971

-75

1976

-80

1981

-85

1986

-90

1991

-95

1995

-00

2001

-02

Year

Rel

ativ

e im

po

rtan

ce Fisheries

Forest extraction

Sonor

Gelam extraction

Charcoal

Migratory labour

Boat

Livelihood changes Livelihood changes MesujiMesuji

Driving forces behind widespread Driving forces behind widespread community fire usecommunity fire use

�� Fire is a cheap & effective tool for community wetland Fire is a cheap & effective tool for community wetland use irrespective of tenure status. No effective use irrespective of tenure status. No effective alternatives or incentives to avoid or control fire use. alternatives or incentives to avoid or control fire use.

�� Fire use expanded over time in relation to Fire use expanded over time in relation to sonorsonor, , logging, fishing and grazing following landscape logging, fishing and grazing following landscape degradationdegradation

�� SonorSonor more important than low value secondary forest more important than low value secondary forest resources like resources like GelamGelam which serve as good fuels for which serve as good fuels for land preparationland preparation

�� No alternative sustainable livelihood options apparent, No alternative sustainable livelihood options apparent, particularly in drought years. particularly in drought years. SonorSonor is a convenient is a convenient and profitable option in a difficult environment.and profitable option in a difficult environment.

�� Local community wetland & fire Local community wetland & fire managementmanagement

�� Plantation development & Plantation development & managementmanagement

�� Remaining forest areas (production Remaining forest areas (production & conservation)& conservation)

�� Transmigration areasTransmigration areas

III. Sumatra III. Sumatra peatlandpeatland fire workshop fire workshop Stakeholders’ perspectivesStakeholders’ perspectives

XX6. 6. No alternative yet for land clearing without No alternative yet for land clearing without fire for the communitiesfire for the communities

XX2. No other economic opportunity2. No other economic opportunity

XX5. Tradeoff between local stakeholder 5. Tradeoff between local stakeholder livelihood needs & conservation needslivelihood needs & conservation needs

XXXX4. Negative impacts of fires on resources & 4. Negative impacts of fires on resources & livelihoodslivelihoods

XX3. F3. Fire becomes a problem if it spreads & ire becomes a problem if it spreads & cannot be controlled cannot be controlled

XXXXXX1. 1. Fire important tool for community wetland Fire important tool for community wetland use & use & livelihoodslivelihoods

NGONGOGovtGovtCommCommKEY ISSUES/ CONCERNSKEY ISSUES/ CONCERNS

Community wetland fire Community wetland fire managementmanagement

3. However plantation activities 3. However plantation activities -- logging, logging, canals, draining, and bringing people canals, draining, and bringing people into into peatlandspeatlands increase firesincrease fires

XX4. Community clearing fires on boundaries, 4. Community clearing fires on boundaries, and resource extraction fires withinand resource extraction fires within

4. Weak law enforcement & support of zero 4. Weak law enforcement & support of zero burning for land clearingburning for land clearing

XXXX2. 2. Because of big failures in the past, lots of Because of big failures in the past, lots of doubts about sustainability of doubts about sustainability of peatlandpeatlanddevelopment, esp. Acacia plantationsdevelopment, esp. Acacia plantations

XXXXXX1. Large 1. Large peatlandpeatland areas areas –– future future development focus. Clarify land allocation development focus. Clarify land allocation for conservation for conservation vsvs developmentdevelopment

ResResNGONGOGovtGovtPRIVPRIVKEY ISSUES/ CONCERNSKEY ISSUES/ CONCERNS

Plantation development & managementPlantation development & management

7. Existing institutions in charge of fire 7. Existing institutions in charge of fire management not effective & responsiblemanagement not effective & responsible

6. 6. DecentralisationDecentralisation implementation implementation resulted in increased forest firesresulted in increased forest fires

XX5. Local livelihoods need enhancement 5. Local livelihoods need enhancement

XX

XX

HPHHPH

XX2. 2. Fire use is positive for the communitiesFire use is positive for the communities

8. 8. No standard operating guidelines to No standard operating guidelines to solve the forest fire problemsolve the forest fire problem

XXXX4. Difficult to control 4. Difficult to control peatlandpeatland fires, access fires, access & other problems& other problems

XX3. 3. Forests should not belong to govt. Need Forests should not belong to govt. Need to be used by communityto be used by community

XXXX1. 1. Forest fire problems from illegal logging, Forest fire problems from illegal logging, encroachment, & border agricultural firesencroachment, & border agricultural fires

NGONGOGovtGovtCommCommKEY ISSUES/ CONCERNSKEY ISSUES/ CONCERNS

Remaining forest areas Remaining forest areas

5. 5. TransmigrantsTransmigrants adopt local practicesadopt local practices

8. No local institution or resources to deal 8. No local institution or resources to deal with forest fire problemwith forest fire problem

XX6. Forest fires negatively impact 6. Forest fires negatively impact transmigranttransmigrantlands & agriculturelands & agriculture

XXXX4. Rice cultivation not a suitable practice on 4. Rice cultivation not a suitable practice on drained wetlandsdrained wetlands

XX

XX

ResearchResearch

2. 2. Drainage increases fire riskDrainage increases fire risk

XX3. Implementation problems with 3. Implementation problems with transmigration land use procedurestransmigration land use procedures

XX1. Fire use is a must for cultivation but 1. Fire use is a must for cultivation but has has both positive & negative impactsboth positive & negative impacts

GovtGovtCommCommKEY ISSUES/ CONCERNSKEY ISSUES/ CONCERNS

Transmigration areas Transmigration areas

Key recommendations to resolve the Key recommendations to resolve the

wetland fire problemwetland fire problem

Livelihood improvement & sustainable managementLivelihood improvement & sustainable management1. El Niño response program to reduce fire use &

provide alternative sustainable livelihoods preferably outside the wetlands in drought periods

Key recommendations to resolve the Key recommendations to resolve the

wetland fire problemwetland fire problem

Livelihood improvement & sustainable managementLivelihood improvement & sustainable management2. Degraded or still forested wetlands under severe

livelihood pressures:� Controlled burning for local wetland use along waterways?� Rehabilitate and conserve much of the wetlands beyond � Develop viable livelihood options that will improve local

economic conditions & reduce fires and degradation � In rural development projects: agreements with and

incentives to local communities to control burning & help protect and restore the larger wetland areas

Recommendations contd.Recommendations contd.

Livelihood improvement & sustainable managementLivelihood improvement & sustainable management

3.3. Established transmigration sitesEstablished transmigration sites

� potential to shift from annual to tree crops in partnership with companies to improve livelihoods & avoid annual burning

� Sustainable livelihood options elsewhere?

Recommendations contd.Recommendations contd.

LargeLarge--scale development:scale development:

1. Existing working plantations

� Increased pressures, incentives & capacity to enforce existing zero burning laws

� Improve surrounding community welfare & support them in their fire use to prevent escapes

� Learn from & promote best management practices

2.2. Review the appropriateness of existing wetland use Review the appropriateness of existing wetland use allocation for logging and plantation development allocation for logging and plantation development versus conservation or community use in different versus conservation or community use in different regions including all stakeholdersregions including all stakeholders

Recommendations contd.Recommendations contd.

LargeLarge--scale development:scale development:

3.3. Currently remote forested wetlandsCurrently remote forested wetlands

� reconsider development policies to avoid environmental degradation & declining economic returns

� Avoid large-scale developments (commercial logging, transmigration, plantations) that deforest or drain the peatlands, improve access & increase the population in these marginal areas

AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

�� RizkiRizki PanduPandu PermanaPermana, Iwan Kurniawan, , Iwan Kurniawan, JosniJosni MannesMannes, , Andy Darmawan, Andy Darmawan, NovianaNoviana KhususyiahKhususyiah, , RobiyantoRobiyanto HendroHendroSusantoSusanto and team, and team, AngganaAnggana, , Mamat Rahmat, Edwin Jonson, Mufti Mubarak and Nurul Iman

�� AfriastiniAfriastini, , ZainalZainal ArifinArifin, , AndiAndi ErmanErman, , SyaifulSyaiful AnwarAnwar, , Geoffrey Hope, Geoffrey Hope, YayatYayat RuchiatRuchiat

�� Local communities, Local communities, MahakamMahakam and Sumatraand Sumatra

�� GTZGTZ--MoFMoF IFFM and SFMP, IFFM and SFMP, SamarindaSamarinda

�� EU FFPCP, EU FFPCP, DinasDinas KehutananKehutanan, BKSDA , BKSDA PalembangPalembang

�� Wetlands International, BAPPEDA Wetlands International, BAPPEDA SumSelSumSel, workshop , workshop participants, Daniel Murdiyarso and other CIFORparticipants, Daniel Murdiyarso and other CIFOR--ICRAF ICRAF staff staff