Assignment on influential work (in social sciences) of

Ferdinand TönniesPhilosophy of Social Science.

Submitted to:

Ma’am Seemab Far Bukhari.

Submitted by:

Rabia Shams (07)

Muhammad Awais (11)

M.Phil. Communication Studies (Research Track 2015-17)

Institute of Communication Studies

University of the Punjab, Lahore.

Dated. 10th January 10, 2016.

Introduction:

Ferdinand Tönnies or Ferdinand Toennies was a German

sociologist. Ferdinand Tönnies was born on July 26, 1855, on

a farm homestead in the North Frisian peninsula of

Eiderstedt, then still under Danish sovereignty. One of seven

children, he received his high school education in Husum,

where he became deeply attached to the novelist and poet

Theodor Storm. After studying classics at different German

universities and taking his doctoral degree in 1877, Tönnies

turned to philosophy, history, biology, psychology, economics, and ethnology as his ideas on

scientific sociology began to take shape. He was influenced by the works of Thomas Hobbes,

Friedrich Nietzsche, and Immanuel Kant.

In Berlin in 1876 Tönnies began at the suggestion of his lifelong friend Friedrich Paulsen a study

of the much-neglected philosophy of Thomas Hobbes. On his first of many journeys to England

and also to France, Tönnies discovered in 1878 several original manuscripts by Hobbes, essential

to better appreciation of his system of ideas and natural-law theory. In his first account (1879-

1881) Tönnies argued the significance of Hobbes in the scientific revolution of the 17th century.

Continuing his documentation, he published the standard monograph on Hobbes's life and works

in 1896.

“Tonnies’ enormous body of work is largely unknown to the English speaking world. This is as true of

his work on the media as his extensive writings on culture, religion, social movements, social ecology,

Ferdinand Tönnies (1855 - 1936)

social mores and crime. Indeed a recent bibliography lists more than 900 works, only a handful of

which are available in English (Max. 2000).”

After World War I, with prospects more favorable to social science and its academic recognition

in the Weimar Republic, Community and Society went through several new editions. Now in his

60s, Tönnies carried out his design of a systematic sociology. The theoretical parts on social

units, values, norms, and action patterns in the Introduction to Sociology (1931) were

supplemented by three volumes of collected studies and critiques and by a series of papers on his

empirical research. He reestablished the Sociological Association, remaining its president until

1933.

The bulk of his published work bears out a distinction Tönnies had proposed in 1908 between

pure, applied, and empirical sociology. In line with the scientific principles of both Galileo and

Hobbes, pure sociology, including the fundamental concepts of community and society, relates

to abstract constructions appertaining to human relationships; from these, more specific theories

are deducible in applied sociology, with emphasis on interaction of economic, political, and

cultural conditions in the modern age; they, in turn,

serve as guidelines in inductive empirical research.

Tönnies kept strictly separate from this threefold

scientific endeavor what he called practical sociology;

this, comprising social policies and social work,

presents, in a complete system, technologies based on

the scientific insights of the three sections of the system.

Tönnies acted on this solution also of the value problem.

He relentlessly exposed the neo-romanticism of the

1920s, just as his earlier critique of romanticism had been the cornerstone of the theory of

Ferdinand Tonnies memorial built is Husum.

Community and Society. But in 1933 he was deprived as "politically unreliable" of his status as

professor emeritus. His death on April 9, 1936, spared him from being witness to the worst

excesses of the Nazi dictatorship and from further indignities.

Major contribution to Sociology.

Selected works…

''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft'', 1887 ''Der Nietzsche-Kultus'' (The Nietzsche cult), 1897 ''Thomas Hobbes, der Mann und der Denker'' ( Thomas Hobbes , the man and the thinker), 1910 ''Kritik der öffentlichen Meinung’' (Criticism of Public Opinion), 1922 ''Soziologische Studien und Kritiken'' (Sociology studies reviews), 3 bd., 1924, 1926, 1929 ''Einführung in die Soziologie'' (Introduction to Sociology), 1931 ''Geist der Neuzeit'' (Spirit of the modern age), 1935

(Google translator)

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft.

Tönnies remains famous for his conception of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, which in general,

refers to two types of social groupings. Gemeinschaft—often translated as community—refers to

groupings based on a feeling of togetherness. Gesellschaft—often translated as society—on the

other hand, refers to groups that are sustained by an instrumental goal. Gemeinschaft may be

exemplified by a family or a neighborhood community; Gesellschaft by a joint-stock company or

a state or nation.

This distinction between social groupings is based on Tönnies' assumption that there are only

two basic forms of will: "Essential will" and "arbitrary will." The "essential will" (Wesenwille)

or "natural will," leads the actor to see himself as a means to serve the goals of a social grouping.

Very often this will is an underlying, subconscious, almost instinctive force that motivates

people to volunteer their time and to serve others. Groupings formed around an essential will are

called Gemeinschaft, in what Tönnies understood to be an organic type of structure.

The other type of will is the "arbitrary will" (Kürwille) or "rational will." An actor here sees the

social group as a means to further his individual goals, and so it is purposive and future-oriented,

based on conscious decision-making. Groupings around the latter are called Gesellschaft, and

their structure can be understood as based on social contracts. Let’s take a look at them one by

one.

Gemeinschaft:

Gemeinschaft (often translated as "community") is an association in which individuals are

oriented to the large association as much as, if not more than, to their own self-interest. Furthermore,

individuals in Gemeinschaft are regulated by common mores (or norms), or beliefs about the

appropriate behavior and responsibility of members of the association to each other and to the

association at large. These associations are marked by "unity of will" (Tönnies 2001, 22).

Gemeinschaften are broadly characterized by a moderate division of labor, strong personal

relationships, strong families, and relatively simple social institutions. In such societies there is

seldom a need to enforce social control externally, due to the collective sense of loyalty the

individuals feel for their society. Order exists based on natural law, resulting from the commonly

held beliefs of the members of the Gemeinschaft. Historically, Gemeinschaft societies were

racially and ethnically homogeneous.

Tönnies saw the family as the most perfect expression of Gemeinschaft. He expected, however,

that Gemeinschaft could be based on shared place and shared belief as well as kinship, and he

included globally dispersed religious communities as possible examples of Gemeinschaft.

Gesellschaft:

Gesellschaft (often translated as "society" or "civil society"), in contrast to Gemeinschaft,

describes associations in which, for the individual, the larger association never takes on more

importance than individual self-interest. Gesellschaft is maintained through individuals acting in

their own self-interest. A modern business is a good example of Gesellschaft. The workers,

managers, and owners may have very little in terms of shared orientations or beliefs, they may

not care deeply for the product they are making, but it is in everyone's self-interest to come to

work to make money, and thus, the business continues. In business usage, Gesellschaft is the

German term for "company. “Unlike Gemeinschaften, Gesellschaften emphasize secondary

relationships rather than familial or community ties, and there is generally less individual loyalty

to the society. Social cohesion in Gesellschaften typically derives from a more elaborate division

of labor. Such societies are considered more susceptible to class conflict as well as racial and

ethnic conflicts. Order in Gesellschaften is maintained by commonly held fear of reprisal from

the laws accepted in the community.

Durkheim's use of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft:

French sociologist Emile Durkheim adopted the concepts of Gemeinschaft and

Gesellschaft in his work The Division of Labor. Durkheim used the terms "mechanical" and

"organic" societies, in somewhat of a reversal of the way Tönnies conceptualized the evolution

of societies. Mechanical societies were characterized by a common consciousness of its

members, while organic societies are marked by specialization and individual consciousness.

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft: Application to society:

Since, for Tönnies, Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft are "normal types," or examples of pure

sociology, concepts

that he did not expect

to be found in a pure

form in actual society.

Tönnies' expectation

was accurate. Even in

societies famous for

guaranteeing the freedoms of its citizens, such as the United States with its Bill of Rights, or

France during the French Revolution, there still exists some level of public consciousness.

This consciousness can be seen in public reaction to various actions, such as the outrage against

major companies whose leadership was financially irresponsible, leading to the loss not only of

jobs, but also the retirement savings of many employees. At the same time, no perfect

Gemeinschaft exists. Even in the simplest village societies in the third world there exists some

division of labor as well as political discord.

Although Tönnies' conceptualization of Gemeinschaft received much public interest during the

period of after World War I in which increasing industrialization caused societal discontent.

Gemeinschaft was unrealistically viewed as a purer, more "perfect" type of society to which a

number of intellectuals advocated a return. However, this was based on a misunderstanding of

Tönnies' work, improperly applying his concepts to the actual situation.

Thus, it is a mistake to regard

these classifications as

examples of real societies, and

to strive to make any society

purely Gemeinschaft or purely

Gesellschaft. A society that can

harmoniously combine the two

forms of association may prove

to be the most satisfying and

efficient.

In the figure mentioned here,

the direction of social change is directed. The one-sided gray horizontal arrows indicate

directions of change over historic time. The double-sided horizontal arrows indicate that the

variables are multivalued dimensions rather than binary concepts. The vertical arrows indicate

the dominant causal relations (Greenfield, Theory of Social Change and Human Development,

2009 p-406).

CRIME FROM GEMEINSCHAFT TO GESELLSCHAFT:

Tönnies’ sociology of crime, which occupied him for a period of nearly four decades,

covers the following issues: a theoretical conceptualization of crime; methodological issues in

the study of crime, including a measure of association of Tönnies’ own invention; a series of

empirical investigations of crime in Germany; and a policy-oriented perspective on criminal law

and the prevention of crime.

First, Tönnies differentiated between types of crime on the basis of their relationship to the social

environment. Tönnies argued to be the unmediated expression of certain social conditions, such

as the inequality of economic and moral classes, unemployment, illness, widowhood, orphan

hood, or psycho-moral degeneration. Second, other crimes are conceived as a more complex and

mediated expression of social conditions. As an example of the latter case, some crimes, Tönnies

suggested, had increased with the proletarianization of the masses and the disintegration of folk-

life (Volksgemeinschaft), while vagrancy, for instance, had decreased (Tönnies 1906).

What it says:

The era Tonnies endorsed during his life was full of surprises. Like after industrial

revolution the societies were distinguished. The people from rural areas were migrating towards

cities. Due to which the increase in crime rates were also observed. The distinction between the

societies were helpful to understand this phenomena of increasing crimes. And Tönnies also

distinguished between types of crime in terms of the psychological state of the criminal and the

social conditions of crime. Tönnies defended the position that statistics is both a method and a

science. His basic understanding was that numbers in social research might give only the

quantitate meanings but statistics are helpful to understand the patterns of crime. So the use of

science in social research was in hot debate during that days. The scholars from the industrial

revolution era were wanted to work for the betterment of societies as always. Adriana use of

positivism in determining the crime patterns by analyzing the PET scans is one example. Tonnies

is also one of them.

The historical fact remains that Tönnies’ writings in general, and particularly his crime studies,

have been neglected and that criminological sociology has developed without Tönnies. But

neglect of Tönnies’ criminological sociology has led to overlook an important contribution to the

study of crime and has impaired an adequate comprehension of Tönnies’ sociological project. It

doesn’t mean to suggest that Tönnies’ work can be useful for contemporary research on crime

but instead worked towards contextualizing his work, in theoretical, methodological, empirical,

and policy respects, in terms of its relationship to other similar projects in criminological

sociology in Tönnies’ days as well as relative to the contingencies of its historical reception, or,

as the case all too clearly is, the lack thereof.

Volunteerism (Metaphysics).

Voluntarism is a school of thought that regards the will as superior to the intellect and to

emotion. This description has been applied to various points of view, from different cultural eras,

in the areas of metaphysics, psychology, sociology, and theology. The term voluntarism was

introduced by Ferdinand Tönnies into the philosophical literature and particularly used by

Wilhelm Wundt and Friedrich Paulsen. Generally it refers to the primacy of the will over

intellect or emotion, Tonnies used the concept to refer to the ways in which people freely

associate with one another, and especially to the significance of both natural will (Wesenwille)

and relational (Kurwille).

For Tonnies, these expressions of the will are evidenced in two corresponding

dimensions of social life. Gemeinschaft as mentioned earlier refers to ‘community’, which

includes the natural bonds of family and embedded cultural identities, such as those stemming

from religion and vocation. Gesellschaft refers to society, and involves relationships and

commitments derived from the pursuit of personal interests and the achievement of goals

external to a person’s more fundamental communal identity. The mandates and expectations

involved in ‘community’ are expressions of the natural will and thus regulated from within the

community. The means and ends involved ‘society’ are formulated by self-interest expressed

through public opinion and regulated through mutual legislation.

This distinction between two types of will continued to influence the social sciences in

the 20th century. As socio-economic development caused communities to grow, the tension

between social engagement as an end in itself and social engagement as merely a means to ends

external to that engagement grew. Tonnies’s voluntaristic insights apply to the oft-perceived

divide between organic and artificial dimensions of society.

Review of A theory of public opinion (translated by Rowman and Littlefield,

2000).

In Tonnies' usage an opinion expressed in public is not public opinion nor are opinion polls

which reveal many publics with diverse opinions the same thing as general public opinion. The

latter is defined by its consensual nature. It may be strong or weak. A firm public opinion is more

characteristic of values and broad principles than of current events. Firm opinion has a normative

quality and exerts social pressure.

Anyone interested in the history of the field of collective behavior and social movements must

start with Tonnies and his claim that "holding and expressing opinions is an interactive process."

In the United States this field grew out of the work of Robert Park and Herbert Blumer at the

University of Chicago. Park studied in Germany at the turn of the Century and wrote his thesis

on the crowd and the public, although Tonnies does not refer to it here.

A central concern of this field is to study the processes through which individuals come together

to form a public with a common focus. Their behavior is "emergent" and to a degree fluid and

not guided in detail by the conventional culture. Through interaction individuals grapple with

how best to respond to novel or contentious situations lacking resolution, such as the disruption

following a natural disaster or lack of agreement on a society’s system of stratification.

Tonnies writing of "the dispersed audience" and "the large public" consisting of "spiritually

[rather than spatially] connected" individuals reminds us that many of the themes now associated

with cyberspace have origins in the emergence of national mass societies and earlier

technologies such as the printing press, telephone and film which link scattered individuals. He

noted the potential of the modern press system to eviscerate national borders and create a world

culture and single market. Current national states were but a transitory phenomenon in light of a

truly international Gesellschaft."

Tonnies was alert to the factors that effected audience reception of a message including the

sound of words as well as content and anticipating the concept of "reference group," he wrote of

"the opinion circles of recipients." He identified an embryonic concept of "opinion leader" and

he also noted the strong impact the "personality" of the message deliverer could have. His

analysis of propaganda stressing slogans, the sharpening of contrasts and the importance of

repetition anticipates work that was to come several decades later.

His work is an early example and implicit call for critical studies of the media. He directs

attention to the role of opinion leaders in helping to inform and thus form public attitudes. He

saw the pernicious effects unrestrained advertising and profit-seeking could have on media. He

foresaw the growth of the public relations field and alienated journalists in observing that some

paid writers follow, "…like all mercenaries, the flag whose bearer feeds him and promises

booty."

He notes that the "offer and ‘sale’ of one’s own opinion," while a form of personal freedom for

the seller, "converts the opinion directly into impersonal merchandise." He discusses some of the

means by which inauthentic opinions may be elicited (e.g., persuasion, flattery, future rewards,

threats, and orders).

He argues that the unreliability of the media of his day was not because of direct lies, but rather

(in offering what could be a job description for a contemporary spin master) because of their

tendency to, "inaccuracy, distortion, and conjecture as reality or high probability, addition or

exaggeration."

He also rallied against deception in communication in the form of hidden advertisements in

which a brand name is unobtrusively slipped into an unrelated feature story. Here

"shamelessness grows with the completeness of the disguise." With today’s visual media this has

been taken to a new level with product placement (e.g., slipping brand name consumer items into

film and television dramas) and there are continual efforts to improve various forms of

subliminal communication.

His consideration of opinions as commodities and of deception leads to the observation that

expressed opinions are not necessarily reflective of inner convictions. As with celebrities who

endorse products, the publicly expressed attitude, "becomes marketable regardless of whether

this or an opposite opinion is really harbored or adopted."

Implicit here, although not developed, is the idea that would gain important currency from later

research regarding the importance of context and the degree of independence between attitudes

and behavior. In noting that the person behaving in ways inconsistent with inner beliefs may

come to adjust beliefs to behavior, he hints at the idea of cognitive dissonance and reverses the

popularly assumed direction of the causal relationship (e.g., he suggests that behavior can

"cause" attitudes rather than the reverse).

Tonnies’s Political influence:

Tonnies influenced not only sociology, but also German political and national life. It is

only too obvious that his sympathy was for relationships of a community type, which he

regarded as a sort of natural moral code. His intention, in fact, was to prepare a moral as much as

a sociological work. Also, it has been suggested that his work is contributed to the proliferation

of German romantic and nationalist movements, including Nazism. But it must be recognized

that Tonnies is not the only sociologist to have revealed his personal inclination through his

work. Many other sociologists have had difficulty in hiding their sympathy for the ‘superiority’

of modern society over less advanced societies. Personal value judgments are always on the

threshold of sociology’s doorway to the world (Rocher. 2004).

Conception of will:

The conception of will in the thought of Tonnies is both central and difficult. In a general

sense, it refers to voluntary dimensions analyzed by Tonnies through the prism of a

Weberian ideal type. Gemeinschaft is linked to wesenville and Gesellschaft to kurville.

The Wesenville (natural will): This will drives those actions that are engaged in for their

intrinsic worth or their own sake. It is the basis for unconditional emotional bonding and a

reverence for tradition.

The Kurville (rational choice): This will refers to the human propensity toward a reasoned

selection among alternatives. Thus, the action of rational choice is willed because it is

instrumental in achieving ends.

Association:

The activities and goals that link people together in associations have been a primary

subject of sociological and anthropological research. In English, the term has been used to

translate Ferdinand Tonnies’s influential distinction between the two societies. The Gesellschaft

refers to as association and Gemeinschaft as community. A broad current of social research

adopted the Tonnies’s characterization of association as large in scale and constituted be

impersonal or contractual bonds. A variety of other definitions and theoretical tools address

group identity and interpersonal networks. The most common variable in such studies in the

degree to which the members of a group are abstracted from personal contact with one another. A

number of theories view associations as basic to stable functioning of Democracy, Pluralism, and

Civil Society, especially when these mediate between the individual and the state (Dictionary of

the Social Sciences. p- 23).

System of sociology:

Although Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887) established Tönnies’ reputation, his

system of sociology is better studied in his later works, particularly those published after 1925.

At this mature stage of his work Tönnies distinguished between a broad and a narrow concept of

sociology. The former included social biology, demography, and social psychology, while the

latter included only the study of social relationships, groups, norms, and values. Within the

narrower field, Tönnies established three methodologically distinct divisions or levels of inquiry:

(1) Theoretical or pure sociology as an integrated system of basic concepts.

(2) Applied sociology, a deductive discipline that uses the concepts of

theoretical sociology in order to understand and explain the origin and

development of society, in particular modern society.

(3) Empirical sociology or sociography, the latter term coined by Rudolf

Steinmetz (1935), which was never clearly defined by Tönnies but which

corresponds roughly to what is called sociological research in the United

States.

It was, of course, quite clear to Tönnies that these conceptual distinctions cannot be maintained

in the study of concrete social phenomena. Empirical sociological research must be oriented

toward a general theory of social interaction, and the physical existence and psychological

interaction of men must be given recognition.

Most influential work Reviews.

Community and society.

One of the first major studies of sociology, this book

explores the clash between small-scale neighborhood-based

communities and the large-scale competitive market society.

It considers all aspects of life — political, economic, legal,

family, religion and culture. Discusses construction of

"selfhood" and "personhood," and modes of cognition,

language, and understanding. In this he wrote the work Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft for which he is

recognized.

Custom : An Essay on Social Codes

In Custom, Ferdinand Tönnies illustrates the

relationship of custom to various aspects of culture,

such as religion, gender, and family. Tönnies argues

that all social norms are evolved from a basic sense of

order, which is largely derived from customs. As such, custom refers to the ideal, and the

desirable, and it mediates subjective aspects of social life. Tönnies makes observations in

Custom that are just as true today as when they were written over a century ago.

The pivotal idea in Tönnies work is the observation that custom, like its individual counterpart

habit, has three distinct aspects: a fact—an actual way of conduct; a norm—a general rule of

conduct; and a will. The analysis, extended into the field of collective behavior, helps to explain

how far custom can be regarded as a manifestation of a common will.

Custom is a classic contribution in the grand canon of law and society scholarship. Moreover, the

volume introduces several key elements of Tönnies’ work focusing on broader sociological

thought, which benefits both the theoretical understanding of law as an object of social science

reflection, as well as provides empirical insights into the roles of law in society.

Ferdinand Tönnies on Public Opinion: Selections and AnalysesThis book presents, for the first time in English, selections from Ferdinand

Tönnies' classic Kritik derffentlichen Meinung (Critique of Public Opinion).

Communication scholars Hanno Hardt and Slavko Splichal give a brief

history of public opinion and provide the translation and original analyses

of Tönnies’ work, situating it theoretically and historically. Featuring an

introduction by Gary T. Marx, this book highlights Tönnies' valuable

contributions to past and current theories of society, communication, and public opinion.

The final words…

Ferdinand Tonnies was inspired from the work of Thomas Hobbes, Friedrich Nietzsche,

and Immanuel Kant. His was known for his conception of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. This

theorization helps to understand the social structure, social relationship and social interactions.

He himself was living in a large farm house. But after industrialization, the changing social

structure influenced him to write about it. His study also influenced anthropological research. He

also gave conceptions of will and other related phenomena linked to the societies and psychology

of human beings. His work also influenced the study of criminology. Though this area is

overlooked more or less by the standard history of sociology. Tonnies most work is in German

language. He published more than 900 scholarships. But the basic convergence point among all

the work he was doing revolved around the society structure and integration among people of the

society. He is also known as the father of German sociology. We conclude all the debate by

quoting a scholar’s saying about him which explains that to understand his extensive work, one

book (Gemmeschaft and Gesellschaft, published in 1887 i.e. Community and society) is enough

to get the whole idea about his work.

”Tönnies was, in a sense, the author of just one book”

(Szacki, 1979)

From where text and thoughts have taken…

Amazon.comGoogle.com.pk/Google scholarFerdinand Tönnies. (n.d.). Retrieved January 9th, 2016, from http://biography.yourdictionary.com/ferdinand-tonniesTönnies, Ferdinand. 2001. Community and Civil Society. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521561191.Durkheim, Emile. 1997. The Division of Labor in Society. The Free Press. ISBN 0684836386.Tönnies, Ferdinand. Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe. Berlin/New York. Retrieved June 29, 2007.Truzzi, Marcello. 1971. Sociology: The Classic Statements. New York: Oxford University Press.http://study.com/cimages/multimages/16/tonnies.pnghttp://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Gemeinschaft_and_GesellschaftTruzzi, Marcello. 1971. Sociology: The Classic Statements. New York: Oxford University Press.Durkheim, Emile. ([1889b] 1972) ‘A Review of Ferdinand Tönnies’s Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft: Abhandlung des Communismus und des Socialismus als empirischer Culturformen’, American Journal of Sociology 77:1193-1199.https://books.google.com.pk/books/about/Custom.html?id=73llAwAAQBAJ&redir_esc=yhttp://deflem.blogspot.com/1999/08/ferdinand-tonnies-on-crime-and-society.htmlGarry T Max 2000. http://web.mit.edu/gtmarx/www/tonnies.html Forward to Ferdinand Tonnies, A Theory of Public Opinion. Cahnman, Werner J. (1968) ‘Toennies and Social Change’, Social Forces 47:136-144. Durkheim, Émile. (1889a) [Review of F. Tönnies, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft]. Revue Philosophique 27:416-422. https://ia600406.us.archive.org/10/items/philosophischet00tngoog/philosophischet00tngoog.pdfDictionary of the Social Sciences  By Craig Calhoun, Oxford University Preshttp://www.genrica.com/vustuff/handouts/SOC101_handouts_1_45.pdfhttp://users.ox.ac.uk/~linc2817/106b+Philosophy+of+Science.pdf1001 Ideas That Changed the Way We Think. https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=oY6YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA569&lpg=PA569&dq=voluntarism+ferdinand+tonnies&source=bl&ots=0Zie36NK7o&sig=GE3Lx8zt--evs6gwizTk-Fzgsyc&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=voluntarism%20ferdinand%20tonnies&f=false p-569. Retrieved from 9 January 2016Szacki, Jerzy (1979(, History of Sociological Thought, London: Aldwych Press.Werner Jacob Cahnman Ferdinand Tönnies: A New Evaluation https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=huEUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA133&lpg=PA133&dq=review+ferdinand+tonnies+books&source=bl&ots=Oh82GA97L2&sig=VD9P4iBZ5P6c7-UtxjPYI5OBucU&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=review%20ferdinand%20tonnies%20books&f=falseIntroduction to Sociology Guy Roucher 2004 https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=PU3iUENzmnEC&pg=PA178&lpg=PA178&dq=influence+tonnies&source=bl&ots=P_kKK6zMnl&sig=OTG-MFa3455Q2pc37tpT3QbkP5Y&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=influence tonnies&f=false. Retrieved date 22 December 2015. http://deflem.blogspot.com/1999/08/ferdinand-tonnies-on-crime-and-society.htmlhttp://www.slideshare.net/agonguezgarraway/lecture-3-history-sociology slide 36.

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