INTRODUCTIONWe have studed that Industra Revouton and Green Revoutonhave great contrbutons n the modern deveopment. Newresearches and nvestgaton n Scence and Technoogystrengthened our ehorts for deveopment n ndustra andagrcutura sectors.However,envronmentasts theword overdont have a better feeng for t as most of the moderndeveopment have been adopted at the cost of our naturaenvronment and ts resources. As such, the moderndeveopments havebeenadoptedat thecost of our naturaenvronment and ts resources. As such, the moderndeveopment has been decared to be unsustanabe. Asustanabe deveopment takes care of envronment and supportsa the sectons of the socety. It s based on equty andpreservaton of natura resources. In the present pro|ect we aregongtostudyaboutthempactof moderndeveopmentwth mpactof moderndeveopmentwthspeca reference to Gobazaton and Lberazaton. speca reference to Gobazaton and Lberazaton.IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT ON ENVIRONMENT IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT ON ENVIRONMENTModern deveopment has mmense mpact on dherent sectors ofnatura envronment. It has changed the pattern of and use andvast areas of and ncudng wet ands etc. Vast tracks of forestshavebeencearedfortheutzatonoftheforestandfortheextenson of agrcuture, budng of apartments andestabshment of factores. Most of our resources especay fossfues have been depeted consderaby. Human actvtes ofndustrazaton, mnngandquarryng, msuseandoveruseofresources etc. have caused serous poutons n ar, water and onandtogether wthcausnghabtat destructonandeventheextncton of severa speces of pants and anmas. Let us dscussthese mpacts n more detas.Land reclamationRecamng n Perth, Austraa 1964Land reclamation, usuay known asreclamation, s theprocess tocreatenewandfromseaorrverbeds. Theandrecamed s known as reclamation ground or landfll.HaitationThe entre East Coast Park n Sngapore was but on recamed and wth a man-madebeach.The creaton of new and was for the need of human actvtes.Notabe exampes n the West ncude arge parts of theNetherands, parts of New Oreans (whch s partay but on andthat was once swamp); much ofSan Francsco's waterfront hasbeen recamed from the San Francsco Bay; Mexco Cty (whch sstuated at the former ste ofLake Texcoco);Hesnk(of whchthe ma|or part of the cty center s but on recamed and); theCapeTownforeshore; theChcagoshorene; theMana Bayshorene;BackBay, Boston, Massachusetts;BatteryParkCty,Manhattan; Lberty State Park, |ersey Cty; the port of Zeebruggen Begum; the southwestern resdenta area n Brest, Bearus,thepodersoftheNetherands; andtheTorontoIsands,LeseStreet Spt, and the waterfrontn Toronto. In the Far East, HongKong, Macau, |apan, the southern Chnese ctes of Shenzhen, thePhppnecaptaMana, and the cty-stateofSngapore, whereand s n short suppy, are aso famous for ther ehorts on andrecamaton. Oneof theearest andfamous pro|ect was thePraya Recamaton Scheme, whch added 50 to 60 acres(240,000 m2) of and n 1890 durng the second phase ofconstructon. It wasoneof themost ambtous pro|ects evertaken durng the Coona Hong Kongera. Some 20% of and nthe Tokyo Bayarea has been recamed.Monacoand the Brtshterrtory of Gbratar are aso expandng due to and recamaton.The cty of Ro de |anero was argey but on recamed and, aswas Wengton, New Zeaand.Artca sands are an exampe of and recamaton. Creatng anartca sand s an expensve and rsky undertakng. It s oftenconsdered n paces that are densey popuated and at and sscarce.Kansa Internatona Arport(nOsaka) andHongKongInternatona Arportare exampes where ths process wasdeemed necessary. The Pam Isands, The Word and hote Bur| a-Arab oh Duba n the Unted Arab Emrates are other exampes ofartca sands.AgricultureAgrcuture was a drve for and recamaton beforendustrasaton. In South Chna, farmers recamed paddy edsbyencosnganareawthastonewa ontheseashorenearrver mouth or rver deta. The speces of rce that grow on thesegroundsaremoresattoerant. Another useof suchencosedand s creaton ofsh ponds. It s commony seen on the PearRver DetaandHongKong. Theserecamaton aso attractsspeces of mgratng brds.A reated practce s thedranngof swampy or seasonaysubmergedwetandstoconvert themtofarmand. Whethsdoes not create new and exacty, t aows commercayproductveuseof andthat woudotherwseberestrctedtowdfehabtat. It s aso an mportant method ofmosqutocontro.!eac" re#torationBeach rebudng s the process of reparngbeachesusngmateras such as sand or mud from nand. Ths can be used tobud up beaches suherng from beach starvaton or eroson fromongshoredrft. It stops themovement of theorgna beachmatera through ongshore drft and retans a natura ook to thebeach. Athought s not aong-astngsouton, t s cheapcompared to other types of coasta defences.LandfllAshumanovercrowdngof deveopedareasntenseddurngthe 20th century, t has become mportant to deveop and re-usestrategesfor competedands. Someof themost commonusages are for parks,gof coursesand other sports eds.Increasngy, however, omcebudngsandndustra usesaremadeonacompetedand. Intheseatter uses,methanecapture s customary carred out to mnmze exposve hazardwthn the budng.An exampe of a Cass A omce budng constructed over a andstheDaknBudngatSerraPont,Brsbane, Caforna. Theunderyng was deposted from 1965 to 1985, mostyconsstngofconstructondebrsfrom SanFrancscoandsomemuncpa wastes.Aera photographspror to1965showthsareatobetdeandsoftheSanFrancscoBay. Acaycapwasconstructed over the debrs pror to budng approva. Anotabe exampe sSydney OympcPark, the prmary venuefor the 2000 Summer Oympc Games, whch was but atop anndustra wasteand that ncuded ands.Another strategy for and s the ncneraton of and trash athgh temperature va the pasma-arc gascaton process, whchs currenty used at two factes n |apan, and w be used at apanned facty n St. Luce County, Forda. En$ironmental im%actParts (hghghted n brown) of the San Francsco Bay were recamed from wetands forurban use.Dranng wetands for poughng, for exampe, s a form of habtatdestructon. In some parts of the word, new recamaton pro|ectsare restrcted or no onger aowed, due toenvronmentaprotecton aws.En$ironmental legi#lationHong Kong egsators passed theProtecton of the HarbourOrdnancen1996nanehort tosafeguardthencreasngythreatenedVctora Harbouraganst encroachng anddeveopment. Land amount# addedLand recamaton n HongKong: Grey (but),red (proposed or under deveopment).Most of the urban area of Hong Kong s on the recamed and. Net"erland#- about 1/5andfromandrecamatonorabout 7,000 km2. &out"'orea- Asof 2006, 38percent or 1,550 km2ofcoasta wetands recamed, ncudng 400 km2atSaemangeum. &inga%ore- 20%of theorgna szeor 135 km2. Asof2003, pans for 99 km 2 more are to go ahead, despte thefactthat dsputespersstwthMaaysaoverSngapore'sextensve and recamaton works. Hong'ong- (Mainarticle:Landreclamation inHongKong)PrayaRecamatonSchemebeganntheate1860sandconsstedof twostagestotang50to60+acres.HongKong Dsneyand,Hong Kong Internatona Arport, and tspredecessor,Ka TakArport, werea but onrecamedand. Inaddton, muchrecamatonhas takenpacenprme ocatons on the waterfront on both sdes of VctoraHarbour. Ths has rasedenvronmentassues of theprotectonof theharbourwhchwasoncethesourceofprosperty of Hong Kong, tramc congeston n the Centradstrct, as we as the couson of the Hong KongGovernment wth the rea estate deveopers n the terrtory.Inaddton, asthectyexpands, newtownsndherentdecades were mosty but on recamed and, such as TuenMun, Ta Po, Shatn-Ma On Shan, West Kowoon, Kwun Tongand Tseung Kwan O. Macau - 170% of the orgna sze or 17 km2 Mumai To()o !a)* +a%an - 249 km2. 'oe* +a%an - 23 km2 (1995). !a"rain - 76.3% of orgna sze of 410 km2(1931-2007). Ne, -ealand- sgncant areas of and totang severahundred hectares have been recamed aong theharbourfront ofAuckand,WengtonandDunedn. InDunedn - whch n ts eary days was ncknamed "Mudedn"- around2.5 km2, ncudngmuchof thenner ctyandsuburbs of Dunedn North, South Dunedn and AndersonsBaysrecamedfromtheOtagoHarbour, andasmarareanthesuburbsofStCarandStKdasrecamedswampand.De.ore#tation|unge burned for agrcuture n southern Mexco.Deforestaton n the Gran Chaco, ParaguayDeforestatonandncreasedroad-budngntheAmazonRanforestareasgncant concernbecauseof ncreasedhumanencroachment uponwdareas, ncreased resource extracton and further threats to bodversty.De.ore#tation s the remova of a forest or stand of trees wherethe and s thereafter converted to a nonforest use. Exampes ofdeforestatonncudeconversonof forestandtoagrcutureorurban use.The term deforestation s often msused to descrbe any actvtywhere atrees n an area are removed. However n temperatemesc cmates, the remova of a trees n an area-nconformance wth sustanabe forestry practces-s correctydescrbed as regeneration harvest. In temperate mesc cmates,natura regeneraton of forest stands often w not occur n theabsence of dsturbance, whether natura or anthropogenc.Furthermore, bodversty after regeneraton harvest oftenmmcs that found after natura dsturbance, ncudngbodversty oss after naturay occurrng ranforest destructon. Deforestaton occurs for many reasons: trees or derved charcoaare used as, or sod, for fue or as umber, whe ceared and susedaspastureforvestock, pantatonsof commodtes, andsettements. The remova of trees wthout sumcent reforestatonhas resuted n damage to habtat, bodversty oss and ardty. Ithas adverse mpacts on bosequestratonof atmospherc carbondoxde. Deforested regons typcay ncur sgncant adverse soeroson and frequenty degrade nto wasteand.Dsregard or gnorance of ntrnsc vaue, ack of ascrbed vaue,axforest management anddecent envronmenta aws aresome of the factors that aow deforestaton to occur on a argescae. In many countres, deforestaton, both naturay occurrngandhumannduced, sanongongssue. Deforestatoncausesextncton, changestocmatccondtons,desertcaton, anddspacementofpopuatonsasobservedbycurrentcondtonsand n the past through the foss record. Among countres wth a per capta GDP of at east US$4,600, netdeforestaton rates have ceased to ncrease. Cau#e#There are many causes of contemporary deforestaton, ncudngcorrupton of government nsttutons, the nequtabe dstrbutonof weath and power, popuaton growth and overpopuaton, andurbanzaton. Gobazaton s often vewed as another root causeof deforestaton, though there are cases n whch the mpacts ofgobazaton (newows of abor, capta, commodtes, anddeas) have promoted ocazed forest recovery. In2000theUntedNatonsFoodandAgrcutureOrganzaton(FAO) foundthat "theroeof popuatondynamcs naocasettng may vary from decsve to neggbe," and thatdeforestaton can resut from"a combnaton of popuatonpressure and stagnatng economc, soca and technoogcacondtons." Accordng to the Unted Natons Framework Conventon onCmateChange(UNFCCC)secretarat,theoverwhemngdrectcause of deforestaton s agrcuture. Subsstence farmng sresponsbefor48%ofdeforestaton; commerca agrcuturesresponsbe for 32% ofdeforestaton;oggngsresponsbefor14%of deforestatonandfue woodremovasmakeup5%ofdeforestaton. Thedegradatonofforestecosystemshasasobeentracedtoeconomcncentvesthatmakeforestconversonappearmoreprotabe than forest conservaton. Many mportant forestfunctons have no markets, and hence, no economc vaue that sready apparent to the forests' owners or the communtes thatrey on forests for ther we-beng. From the perspectve of thedeveopng word, the benets of forest as carbon snks orbodverstyreservesgoprmarytorcher deveopednatonsand there s nsumcent compensaton for these servces.Deveopng countres fee that some countres n the deveopedword, suchas theUntedStates of Amerca, cut downtherforests centures ago and beneted greaty from thsdeforestaton, and that t s hypocrtca to deny deveopngcountres the same opportuntes: that the poor shoudn't have tobear the cost of preservaton when the rch created the probem. Experts do not agree on whether ndustra oggng s anmportantcontrbutortogoba deforestaton. Somearguethatpoor peope are more key to cear forest because they have noaternatves, others that the poor ack the abty to pay for thematerasandabour neededtocearforest. Onestudyfoundthat popuaton ncreases due to hgh fertty rates were aprmary drver of tropca deforestaton n ony 8% of cases. Some commentators have noted a shft n the drvers ofdeforestaton over the past 30 years. Whereas deforestaton wasprmary drven by subsstence actvtes and government-sponsored deveopment pro|ects ke transmgratonn countreske Indonesaand coonzatonn Latn Amerca,Inda,|avaetc.durng ate 19th century and the earer haf of the 20th century.By the 1990s the ma|orty of deforestaton was caused byndustra factors, ncudng extractve ndustres, arge-scaecatte ranchng, and extensve agrcuture. En$ironmental %rolem#Atmo#%"ericDeforestaton s ongong and s shapng cmate and geography. Deforestatonsacontrbutor togoba warmng, andsoftenctedasoneofthema|orcausesoftheenhanced greenhouseehect. Tropca deforestaton s responsbe for approxmatey20%of word greenhouse gas emssons. Accordng to theIntergovernmenta Pane on Cmate Changedeforestaton,many n tropca areas, coud account for up to one-thrd of totaanthropogenccarbon doxdeemssons. But recent cacuatonssuggest that carbondoxdeemssonsfromdeforestatonandforest degradaton (excudngpeatandemssons) contrbuteabout 12% of tota anthropogenc carbon doxde emssons wtha range from 6 to 17%. Trees and other pants remove carbon (ntheformofcarbondoxde) fromtheatmospheredurngtheprocess ofphotosynthessandreeaseoxygenback nto theatmosphere durng norma respraton. Ony when actveygrowng can a tree or forest remove carbon overan annuaoronger tmeframe. Both the decay and burnng of wood reeasesmuch of ths stored carbon back to the atmosphere. In order forforests totakeupcarbon, thewoodmust beharvestedandturnedntoong-vedproductsandtreesmust bere-panted.Deforestaton may cause carbon stores hed n so to bereeased. Forests are stores of carbon and can be ether snks orsourcesdependnguponenvronmenta crcumstances. Matureforestsaternatebetweenbengnet snksandnet sourcesofcarbon doxde (see carbon doxde snk and carbon cyce).Reducngemssonsfromthetropca deforestatonandforestdegradaton (REDD) n deveopng countres has emerged as newpotenta to compement ongong cmate poces. The deaconssts n provdng nanca compensatons for the reducton ofgreenhouse gas (GHG)emssonsfromdeforestatonandforestdegradaton".Ranforests are wdey beeved by aymen to contrbute asgncant amount of word's oxygen athough t s now acceptedby scentsts that ranforests contrbute tte netoxygento theatmosphere and deforestaton w have no ehect on atmosphercoxygeneves. However, thencneratonandburnngofforestpants to cear and reeases arge amounts of CO2, whchcontrbutes to goba warmng. Forestsareasoabetoextractcarbondoxdeandpoutantsfrom the ar, thus contrbutng to bosphere stabty.H)drologicalThe water cyce s aso ahected by deforestaton. Trees extractgroundwater through ther roots and reease t nto theatmosphere. Whenpart of aforest sremoved, thetreesnoonger evaporateawayths water, resutngnamuchdrercmate. Deforestatonreducesthecontentofwaternthesoand groundwater as we as atmospherc mosture. Deforestatonreducesso coheson, sothateroson, oodngandandsdesensue. Forests enhance the recharge of aqufers n some ocaes,however, forests are a ma|or source of aqufer depeton on mostocaes. Shrnkng forest cover essens the andscape's capacty tontercept, retan and transpreprecptaton. Instead of trappngprecptaton, whchthen percoates to groundwater systems,deforested areas become sources of surface water runoh, whchmoves much faster than subsurface ows. That qucker transportof surface water can transate ntoash oodngandmoreocazed oods than woud occur wth the forest cover.Deforestaton aso contrbutes todecreased evapotranspraton,whch essens atmospherc mosture whch n some cases ahectsprecptaton eves downwnd from the deforested area, as watersnot recycedtodownwndforests, but sost nrunohandreturns drecty to the oceans. Accordng to one study, ndeforested north and northwest Chna, the average annuaprecptaton decreased by one thrd between the 1950s and the1980s.Trees, and pants n genera, ahect the water cyce sgncanty: ther canopes ntercept a proporton of precptaton, whchs then evaporated back to the atmosphere (canopyntercepton); ther tter, stems and trunks sow down surface runoh; ther roots create macropores- arge conduts - n the sothat ncrease ntraton of water; theycontrbutetoterrestra evaporatonandreducesomosture va transpraton; ther tter and other organc resdue change so propertesthat ahect the capacty of so to store water. ther eaves contro thehumdtyof theatmospherebytransprng. 99% of the water absorbed by the roots movesup to the eaves and s transpred.|44|Asaresut, thepresenceorabsenceof treescanchangethequantty of water on the surface, n the so or groundwater, or ntheatmosphere. Ths nturnchanges erosonrates andtheavaabtyof water for ether ecosystemfunctonsor humanservces.The forest may have tte mpact on oodng n the case of argeranfaevents, whch overwhem the storage capacty of forestso f the sos are at or cose to saturaton.Tropca ranforestsproduce about 30%of our panet's freshwater.|37|&oilDeforestaton for the use of cay n the Brazan cty of Ro de |anero. The hdepcted s Morro da Covanca, n |acarepaguUndsturbed forests have a very ow rate ofsooss,approxmatey 2 metrc tonsper square kometer (6 short tonsper square me). Deforestaton generay ncreases rates of soeroson, byncreasngtheamount ofrunohandreducngtheprotecton of the so from tree tter. Ths can be an advantage nexcessvey eached tropca ran forest sos. Forestry operatonsthemsevesasoncreaseerosonthroughthedeveopment ofroads and the use of mechanzed equpment.Chna's Loess Pateauwas ceared of forest menna ago. Sncethen t has been erodng, creatng dramatc ncsed vaeys, andprovdngthesedment that gvestheYeowRver tsyeowcoor andthat causes theoodngof therver ntheowerreaches (hence the rver's nckname 'Chna's sorrow').Remova of trees does not aways ncreaseerosonrates. Incertanregonsof southwest US, shrubsandtreeshavebeenencroachngongrassand. Thetreesthemsevesenhancetheoss of grass between tree canopes. The bare ntercanopy areasbecome hghy erodbe. The USForest Servce, n BandeerNatona Monument for exampe, s studyng how to restore theformer ecosystem, and reduce eroson, by removng the trees.Tree roots bnd so together, and f the so s sumcenty shaowthey act to keep the so n pace by aso bndng wth underyngbedrock. Treeremova onsteepsopeswthshaowso thusncreases the rsk of andsdes, whch can threaten peope vngnearby. Howevermost deforestatononyahectsthetrunksoftrees, aowng for the roots to stay rooted, negatng theandsde.EcologicalDeforestaton resuts n decnes n bodversty. The removaordestructon of areas of forest cover has resuted n a degradedenvronment wth reducedbodversty. Forests supportbodversty, provdng habtat forwdfe; moreover, forestsfostermedcna conservaton. Wth forest botopes bengrrepaceabe source of new drugs (such as taxo), deforestatoncan destroygenetcvaratons (such as crop resstance)rretrevaby. Snce the tropca ranforests are the most dverse ecosystems onEarth and about 80% of the word's known bodversty coud befound n tropca ranforests, remova or destructon of sgncantareasof forest coverhasresutednadegradedenvronmentwth reduced bodversty. It has been estmated that we are osng 137 pant, anma andnsect speces every snge day due to ranforest deforestaton,whch equates to 50,000 speces a year. Others state thattropca ranforest deforestatonscontrbutngtotheongongHoocene mass extncton. The known extncton rates fromdeforestatonratesareveryow, approxmatey1specesperyear from mammas and brds whch extrapoates toapproxmatey 23,000 speces per year for a speces. Predctonshavebeenmadethatmorethan40%oftheanma and pantspeces n Southeast Asa coud be wped out n the 21st century.Suchpredctonswerecaedntoquestonby1995datathatshow that wthn regons of Southeast Asa much of the orgnaforest has been converted to monospecc pantatons, but thatpotentayendangeredspecesarefewandtreeoraremanswdespread and stabe. Scentc understandng of the process of extncton snsumcent to accuratey make predctonsabout the mpact ofdeforestaton on bodversty. Most predctons of forestry reatedbodversty oss are based on speces-area modes, wth anunderyng assumpton that as the forest decnes specesdversty w decne smary. However, many such modes havebeen proven to be wrong and oss of habtat does not necessaryeadtoargescaeoss of speces. Speces-area modes areknown to overpredct the number of speces known to bethreatened n areas where actuadeforestaton s ongong, andgreatyoverpredctthenumberofthreatenedspecesthatarewdespread. Economic im%actDamage to forests and other aspects of nature coud have vngstandardsfor the word's poorand reduce gobaGDPby about7%by2050, ama|or report concudedat theConventononBoogca Dversty (CBD) meetng n Bonn. Hstorcay utzatonof forest products, ncudng tmber and fue wood, have payed akey roe n human socetes, comparabe to the roes of water andcutvabeand. Today, deveopedcountrescontnuetoutzetmber for budng houses, and wood pup forpaper. Indeveopng countres amost three bon peope rey on wood forheatng and cookng. Theforestproductsndustrysaargepartoftheeconomynboth deveoped and deveopng countres. Short-term economcgans made by converson of forest to agrcuture, orover-expotaton of wood products, typcay eads to oss of ong-termncome and ong term boogca productvty (hence reducton nnature's servces).West Afrca,Madagascar,Southeast Asaandmany other regons have experenced ower revenue because ofdecnng tmber harvests. Iega oggng causes bons of doarsof osses to natona economes annuay. The new procedures to get amounts of wood are causng moreharmtotheeconomyandoverpowerstheamount of moneyspent by peope empoyed n oggng. Accordng to a study, "nmost areas studed, the varous ventures that prompteddeforestaton rarey generated more than US$5 for every ton ofcarbon they reeased and frequenty returned far ess thanUS$1". The prce on the European market for an ohset ted to aone-ton reducton n carbon s 23 euro (about US$35). Fore#t tran#ition t"eor)The forest transton and hstorca basenes. The forest area change may foow a pattern suggested by theforest transton(FT) theory, whereby at eary stages n tsdeveopment a country s characterzed by hgh forest cover andow deforestaton rates (HFLD countres). Thendeforestatonratesacceerate(HFHD, hghforestcover-hgh deforestaton rate), and forest cover s reduced (LFHD. owforest cover - hgh deforestaton rate), before the deforestatonrate sows (LFLD, ow forest cover - ow deforestaton rate), afterwhch forest cover stabzes and eventuay starts recoverng. FTs not a "aw of nature," and the pattern s nuenced by natonacontext (e.g., human popuaton densty, stage of deveopment,structure of the economy), goba economc forces, andgovernment poces. Acountrymayreachveryowevesofforest cover before t stabzes, or t mght through good pocesbe abe to "brdge" the forest transton.FT depcts a broad trend, and an extrapoaton of hstorca ratesthereforetendstounderestmatefutureBAUdeforestatonforcountesat theearystagesnthetranston(HFLD), whettends tooverestmateBAUdeforestatonfor countres at theater stages (LFHD and LFLD).Countres wth hgh forest cover can be expected to be at earystages of the FT. GDP per capta captures the stage n a countryseconomc deveopment, whch s nked to the pattern of naturaresourceuse, ncudngforests. ThechoceofforestcoverandGDP per capta aso ts we wth the two key scenaros n the FT:() aforest scarctypath, whereforest scarctytrggersforces(e.g., hgher prces of forest products) that ead to forest coverstabzaton; and()aneconomcdeveopmentpath, wherenewandbetteroh-farm empoyment opportuntes assocated wth economc growth(=ncreasngGDP per capta) reduce protabty of fronteragrcuture and sows deforestaton. Re#ource de%letionRe#ource de%letions aneconomctermreferrng to theexhauston of rawmateras wthn a regon.Resourcesarecommony dvded betweenrenewabe resourcesandnon-renewaberesources. (SeeasoMnera resourcecasscaton.)Useofetheroftheseformsofresourcesbeyondtherrateofrepacement s consdered to be resource depeton.Resource depeton s most commony used n reference to thefarmng, shng, mnng, and foss fues. Cau#e# o. re#ource de%letion Over-consumpton/excessve or unnecessary use ofresources Non-equtabe dstrbuton of resources Overpopuaton Sash and burn agrcutura practces, currenty occurrng nmany deveopng countres Technoogca and ndustra deveopment Eroson Irrgaton Mnng for o and mneras Aquer depeton Forestry Pouton or contamnaton of resourcesMineral# and oilMateras removed from the Earth are needed to provde humanswth food, cothng, and housng and to contnuay upgrade thestandard of vng. Some of the materas needed are renewaberesources, such as agrcutura and forestry products, wheothers are nonrenewabe, such as mneras. The USGS reportednMaterasFowandSustanabty(1998)thatthenumberofrenewabe resources s decreasng, meanwhe there s anncreasng demand for nonrenewabe resources. Snce 1900 theuseofconstructonmaterassuchasstone, sand, andgrave,has soared. The arge-scae expotaton of mneras began n theIndustra Revoutonaround1760nEngandandhas grownrapdyeversnce. Todayseconomysargeybasedonfossfues, mneras and o. The vaue ncreases because of the argedemand, but the suppy s decreasng. Ths has resuted n moreehortstodr andsearchotherterrtores. Theenvronmentsbengabusedandths depetonof resources s onewayofshowngthe ahects.Mnngstpoutesthe envronment,onyon a arger scae. The US government has produced the Cean ArAct, theCeanWaterAct, andtheResourceConservatonandRecoveryAct of 1976norder toreguatecertanaspectsofmnng but t s truy up to the ndvdua states to reguate t.Oil in t"e ArcticO has become one of the top resources used n Amerca. Drngfor o has become a ma|or ssue. Amerca s more abundant ncoa buttheehectsontheatmospherearefarworsethano.Geoogsts consder northern Aaska to be the ast, untouched oed n North Amerca. Envronmenta experts are worred that oand gas deveopment w serousy harm the area. In 2002 theUSGS assessed the NPRA and found a sgncanty greater suppyof petroeum (5,900,000 barres (938,000 m3) to13,200,000,000 barres (2.10109m3)) than prevousyestmated. Ony up to 5,600,000,000 barres (890,000,000 m3) ofthspetroeumaretechncayandeconomcayrecoverabeatexstng market prces. The USGS suspects that there may be asmuchas83.2troncubcfeetofundscoverednatura gasnthe same area. Transportaton of ths gas to markets woudrequreanewppene. Theresareadyappenesystemnpace for o-the Trans-Aaska Ppene System (TAPS), whch esbetween the NPRA and the Arctc Natona Wdfe Refuge(ANWR). TheANWRsa19-mon-acre(77,000km2) areaofwderness aong the Aaska-Canada border. It, too, s bengconsdered for o exporaton, a move strongy opposed byenvronmentasts. The future of the refuge es n the hands ofthe federa government. The admnstraton of George H. W. Bushmadedrngthereama|orfoundatonof thenatona energypocy. Under the Cnton admnstraton o and mneradeveopmentwasprohbtedwthnthewdferefuge. InApr2002, foowng heated debate; the U.S. Senate ked a proposaby the admnstraton of George W. Bush to et o companes drn ANWR. Repubcans rased the ssue agan n the fa of 2003,ctngtheneedforthenatontoreducetsdependenceonomported from the Mdde East. /etland#Awetand s a termusedto descrbe areas that are oftensaturated by enough surface or groundwater to sustanvegetatonthatsusuayadaptedtosaturatedso condtons,suchascattas, burushes, redmapes, wdrce, backberres,cranberres, and peat moss. Because some varetes of wetandsarerchnmneras andnutrents andprovdemanyof theadvantagesofbothandandwaterenvronmentstheycontandversespeces andpossby evenformafoodchan. Whenhuman actvtes take away resources many speces are ahected.Manyspeces actas anecosystem. Yearsago peope assumedwetands were useess so t was not a arge concern when theywere beng dug up. Many peope want to use themfordeveopng homes etc. On the other sde of the argument peopebeeve the wetands are a vta source for other fe forms and apart of the fe cyce.Wetands provde servces for:1) Food and habtat2) Improvng water quaty3) Commerca shng4) Foodwater reducton5) Shorene stabzaton6) RecreatonSomeoss of wetands resutedfromnatura causes suchaseroson, sedmentaton (the budup of so by the settng of nepartces over a ong perod of tme), subsdence (the snkng ofand because of dmnshng underground water suppes), and arse n the sea eve. However, 95% of the osses snce the 1970shavebeencausedbyhumans, especaybytheconversonofwetands to agrcutura and. More than haf (56%) the osses ofcoasta wetands resuted from dredgng for marnas, canas, portdeveopment, and, to some extent, fromnatura shoreneeroson. Theconversonofwetandscausestheossofnaturapoutant snks. The dramatc decne n wetands gobaysuggests not ony oss of habtat but aso dmnshedwaterquaty.Ero#ionEroson s the process n whch the materas of the Earth's crustarewornandcarredawaybywnd, water, andothernaturaforces. The destructon of forest (deforestaton) and natvegrasses has aowed water and wnd greater opportunty to erodethe so. Changes n rverow human actvty have dramatcayshftedtherunohpatternsof waterandthesedmentoadofrvers that depost nto akes and oceans. Eroson has become aprobem n much of the word n areas that are over farmed orwhere topso cannot be protected.Agrcutura ands are the man source of eroded so. Accordngto the U.S. Department of Agrcuture (USDA), approxmatey 20percent of thenaton'sandsset asdefor cropand. Three-quarters of ths and s actvey used to grow crops for harvestng.The remander s used for pasture or s ded for varous reasons.Demands on the Earth to feed growng popuatons and changesn the Earth's andscape caused by human actvtes havespeeded up so eroson.So erosonhas ncreased to the pontwheret far exceeds thenatura formatonof newso, andexperts consder the probem to be of epdemc proportons.Pollution and en$ironmental degradationthe rapd growng popuaton andeconomc deveopmentseadng to a number of en$ironmental i##ue# n India becauseof the uncontroed growth ofurbanzatonand ndustrazaton,expansonandmassventenscatonofagrcuture, andthedestructon of forests.Ma|or envronmenta ssues are Forest and Agrcutura anddegradaton, Resourcedepeton(water, mnera, forest, sand,rocksetc.,),Envronmenta degradaton, PubcHeath, LossofBodversty,Loss of resence n ecosystems, Lvehood Securtyfor the Poor.|1|It s estmatedthat thecountrys popuatonw ncreasetoabout 1.26 bonbytheyear 2016. Thepro|ectedpopuatonndcates that Inda w be the rst most popuous country n theword and Chna w be rankng second n the year 2050.|2| Indahavng18%oftheword'spopuatonon2.4%ofword'stotaarea has greaty ncreased the pressure on ts natura resources.Water shortages, so exhauston and eroson, deforestaton, arand water pouton amcts many areas.Inda'swatersuppyandsantatonssuesarereatedtomanyenvronmenta ssues.Ma0or i##ue#Oneof theprmarycausesof envronmenta degradatonnacountry coud be attrbuted to rapd growth of popuaton, whchadverseyahectsthenatura resourcesandenvronment. Theuprsng popuaton and the envronmenta deteroraton face thechaenge of sustanabe deveopment. The exstence or theabsenceof favorabenatura resourcescanfactateorretardtheprocess of soco-economc deveopment. Thethreebascdemographcfactorsof brths(nataty),deaths(mortaty) andhuman mgraton (mgraton) and mmgraton (popuatonmovng nto a country produces hgher popuaton) producechangesn popuaton sze,composton,dstrbutonand thesechangesraseanumber of mportant questonsof causeandehect. Popuaton growth and economc deveopment arecontrbutng to many serous envronmentacaamtes n Inda.These ncude heavy pressure on and,and degradaton, forests,habtat destructon and oss of bodversty. Changngconsumptonpatternhasedtorsngdemandforenergy. Thena outcomes of ths are ar pouton, goba warmng, cmatechange, water scarcty and water pouton.Envronmenta ssuesnIndancudevarousnatura hazards,partcuary cycones and annua monsoon oods, popuatongrowth, ncreasng ndvdua consumpton, ndustrazaton,nfrastructura deveopment, poor agrcutura practces, andresource madstrbuton have ed to substanta humantransformaton of Indas natura envronment. An estmated 60%of cutvatedandsuhersfromso eroson, wateroggng, andsanty. It s aso estmated that between 4.7 and 12 bon tonsof topso are ost annuay from so eroson. From 1947 to 2002,average annua per capta water avaabty decned by amost70% to 1,822 cubc meters, and overexpotaton of groundwaters probematc n the states of Haryana, Pun|ab, and UttarPradesh. Forestareacovers18.34%ofIndasgeographcarea(637000 km). Neary haf of the countrys forest cover s foundn the state of Madhya Pradesh (20.7%) and the seven states ofthe northeast (25.7%); the atter s experencng net forest oss.Forest cover s decnng because of harvestng for fue wood andthe expanson of agrcutura and. These trends, combned wthncreasng ndustra and motor vehce pouton output, have edto atmospherc temperature ncreases, shftng precptatonpatterns, and decnng ntervas of drought recurrence n manyareas.The Indan Agrcutura Research Insttute of Parvat hasestmated that a 3 C rse n temperature w resut n a 15 to20% oss n annua wheat yeds. These are substanta probemsfor anatonwthsuchaargepopuatondependngontheproductvtyof prmaryresourcesandwhoseeconomcgrowthrees heavy on ndustra growth. Cv concts nvovng naturaresources-most notaby forests and arabe and-have occurredn eastern and northeastern states.Pollution/ater %ollutionOut of Inda's 3,119towns andctes, |ust 209havepartatreatmentfactes, andony 8 have fu wastewatertreatmentfactes(WHO1992). 114ctesdumpuntreatedsewageandpartay cremated bodes drecty nto theGanges Rver.Downstream, the untreated water s used for drnkng, bathng,and washng. Ths stuaton s typca of many rvers n Inda aswe as other deveopng countres.Opendefecatons wdespreadevennurbanareas of Inda.Water resources have not therefore been nked to etherdomestc or nternatona voent conct as was prevousyantcpated by some observers. Possbe exceptons ncude somecommuna voencereatedtodstrbuton of water fromtheKaver Rverand potca tensons surroundng actua andpotenta popuaton dspacements by dam pro|ects, partcuaryon theNarmada Rver.Pun|abs today another hotbed ofpouton, for exampe,Buddha Nuah, a rvuet whch runthrough Mawa regon of Pun|ab, Inda, and after passng throughhghypopuatedLudhanadstrct, beforedranngntoSute|Rver, a trbutary of the Indus rver, s today an mportant casepont n the recent studes, whch suggest ths as another Bhopan makng. A |ont study by PGIMER and Pun|ab Pouton ControBoard n 2008, reveaed that n vages aong the Nuah,cacum, magnesum, uorde, mercury, beta-endosuphanandheptachorpestcdeweremorethanpermssbemt(MPL)nground and tap waters. Pus the water had hgh concentraton ofCODand BOD(chemca and bochemca oxygen demand),ammona, phosphate, chorde, chromum, arsenc andchorpyrfos pestcde. The ground water aso contans ncke andseenum, whethetapwaterhashghconcentratonof ead,ncke and cadmum. TheMth Rver, whchows throughthecty ofMumba, sheavy pouted.The GangesMons depend on the pouted Ganges rver.Man artce: Pouton of the GangesToknowwhy1,000Indanchdrendeof darrhoea scknessevery day, take a wary stro aong the Ganges n Varanas. As tentersthecty, Hndusmssacredrvercontans60,000faecacoformbacteraper 100mtres, 120tmes morethansconsdered safe for bathng. Four mes downstream, wth nputsfrom 24 gushng sewers and 60,000 pgrm-bathers, theconcentraton s 3,000 tmes over the safety mt. In paces, theGangesbecomesbackandseptc. Corpses, of sem-crematedaduts or enshrouded babes, drft sowy by.- The Economist on December 11, 2008Morethan400 monpeopeveaongtheGangesRver. Anestmated2,000,000personsrtuaybathedayntherver,whch s consdered hoy by Hndus. In the Hndu regon t s sadto ow from the otus feet ofVshnu(forVasnavadevotees) orthe har ofShva(forSavtes). The sprtua and regoussgncance coud be compared to what the Ne rver meant totheancent Egyptans. WhetheGanges maybeconsderedhoy, there are some probems assocated wth the ecoogy. It sedwthchemca wastes, sewageandeventheremansofhumanandanma corpseswhchcarryma|or heathrsksbyether drect bathng n the water (e.g.: Bharzass nfecton), orby drnkng (the Feca-ora route).The YamunaNewsWeekdescrbesDeh'ssacredYamunaRveras"aputrdrbbon of back sudge" where feca bactera s 10,000 over safetymts despte a 15-year program to address the probem. Choeraepdemcs are not unknown. Air %ollutionAr pouton s hgh n Indan ctes.See aso: Goba warmng n IndaIndanctes arepoutedbyvehces andndustryemssons.Roaddust duetovehcesasocontrbutngupto33%ofarpoutonIn ctes ke Bangaore, around 50% of chdren suherfromasthma. Indahasemssonstandardof Bharat StageII(Euro II) for vehces snce 2005. OneofthebggestcausesofarpoutonnIndasfromthetransport system. Hundreds of mons of oddese engnescontnuousyburnngawaydese whchhasanythngbetween150 to 190 tmes the amount of suphur out European dese has.Of course the bggest probems are n the bg ctes where thereare huge concentratons of these vehces. On the postve sde,the government appears to have notced ths massve probemand the assocated heath rsks for ts peope and s sowy butsurey takng steps. The rst of whch was n 2001 when t ruedthat ts entre pubc transport system, excudng the trans, beconverted from dese to compressed gas (CPG). Eectrcrckshaws arebengdesgnedandw besubsdsedby thegovernment but the supposed ban on the cyce rkshaws n Dehw requre a huge ncrease on the reance of other methods oftransport, many those wth engnes.It asoappearedthat theexcessvepoutonwas havnganadverse ehect on the Ta| Maha. After a court rung a transportn the area was shut down shorty foowed by the cosure of andustra factores n the area. The ar pouton n the bg ctes srsng to such an extent that t s now 2.3 hgher than the amountrecommendedbyWHO(wordheathorganzaton).!oll"tionthro"gh #remation b$ %avita %ethi &"blished b$ !ar$avaran%anra'shan ($as 200))Noi#e %ollutionThe Supreme Court of Indagave a sgncant verdct on nosepoutonn 2005. Unnecessary honkngof vehces makes for ahgh decbeeve of nose n ctes. The use ofoudspeakersforpotca purposes and by tempes and mosquesmake for nosepouton n resdenta areas.RecentyGovernment ofIndahassetupnorms ofpermssbenose eves n urban and rura areas. How they w be montoredand mpemented s st not sure.Land %ollutionLand pouton n Inda s due to pestcdes and fertzers as weascorrosonInMarch2009, thessueofUranumposonngnPun|ab came nto ght, caused by y ash ponds of therma powerstatons, whch reportedy ead to severe brth defects n chdrenn the Fardkot and Bhatnda dstrcts of Pun|ab. ECONOMIC REFORM&1 LI!ERALI-ATION AND2LO!ALI-ATIONLI!ERALI-ATIONIn genera,lierali3ation(orlierali#ation) refers to areaxaton of prevous government restrctons, usuay n areas ofsoca or economc pocy. In some contexts ths process orconcept soften, but not aways, referredtoasdereguaton.Lberazaton of autocratc regmes may precededemocratzaton (or not, as n the case of the Prague Sprng).In the arena of soca pocy t may refer to a reaxaton of awsrestrctng for exampedvorce,aborton,homosexuatyordrugs.Most often, the term s used to refer to economc berazaton,especay trade berazaton or capta market berazaton.Athough economc berazaton s often assocated wthprvatzaton, the two can be qute separate processes. Forexampe, the European Unonhas berazed gasand eectrctymarkets, nsttutngasystemofcompetton; but someof theeadng European energy companes (such as EDF and Vattenfa)reman partay or competey n government ownershp.Lberazed and prvatzed pubc servcesmay be domnated by|ust a few bg companes partcuary n sectors wth hgh captacosts, or hgh such as water, gas and eectrcty. In some casesthey may remanegamonopoyat east for some part of themarket (e.g. sma consumers).Lberazaton s one of three foca ponts (the others bengprvatzatonandstabzaton) of theWashngtonConsensus'strnty strategy for economes n transton. An exampe ofLberazaton s the "Washngton Consensus" whch was a set ofpoces created and used by ArgentnaThere s aso a concept of hybrd berasaton as, for nstance, nGhanawhere cocoa crop can be sod to a varety of competngprvate companes, but there s a mnmum prce for whch t canbe sod and a exports are controed by the state.Economic lierali3ationEconomcberazatoni#a$er)roadtermt"at u#uall)re.er#to .e,ergo$ernmentregulation#andre#triction#in t"e econom) in e4c"ange .or greater %artici%ation o.%ri$ate entitie#5 t"e doctrine i# a##ociated ,it"neolierali#m6 T"e argument# .or economic lierali3ationincludegreater e7cienc)ande8ecti$ene##t"at ,ouldtran#late to a 9igger %ie9 .or e$er)od)6Most rst word countres, n order to reman gobaycompettve, havepursuedthepathofeconomcberazaton:parta or fu prvatsaton of government nsttutons and assets,greater abour-market exbty, ower tax rates for busnesses,ess restrcton on both domestc and foregn capta, openmarkets, etc. BrtshPrme MnsterTony Barwrote that:"Successw gotothosecompanesandcountreswhchareswft to adapt, sow to compan, open and wng to change. Thetask of modern governments s to ensure that our countres canrse to ths chaenge." Indeveopngcountres, economcberazatonrefersmoretoberazaton or further "openng up" of ther respectveeconomes to foregn capta and nvestments. Three of thefastestgrowngdeveopngeconomestoday;Braz,ChnaandInda, have acheved rapd economc growth n the past severayears or decades after they have "berazed" ther economes toforegn capta. Many countres nowadays, partcuary those n the thrd word,arguaby have no choce but to aso "beraze" ther economesn order toreman compettve n attractng and retanng bothther domestcandforegnnvestments. InthePhppnesforexampe, the contentous proposas forCharter Changencudeamendngtheeconomcayrestrctveprovsonsof ther1987consttuton. The tota opposteof a berazedeconomy woudbeNorthKorea's economy wth ther cosed and "sef sumcent" economcsystem.NorthKoreareceves hundreds of mons of doarsworthof adfromother countresnexchangefor peaceandrestrctons n ther nucear programme. Another exampe woudbe o rch countres such asSaud ArabaandUnted ArabEmrates, whch see no need to further open up ther economesto foregn capta and nvestments snce ther o reserves areadyprovde them wth huge export earnngs.Lierali#ation o. #er$ice# in t"e de$elo%ing ,orldPotential eneft# o. trade lierali#ationThe servce sector s probaby the most berased of the sectors.Lberasatonoherstheopportuntyforthesectortocompetenternatonay, contrbutng to GDP growth and generatngforegn exchange. As such, servce exports are an mportant partof many deveopng countres' growth strateges. Inda's ITservces have become gobay compettve as many companeshaveoutsourcedcertanadmnstratvefunctons tocountreswhere costs are ower. Furthermore, f servce provders n somedeveopng economes are not compettve enough to succeed onword markets,overseascompaneswbeattracted to nvest,brngng wth them nternatona best practces and better sksandtechnooges. Theentryofforegnservceprovderssnotnecessary a negatve deveopment and can ead to betterservces for domestc consumers, mprove the performance andcompettveness of domestc servce provders, as we as smpyattract FDI/foregn capta nto the country. In fact, some researchsuggest a 50% cut n servce trade barrers over a ve- to 10-year perodwoudcreategoba gansneconomcwefareofaround $250 bon per annum.Potential ri#(# o. trade lierali#ationYet, trade berasaton aso carres substanta rsks thatnecesstatecarefu economcmanagementthrough appropratereguaton by governments. Some argue foregn provders crowdout domestc provders and nstead of eadng to nvestment andthe transfer of sks, t aow foregn provders and sharehoderstocapture theprots for themseves, takng themoneyoutofthe country. Thus, t s often argued that protecton s needed toaow domestc companes the chance to deveop before they areexposed to nternatona competton. Other potenta rsksresutng from berasaton, ncude: Rsks of nanca sector nstabtyresutngfromgobacontagon Rsk of bran dran Rsk of envronmenta degradatonHowever, researchers at thnks tanks such as theOverseasDeveopment Insttutearguethersksareoutweghedbythebenets andthat what s neededs carefu reguaton|4|. Fornstance, there s a rsk that prvate provders w skm oh themostprotabecentsandceasetoservecertanunprotabegroupsofconsumersorgeographca areas. Yetsuchconcernscoud be addressed through reguaton and by a unversa servceobgatonsncontracts, ornthecensng, topreventsuchastuaton from occurrng. Of course, ths bears the rsk that thsbarrer to entry w dssuade nternatona compettors fromenterngthemarket (seeDereguaton). Exampesof suchanapproach ncude South Afrca's Fnanca Sector Charter or Indannurses who promoted the nursng professon wthn Inda tsef,whchhas resutednarapdgrowthndemandfor nursngeducaton and a reated suppy response.2LO!ALI-ATION2loali#ation(orgloali3ation) descrbes the process bywhch regona economes, socetes, and cutures have becomentegratedthroughagoba networkof potca deasthroughcommuncaton, transportaton, and trade. The terms mostcosey assocatedwth the termeconomc gobazaton: thentegraton of natona economes nto the nternatona economythrough trade, foregn drect nvestment, capta ows, mgraton,the spread oftechnoogy, andmtarypresence. However,gobazaton s usuay recognzed as beng drven by acombnatonof economc, technoogca, sococutura, potca,and boogca factors. The term can aso refer to thetransnatona crcuaton of deas, anguages, orpopuar cuturethroughaccuturaton. Anaspectof thewordwhchhasgonethrough the process can be sad to be gloali#ed.Defnition#Accordng to theOxford Engsh Dctonary, the word'gobazaton' was rst empoyed n a pubcaton enttedTo*ards(e*Ed"cationn1952, todenoteahostcvewofhuman experence n educaton. An eary descrpton ofgobazaton was penned by the Amercan entrepreneur-turned-mnsterCharesTazeRussewhoconedtheterm'corporategants' n 1897, athough t was not unt the 1960s that the termbegan to be wdey used by economsts and other socascentsts. The term has snce then acheved wdespread use nthemanstreampressbytheaterhafofthe1980s. Sncetsncepton, theconcept of gobazatonhasnsprednumerouscompetng dentons and nterpretatons, wth antecedentsdatng back to the great movements of trade and empre acrossAsa and the Indan Ocean from the 15th century onwards.The Unted NatonsESCWAsaysgobazaton "sa wdey-usedterm that can be dened n a number of dherent ways. Whenusednaneconomc context, t refers tothereductonandremova of barrers between natona borders n order to factatethe ow of goods, capta, servces and abor... athoughconsderabe barrers reman to the ow of abor... Gobazatons not anewphenomenon. It begantowards theendof thenneteenth century,but tsowed down durngthe perod fromthestart of theFrst WordWar unt thethrdquarter of thetwenteth century. Ths sowdown can be attrbuted to thenward-ookngpoces pursuedby a number of countres norder to protect ther respectve ndustres... however, the paceof gobazaton pcked up rapdy durng the fourth quarter of thetwenteth century..." HSBC, the word's argest bank, operates across the gobe. Shown here s the HSBCGoba Technoogy Centre n Pune, Inda whch deveops software for the entre HSBCgroup. Tom |. Pamer of the Cato Insttutedenes gobazaton as "thedmnuton or emnaton of state-enforced restrctons onexchangesacrossbordersandthencreasngyntegratedandcompexgoba systemof productonandexchangethat hasemerged as a resut." Thomas L. Fredman has examned the mpact of the "attenng"of the word, andargues thatgobazed trade,outsourcng,suppy-channg, andpotca forces havechangedthewordpermanenty, for both better and worse. He aso argues that thepace ofgobazatonsquckenngandw contnue tohaveagrowng mpact on busness organzaton and practce.Herman E. Dayargues that sometmes the termsnternatonazatonandgobazatonareusednterchangeabybut there s a sgncant forma dherence. The term"nternatonazaton" (or nternatonasaton) refers to themportance of nternatona trade, reatons, treates etc. owng tothe(hypothetca) mmobtyof abor andcapta betweenoramong natons.Fnay, Taks Fotopouos argues that gobazaton s the resut ofsystemctrendsmanfestngthemarketeconomy'sgrow-or-dedynamc, foowng the rapd expanson of transnatonacorporatons. Because these trends have not been ohsetehectvey by counter-tendences that coud have emanated fromtrade-unon acton and other forms of potca actvty, theoutcome has been gobazaton. Ths s a mut-facetedandrreversbe phenomenon wthn the systemof the marketeconomy and t s expressed as: economc gobazaton, namey,the openng and dereguaton of commodty, capta and abourmarkets whch ed to the present form of neobera gobazaton;potca gobazaton, .e., the emergence of a transnatona eteand the phasng out of the a powerfu naton-state of the statstperod; cutura gobazaton, .e., the wordwde homogensatonof cuture; deoogca gobazaton; technoogca gobazaton;soca gobazaton. IMPACT OF LI!ERALI-ATION AND 2LO!ALI-ATIONLI!ERALI-ATIONIm%act on agricultureThe Word Trade Organzaton (WTO) (1995) s the successor ofthe Genera Agreement on Tarhs and Trade (GATT) and the mangoas of the WTO are to create free trade and to avodprotectonsm. The man probems wthn the WTO arse on theareas of nteectua property rghts, servces and agrcuture.1 Regardngagrcuture, theprobems arsemany duetothema|or dherencesnagrcuturepocesof thedeveopedanddeveopng countres. Whe deveoped countres tend tosubsdze ther farmers heavy (whch depress word prces andnduce producton), ow-ncome countres tend to mposereatvey hgh taxes on farmers n the export sector as anmportant source of sca revenue. Hgh taxaton of agrcuture sassocated wth ower growth n agrcuture, many because thetaxes are hgh and the tax revenues n agrcuture are ow andnemcent. But nmanydeveopngcountres agrcutures aarge share n the gross domestc product (GDP) and the taxes onagrcuture are necessary for broader deveopmentaprograms.Ths s one of the reasons that most attenton has been gven toreduce the negatve ehects of deveoped countres on deveopngcountres, through openng the markets and remove deveopedcountres subsdy poces. 2 The European Unon (EU) has one of the hghest eves ofprotectonsm (many n sugar) and wth the expanson of the EUmorecountresncreasether protectonsm. TheWTOtrestodecrease the amount of protectonsm, but reforms are not easyand often requre barganed compromses andcompensatonschemes for the osers to get agreement on further reducng hgheves of agrcuture protecton. 2,3 Accordng to the 2006 Word bank study, fu trade berazatonwoudgveaganof 9%ngoba agrcutureexport for thedeveopng countres.Fu berazatonwoudhowevercauseadecreasensubsdes nother countres. Ths woudgveanncreasenprceswhchwoudhaveanegatveehectonpoormportngdeveopngcountres. Evenwthncountresthswgve dherences; net-seng farmers w benet whe net-buyerhousehodsmayoseduetohgherfoodprcesftheyarenotcompensated for the ncrease. 2 Ths ndcates that not everybody w gan from agrcuture tradeberazaton but ngenera when deveopedanddeveopngcountryagrcuturepocesarecombned(theattermanynncreasng ther agrcuture emcency and tax reforms) theproporton of popuaton experencng poverty w dmnsh. 2 There are however aso dsadvantages of fu trade berazatonof agrcuture. Agrcuture s dherent fromother economcsectors as agrcuture s sub|ect to unstabe weather and marketcondtons whch can cause hgh prces durng a harvest faureand ow prces due to oversuppy n the next season as farmersw ncreasether producton. Secondyagrcuturesdherentbecause t has mportant mpcatons on pubc heath, as foodhas to be safe and secure. Exampes are doxns n poutry, madcow dsease (BSE) and genetcay moded organsms. 2,4 Indeveopngcountrestshardertoad|usttothehghfoodstandards of the deveoped countres, as both the materas asthemethods(e.g. knowngwhchchemcascanbeusedandwhch not.) are mssng. Ony openng the market w thereforenot be enough. Besdes ths, the fu trade andnon-safefoodswhchw haveanehectonpubcheath.Moreeducatonandopportuntytorasetheamount of safeagrcuture n deveopng countres s necessary to ncrease theword pubc heath. Fu trade berazaton aone wthereforeaone be not beneca; other measurements have to be taken atthe same tme. 1) R. Gpn,The challenge of global ca&italism, the *orldeconom$ in the 21th cent"r$+ Prnceton unversty press 2000 2) Worddeveopment report2008chapter 4reformngtrade,prce and subsdy poces - Low-ncome countres tend to mpose reatvey hgh taxes onfarmersntheexport sector asanmportant sourceof scarevenue whe deveopedcountres tendto heavy subsdzefarmers (whch depresses word prces) - The economc andsoca costs of todays trade, prce andsubsdy poces n word agrcuture are arge and suppressagrcuture output growth n deveopngcountres. Correctngthose pocy and nvestment faures can acceerate growth andreduce poverty 3) M. Cn, E"ro&ean "nion &olitics, oxford unversty press 2007 4) Daugb|erg, Swnbank, #"rbing agric"lt"ral e,ce&tionalism: theE- res&onse to e,ternal challenge. The word economy 2008 Im%act on toacco con#um%tionThe recent trend towards the ncreased berazaton of trade nmost goods andservces has sgncanty reduced hgh-tarh and non-tarhbarrers to trade n tobacco and tobacco products andcontrbutedtothesharpncreasentobaccouse nmanyow-ncome and mdde-ncome countres. Over the past twodecades, thevarousbatera, regona, andmutatera tradeagreements that many natons have adopted have ed tosgncantygreater compettonndomestctobaccomarkets.Ths ncreased competton has amost certany beenaccompaned by reduced prces for tobacco products anddramatcncreasesntheadvertsngandpromotonof theseproducts. There are severa basc reasons why nternatona traden tobacco and tobacco products has arsen. There are severa basc reasons why nternatona trade ntobacco and tobacco products has arsen Grse (1990) andChaoupka and Corbett (1998), for exampe, suggest thefoowng:(1) acountrys nabtytodomestcayproducetobaccoandtobacco products n sumcent quantty to satsfy domestcdemand for these products;(2) acountrys nabtytodomestcayproducetobaccoandtobacco products of sumcenty hgh quaty to satsfy domestcdemand;(3) dherences n prces among countres for dherent types andquates of tobacco and tobacco products; and(4) the mportng of unmanufactured tobacco for use nproducng tobacco productsfor exports. In addton, n some countres, tobacco and/or tobacco productsare an mportant source of foregn currency. In recent years, forexampe, Zmbabwe exported neary a of ts tobacco crop, wththese exports accountng for neary one-quarter of ts totaexport earnngs (Maravanyka 1998).Goba trade n tobacco and tobacco products, whe notnsgncant, woud have been much hgher n the past had therenot been a varety of restrctve trade poces and other pocesprotectng domestc tobacco growers andproducers of tobaccoproductsfromforegncompetton(Grse1990). Thesebarrersncude hgh tarhs on mported tobacco and/or tobacco products,quotas or compete bans on mports, domestc prce-supportprograms, marketng restrctons, censng requrements,restrcted product sts, exchange contros, domestc contentrequrements, andsubsdesoncutvaton orproducton(Grse1990).There are few ratonaes for trade barrers that are economcay|ustabe, ncudng the temporary protecton of an nfantndustry and the use of protectonstc nterventons as atemporarystrategy for promotngeconomc deveopment. Asevdence on the heath consequences of smokng hasaccumuated, somehavearguedforrestrctngtobacco-reatedtrade as a way to reduce the death and dsease resutng fromtobaccouse. (WhetheWordBankdoesnot seektorestrcttrade,tdoesrestrct theuseof Bank funds(seeBox).Smarargumentshavebeenusedtodefendtraderestrctonsnthecase of other goods wth negatve externates. These argumentsaremostwe deveopedntheareaof envronmenta poces(see,forexampe,Anderson andBackhurst1992),wth recentresearchadaptngthesearguments toconsder thenegatveexternates assocated wth tobacco use (Sh and Hseh 1998).In practce, however, trade restrctons have often been used toprotect state-owned monopoes on tobacco producton anddstrbuton that generate a sgncant share of tota governmentrevenues n these countres.Moreover, the arguments that heathconcerns are a |ustcaton for mtng trade have typcay notbeen accompaned bystrong ehorts to reduce the consumptonof domestcay produced cgarettes and other tobacco products.!o41 The Word Banks pocy on tobaccoThe Word Banks actvtes n the heath sector-ncudng sectorwork, pocydaogue, and endng-dscourage the use of tobacco products.The Word Bank does not end drecty for, nvest n, or guaranteenvestmentsor oans for, tobacco producton, processng, or marketng.Exceptons, whchmust be approved, may be aowed for countres that are heavydependent ontobacco as a source of ncome (especay for poor farmers andfarm workers)and foregn exchange earnngs (.e. those where tobaccoaccounts for more than10% of exports). The Word Bank seeks to hep these countresdversfy awayfrom tobacco.To the extent practcabe, the Word Bank does not end ndrectyfor tobaccoproducton actvtes, athough some ndrect support of thetobacco economymay occur as an nseparabe part of a pro|ect that has a broaderset of ob|ectvesand outcomes (e.g. rura roads).Unmanufactured and manufactured tobacco, tobacco processngmachneryand equpment, and reated servces are ncuded n the negatvest of mportsn Word Bank Loan Agreements.Tobacco and tobacco-reated producer or consumer mports maybe exemptfromborrowers agreementswththeWordBanktoberazetrade and reducetarh eves.Source: the Word Bank (1991).Ingenera, economctheorypredctsthat barrerstotradentobaccoandtobaccoproductsw reducethetota suppyofthese products whe rasng thequantty supped by domestcgrowers and producers. Consequenty, the prces for rawtobacco, cgarettes, and other tobacco products are key to behgher under ths scenaro than they woud n the absence of thetrade barrers. Gven the we-documented evdence on theehects of prce on tobacco use, hgher prces w ead to reducedcgarette smokng andower use of other tobacco products.Gventhecearnksbetweentobaccouse and adverseheathoutcomes ,the reduced consumpton w ead n the ong-term tomproved heath. Domestc suppers w generay benet fromther hgher eves of growng and producton and from the hgherprcestheyreceve. Foregnsuppers, however, w usuaybeworse oh as a resut of ther reduced access to protectedmarkets. In contrast, ncreasng trade berazaton, as a resut of batera,regona, and mutatera trade agreements, s key to have theopposteehect. Reductons nthebarrers totobacco-reatedtradew keyeadtogreatercompettonnthemarketsfortobacco and tobacco products, reductons n the prces fortobaccoproducts, andncreasedadvertsngandpromotonofthese products. The ncreases n advertsng and promoton wnot ony resut from the ehorts of entrants to gan a foothod nthe newy opened markets, but are aso key to reect ncreasedactvtybyexstngrmsattemptngtomantanther marketsharesnthemorecompettveenvronment.Gventhenversereatonshp between prce and consumpton, as we as thepostve reatonshp between advertsng/promoton and demandcgarette smokngandother tobacco use w key ncreaseunder ths scenaro as tobacco markets become more open. As aresut, the death and dsease resutng from tobacco use w asoncrease. However, the berazaton of trade n other goods and servces sexpected to have substanta economc benets, ncudngncreased ncomes, greater empoyment, more stabe prces,greater nnovaton, and more rapd economc growth (WordTrade Organzaton 1998a;Yeen 1998), wth perhaps the greatestmpact n deveopng countres(Edwards 1992). Edwards, forexampe, n a sampe of 30 deveopng countres, found strongevdence that growth was hgher n countres wth more beratradepoces. Theres strongevdenceonthenkbetweenncome and heath, partcuary at ower ncome eves,suggestng that overa trade berazaton can ead to mprovedheathoutcomes(Preston1976; ChaoupkaandCorbett1998).However, the ncreased tobacco use n deveopng countres thatresuts fromncreasedncomes s keyto, at east partay,ohset the heath benets of berazed trade n other goods andservces.Economic and #ocial im%act#Economic and #ocial im%act# o. trade lierali3ationBefore provdng a revewof thedherent countrystudes,t susefu topresent thetheoretca arguments underpnnngthempact of trade on economc growth and ts broaderdeveopment outcomes.Trade and gro,t"Most of the economc terature consders that trade berazatoneads to an ncrease n wefare derved froman mprovedaocaton of domestc resources. Import restrctons of any kndcreateanant-export bas byrasngtheprceof mportabegoods reatvetoexportabegoods. Theremova of ths basthroughtradeberazatonw encourageashftof resourcesfromtheproductonof mportsubsttutestotheproductonofexport-orented goods. Ths, n turn, w generate growth n theshort to medum term as the country ad|usts to a new aocatonof resourcesmorenkeepngwthtscomparatveadvantage(McCuoch, WntersandCrera, 2001). Thsprocesssnethersmooth nor automatc. On the contrary, t s expected to createad|ustment costs, encompassngawdevaretyof potentaydsadvantageous short-termoutcomes. These outcomes mayncude a reducton n empoyment and output, the oss ofndustry- andrm-specchumancapta, andmacroeconomcnstabty arsng from baance-of-payments dmcutes orreductons n government revenue (Matusz and Tarr, 1999). Thesze of the ad|ustment costs depends on the speed wth whchresources make thetranston from one sector to another.However, tradeberazatonnandof tsef hasnotyetbeenunambguousyandunversaynkedtosubsequent economcgrowth. Despte the vast terature ookng at ths nk, numerousemprca studes have not found the evdence concusve.Rodrguez and Rodrk (1999) argue that the terature s argeyunnformatve, andthattheresasgncantgapbetweentheconcusons derved from theory and the "facts". Accordng to theauthors, a number of factors expan ths gap. In many cases, thendcators of "openness" used by researchers are probematc, asmeasures of trade barrers are hghy correated wth othersources of poor economc performance. In other cases, theemprca strategesusedtoascertanthenkbetweentradepocy andgrowth has serous shortcomngs, theremova ofwhch resuts n sgncanty weaker ndngs. Moreover, thesmutaneous mpementaton of other far-reachng reformsmakes t dmcut to dsentange the mpact of the tradeberazaton process. Ths beng sad, t s aso mportant to notethat athough trade openness has not been unequvocay nkedto hgher growth, t has certany not been dented as ahndrance. Overa, t may be far to say that openness, by eadng to owerprces, better nformaton and newer technooges, has a usefuroe to pay n promotng growth. But t must be accompaned byappropratecompementarypoces (most notaby, educaton,nfrastructure, nanca andmacroeconomc poces) to yedstrong growth resuts. The precse mx of trade and other pocesthat s needed w strongy depend on the specc crcumstancesof each country. It s therefore mportant to focus on the detaedpathways through whch trade berazaton n each country hasan mpact on poverty (McCuoch, Wnters and Crera, 2001). See box beow!o4 1 Trade and %o$ert) reductionTrade berazaton heps the poor n the same way t heps otherconsumers, byowerngprcesofmportedgoodsandkeepngprces of mport substtutes ow, thus ncreasng rea ncomes.Price tran#mi##ionThempactof tradeberazatondependsonhowchangesnborder prces are transated ntochanges n the prces actuay charged to househods. Prcetransmsson depends on: the compettve structure of the dstrbuton sector;thewaynwhchgovernmentnsttutonssuchasmarketngorganzatons operate; and the extent products traded.Enter%ri#e#The shft n resources between ndustres that often accompanestrade berazaton can have a sgncant mpact on wages andempoyment. Thus tradeberazatonasoahectshousehodsthrough ts mpact on prots, and, thereby, on empoyment andwages.There are two opposte ways n whch ths may occur: If wages are exbe and abour s fuy empoyed, then prcechanges caused by trade berazaton w be reected n *agechanges, wth empoyment remanng the same. Aternatvey, f there s a arge poo of workers who move nand out of |obs when crcumstances change, then tradeberazaton w cause changes n empoyment. In reaty, bothehects occur smutaneousy. The baance between themdepends on the reatve exbty of wages and empoyment, aswe asonthecapactyof thedynamcsectorstoabsorbtheunempoyed and those beng ad oh from decnng sectors.Ta4e# and #%endingThere s a genera concern that trade berazaton may ead to aoss of government revenues as tradetaxes arereducedoremnated, andthat nanehort tomantanmacroeconomcstabty, governmentsmaycut soca expendturesor mposenew taxes whch coud dsproportonatey ahect the poor.The key essons here are that:Lberazatonoftendoesnothavetoeadtorevenuecutsftarh peaks and exemptons are aso tacked.It smportant toookat thepovertyehectsof aternatveforms of taxaton, ntroduced to cover any shortfa, partcuaryconsumpton taxes.It s generay possbe to protect soca and ant-povertyexpendtures, even f expendtures do decne. Sound macroeconomc management s far more mportant thanmantanng soca expendture. Therefore, t shoud be noted thattrade berazaton can have a postve, negatve or neutra ehectongovernmentrevenue, dependngonthereformsntroducedand the partcuar crcumstances of a country.Em%irical e$idenceBecause of the compexty of the nkages between trade reformandpoverty, theemprca evdences mtedtostudes ongenera market reforms, on the one hand, and case studes onthe other.2LO!ALI-ATIONGobazaton has varous aspects whch ahect the word nsevera dherent ways .nd"strial- emergenceof wordwdeproductonmarketsandbroader access toarangeof foregnproducts forconsumers and companes. Partcuary movement ofmatera and goods between and wthn natonaboundares.Internatona traden manufactured goodsncreasedmorethan100tmes(from$95bonto$12tron) nthe50years snce1955. Chna's tradewthAfrca rose sevenfod durng 2000-07 aone. /inancial- emergence of wordwde nanca markets andbetteraccesstoexterna nancngforborrowers. Bytheearypart of the21stcenturymorethan$1.5tronnnatona currences were traded day to support theexpanded eves of trade and nvestment. As thesewordwde structures grew more qucky than anytransnatona reguatory regme, the nstabty of thegoba nanca nfrastructuredramatcay ncreased, asevdenced by the Fnanca crss of 2007-2010. As of 2005-2007, the Port of Shangha hods the tte as the Word's busest port. Economic- reazaton of a goba common market, basedonthefreedomof exchangeof goods andcapta. Thenterconnectedness of these markets, however, meant thatan economc coapse n one area coud mpact other areas.Wth gobazaton, companes can produce goods andservces n the owest cost ocaton. Ths may cause |obs tobe moved toocatons that have the owestwages, eastworker protecton and owest heath benets. For Industraactvtes ths may cause producton to move to areas wththe east pouton reguatons or worker safety reguatons.Amost a notabe wordwde IT companes have a presence n Inda. Four Indans wereamongtheword'stop 10rchest n 2008,wortha combned $160 bon.In 2007,Chna had 415,000 monares and Inda 123,000. 0ob Mar'et- competton n a goba |ob market. In the past,the economc fate of workers was ted to the fate ofnatona economes. Wth the advent of the nformaton ageand mprovements n communcaton, ths s no onger thecase. Because workers compete n a goba market, wagesare ess dependent on the success or faure of ndvduaeconomes. Ths has hadama|or ehect onwages andncome dstrbuton. Health!olic$- Onthegoba scae, heathbecomes acommodty. IndeveopngnatonsunderthedemandsofStructura Ad|ustment Programs, heath systems arefragmentedandprvatzed. Goba heathpocymakershave shfted durng the 1990s from Unted Natons payersto nanca nsttutons. The resut of ths power transtonsanncreasenprvatzatonntheheathsector. Thsprvatzatonfragmentsheathpocybycrowdngt wthmany payers wth many prvate nterests. Thesefragmented pocy payers emphasze partnershps andspecc nterventons to combat specc probems (asopposedtocomprehensveheathstrateges). Inuencedby goba trade and goba economy, heath pocy sdrected by technoogca advances and nnovatve medcatrade. Goba prortes, n ths stuaton, are sometmes atodds wth natona prortes where ncreased heathnfrastructure and basc prmary care are of more vaue tothe pubc than prvatzed care for the weathy. !olitical - some use "gobazaton" to mean the creaton ofa word government whch reguates the reatonshpsamong governments and guarantees the rghts arsngfromsoca and economc gobazaton. Potcay, theUnted States has en|oyed a poston of power among thewordpowers, npart becauseof tsstrongandweathyeconomy. Wth the nuence of gobazaton and wth thehep of the Unted States own economy, the Peope'sRepubc of Chna has experenced some tremendousgrowth wthn the past decade. If Chna contnues to growattheratepro|ectedbythetrends,thentsverykeythat n the next twenty years, there w be a ma|orreaocaton of power among the word eaders. Chna whave enough weath, ndustry, and technoogy to rva theUnted States for the poston of eadng word power. Among the potca ehects some schoars aso name thetransformaton of soveregnty. In ther opnon, 'gobazatoncontrbutestothechangeandreductonof nomencatureandscopeof statesoveregnpowers, andbesdest sabateraprocess: ontheonehand, thefactorsarestrengthenngthatfary undermne the countres' soveregnty, on the other - moststates vountary and deberatey mt the scope of thersoveregnty'. .nformational- ncrease n nformaton ows betweengeographcay remote ocatons. Arguaby ths s atechnoogca change wth the advent of bre optccommuncatons, satetes, andncreasedavaabty ofteephone and Internet. Lang"age- themost popuar rst anguagesMandarn(845monspeakers) foowedbySpansh(329monspeakers) and Engsh (328 mon speakers). However themost popuar second anguage s undoubtedy Engsh, the"ngua franca" of gobazaton: o About35%oftheword'sma, teexes, andcabesare n Engsh.o Approxmatey 40% of the word's rado programs aren Engsh.o Engsh s the domnant anguage on the Internet. #om&etition- Survva n the new goba busness marketcas for mproved productvty and ncreased competton.Due to the market becomng wordwde, companes nvarous ndustres have to upgrade ther products and usetechnoogy skfuy n order to face ncreased competton. Ecological - the advent of goba envronmenta chaengesthat mght be soved wth nternatonacooperaton, suchas cmate change, cross-boundary water and ar pouton,over-shng of the ocean, and the spread of nvasvespeces. Snce many factores are but n deveopngcountres wth ess envronmenta reguaton, gobasm andfree trade may ncrease pouton and mpact on precousfresh water resources(Hoekstra and Chapagan 2008). Onthe other hand, economc deveopment hstorcayrequreda"drty"ndustra stage, andt sarguedthatdeveopng countres shoud not, va reguaton, beprohbted from ncreasng ther standard of vng.London s a cty of consderabe dversty. As of 2008, estmates were pubshed thatstatedthat approxmatey 30%ofLondon's tota popuatonwas fromanethncmnorty group. The atest omca gures show that n 2008, 590,000 peope arrved tove n the UK whst 427,000 eft, meanng that net nward mgraton was 163,000. #"lt"ral- growth of cross-cutura contacts; advent of newcategores of conscousness and denttes whch embodescutura dhuson, the desre to ncrease one's standard ofvnganden|oyforegnproductsanddeas, adopt newtechnoogy and practces, and partcpate n a "wordcuture". Some bemoan the resutng consumersm and ossof anguages. Aso see Transformaton of cuture. o Spreadngofmutcuturasm, andbetterndvduaaccess to cuturadversty(e.g. through the exportofHoywood). Some consder such "mported"cutureadanger, sncet maysuppant theocacuture, causng reducton n dversty or evenassmaton. Others consder mutcuturasm topromotepeace and understandngbetweenpeope.A thrd poston that ganed popuarty s the notonthat mutcuturasm to a new form of monocuture nwhchnodstnctonsexst andeveryone|ust shftbetweenvarousfestyesntermsof musc, cothandother aspectsoncemorermyattachedtoasnge cuture. Thus not mere cutura assmaton asmentonedabovebut theobteratonof cutureaswe know t today. In reaty, as t happens n countresketheUntedKngdom, Canada, AustraaorNewZeaand, peope who aways ved n ther natvecountres mantan ther cutures wthout feengforced by any reason to accept another andareproud of t even when they're acceptve ofmmgrants, whe peope who are newy arrvedsmpykeeptherowncutureorpart of tdesptesome mnmumamount of assmaton, athoughaspects of ther cuture often become a curosty anda day aspect of the ves of the peope of thewecomng countres.o Greater nternatonatraveandtoursm. WHOestmates that up to 500,000 peope are on panes atany one tme. In 2008, there were over 922 monnternatona tourstarrvas, wthagrowthof1.9%as compared to 2007. o Greatermmgraton, ncudngega mmgraton.The IOMestmates there are more than 200 monmgrants aroundthewordtoday. Newyavaabedata show thatremttanceows to deveopngcountres reached $328 bon n 2008. o Spreadof oca consumer products (e.g., food) toother countres (often adapted to ther cuture).o WordwdefadsandpopcuturesuchasPokmon,Sudoku,Numa Numa,Orgam,Ido seres,YouTube,Orkut,Facebook, andMySpace; accessbeonytothose who have Internet or Teevson, eavng out asubstanta porton of the Earth's popuaton.The constructon of contnenta hotes s a ma|or consequence of gobazaton processn amaton wth toursm and trave ndustry, Darush Grand Hote, Ksh, Irano WordwdesportngeventssuchasFIFAWordCupand the Oympc Games.o Incorporaton of mutnatona corporatons nto newmeda. As the sponsors of the A-Backs rugby team,Addas had created a parae webste wth adownoadabe nteractve rugby game for ts fans topay and compete. %ocial-deveopmentofthesystemofnon-governmentaorgansatonsas man agents of goba pubc pocy,ncudng humantaran ad and deveopmenta ehorts. Technical o Deveopment of a Goba Informaton System,gobateecommuncatons nfrastructureand greatertransborder data ow, usng such technooges as theInternet,communcatonsatetes,submarneberoptc cabe, and wreess teephoneso Increase n the number of standards apped gobay;e.g.,copyrght aws,patentsand word tradeagreements. Legal1Ethical o Thecreatonofthenternatonacrmnacourtandnternatona |ustce movements.o Crmemportatonandrasngawarenessof gobacrme-ghtng ehorts and cooperaton.o The emergence of Goba admnstratve aw. 2eligio"s o Thespreadandncreasednterreatonsof varousregous groups, deas, and practces and ther deasof the meanngs and vaues of partcuar spaces. Cultural e8ect#Gobazaton has nuencedthe use of anguage across theword. Ths street n Hong Kong, a former Brtsh coony, showsvarous sgns, a fewof whch ncorporateboth Chnese andBrtsh Engsh.|apaneseMcDonad'sfast foodas evdence of corporate gobazaton and thentegraton of the same nto dherent cutures."Cuture" s dened as patterns of human actvty and thesymbosthatgvetheseactvtessgncance. Cutureswhatpeope eat, howthey dress, the beefs they hod, and theactvtes they practce. Gobazaton has |oned dherent cuturesand made t nto somethng dherent. Cunary cuture has become extensvey gobazed. For exampe,|apanese noodes, Itaan meatbas, Indan curry, French cheese,andAmercanburgersandfreshavebecomepopuaroutsdethercountresof orgn. TwoAmercancompanes,McDonad'sand Starbucks, are often cted as exampes of gobazaton, wthover 31,000 and 18,000 ocatons operatng wordwde,respectvey.Another common practce brought about by gobazaton s theusage of Chnese characters n tattoos. These tattoos are popuarwth today's youth despte the ack of soca acceptance oftattoosnChna. Aso, theresaackofcomprehensonnthemeanng ofChnese charactersthat peope get, makng ths anexampe of cutura appropraton.The nternet breaks down cutura boundares across the word byenabng easy, near-nstantaneous communcaton betweenpeopeanywherenavaretyof dgta formsandmeda. TheInternetsassocatedwththeprocessofcutura gobazatonbecause t aows nteracton and communcaton between peopewthverydherent festyesandfromverydherent cutures.Photosharngwebstesaownteractonevenwhereanguagewoud otherwse be a barrer.Po#iti$e e8ect#T"e de$elo%ment o. T"ird /orld nation#Accordng to |agdsh Bhagwat, a former advser to the U.N. ongobazaton, athough there are obvousprobems wthovery-rapd deveopment, gobazaton s a very postve force that ftscountres out of poverty. Accordng to hm, t causes a vrtuouseconomc cyce assocated wth faster economc growth. . T"e democrati3ing e8ect o. communication# :e#%6 t"einternet;Exchange of nformaton va the nternet s payng a ma|or roe nthe democratzaton of many countres. T"e eneft# o. gloali3ation and fnancial di$er#ifcationSnce the md-1970s, t has been argued that geographcdverscatonwoudeventuaygeneratesuperorrsk-ad|ustedreturns forong-termgoba nvestors by reducng overaportfoo rsk whe capturng some of the hgher rates of returnsohered by the emergng marketsof Asa and Latn Amerca. Bydongso, thesensttutona nvestorshavecontrbutedtothenanca and economc deveopment of key natons nAsa,Eastern Europe and Latn Amerca. Typcay, for goba nvestors,Inda and Chna consttute both arge-scae producton patformsandreservors of newconsumers, whereas Russa s vewedessentayasanexporter of o andcommodtes- Braz andLatn Amerca beng somehow "n the mdde".Ha#tening t"e end o. Euro%ean < U& economic "egemon)A report ssued n 2007 byPercewaterhouseCoopers LLPpredcted that by 2050 the economes of theE=emergngeconomes(the!RICcontres,Chna, Inda, Braz, andRussa,pusIndonesaand Turkey) wbearound50%argerthan thecurrent 2=(US, |apan, Germany, UK, France, Itay and Canada).ChnasexpectedtoovertaketheUSastheargesteconomyaround 2025, whe Inda wovertake the US n 2050. A morerecent report sued by Godman Sachsthat was comped afterChna reeased ther GDP growth gures for 2009 predcted thatChna s aboutto overtake|apan and may become the word'sargest economyby2020. (SeetheentryonBRICfor moredetas)Increa#ed o%%ortunit) in t"e T"ird /orldWorkersndeveopngcountresnowhavemoreoccupatonachoces then ever before. Educated workers n deveopngcountres are abe to compete on the goba |ob market for hghpayng |obs. Producton workers n deveopng countres are notony abe to compete, they have a strong advantage over thercounterparts n the ndustrazed word. Ths transates ntoncreasedopportunty. Workershavethechoceof emgratngand takng |obs n ndustra countres or stayng at home to workn outsourced ndustres. In addton, the goba economyprovdes a market for the products of cottage ndustry, provdngmore opportuntes. Negati$e e8ect#Gobazatonhasgeneratedsgncantnternatona oppostonover concerns that t has ncreased nequaty and envronmentadegradaton. In the Mdwestern Unted States, gobazaton haseaten away at ts compettve edgen ndustryand agrcuture,owerng the quaty of fe. Some aso vew the ehect of gobazaton on cuture as a rsngconcern. Aong wth gobazaton of economes and trade, cutures beng mported and exported as we. The concern s that thestronger, bgger countres such as theUnted States, mayoverrun theother, smaercountres'cutures,eadngtothosecustoms and vaues fadng away. Ths process s aso sometmesreferred to as Amercanzaton or McDonadzaton. &,eat#"o%#A maqua n MexcoInmanypoorer natons, gobazatons theresut of foregnbusnesses utzng workers n a country to take advantage of theower wage rates.One exampe used by ant-gobazaton protestors s the use ofsweatshopsby manufacturers. AccordngtoGoba Exchangethese "Sweat Shops" are wdey used by sports shoemanufacturersandmentonsonecompanynpartcuar -Nke.There are factores set up n the poor countres where empoyeesagree to work for ow wages. Then f abour aws ater n thosecountresandstrcter ruesgovernthemanufacturngprocessthe factores are cosed down and reocated to other natons wthmore busness favorabe poces, such asCambodaorBangadesh.Therearesevera agencesthat havebeenset upwordwdespeccay desgned to focus on ant-sweatshop campagns andeducaton of such. In the USA, the Natona Labor Commttee hasproposed a number of bs as part ofThe Decent WorkngCondtons and Far Competton Act, whch have thus far faed nCongress. Theegsaton woudegay requre companes torespect human and worker rghts by prohbtng the mport, sae,or export of sweatshop goods. Speccay, these core standards ncude nochd abor, noforced abor,freedomof assocaton, rght to organze andbargan coectvey, as we as the rght to decent workngcondtons. Thereareasoconcerns about theemergenceof "eectroncsweatshops." ShehzadNadeemwrtesthat theoutsourcngofservce work, such ascustomer servceandInformatonTechnoogy work, to Inda has resuted n "onger work hours, anntenseworkpace, andtempora dspacement manfestednheath probems and aenaton from famy and frends." Negati$e e8ect# o. economic lierali3ationThewordtodayssonterconnectedthat thecoapseof thesubprme mortgagemarket n the U.S. has ed to agobananca crss and recesson on a scae not seen snce the GreatDepresson. Accordng to eft-wng deoogsts, governmentdereguatonandfaedreguatonofWa Street'snvestmentbanksweremportant contrbutorstothesubprmemortgagecrss. A ood of consumer goods such as teevsons,rados,bcyces,and textes nto the Unted States, Europe, and |apan has hepedfue the economc expanson ofAsan tgereconomes n recentdecades. However, Chnesetexteandcothngexports haverecentyencounteredcrtcsmfromEurope, theUntedStatesand some Afrcan countres. In South Afrca, some 300,000 texteworkers have ost ther |obs due to the nux of Chnese goods.The ncreasng U.S. trade dectwth Chna has cost 2.4 monAmercan |obs between 2001 and 2008, accordng to a study bythe Economc Pocy Insttute (EPI). A tota of 3.2 mon - one nsx U.S. factory |obs - have dsappeared between 2000 and 2007.!rain drainOpportuntes nrchcountresdrves taent away frompoorcountres, eadng to bran drans. Bran dran has cost the Afrcancontnent over $4.1 bon n the empoyment of 150,000expatrateprofessonasannuay.Indanstudentsgongabroadfor ther hgher studes costs Inda a foregn exchange outow of$10 bon annuay. Income Ine>ualit)The gobazaton of the |ob market has had negatveconsequences n deveoped countres. "Mnd workers"(engneers, attorneys, scentsts, professors, executves,|ournasts, consutants) are abe to compete successfuy n theword market and command hgh wages. Conversey, productonworkers and servce workers n ndustrazed natons are unabeto compete wth workers n thrd word countres and ether osether |obs through outsourcng or are forced to accept wage cuts. Ths has resuted n a growng gap between the ncomes of therch and poor. Ths trend seems to be greater n the Unted Statesthan other ndustra countres.Income nequaty n the UntedStatesstartedtorsentheate1970,s, howevertherateofncrease rose sharpy n the 21st century; t has now reached aeve comparabe wth that found n devoopng countres.|(Cf. En$ironmental degradationBurnng forest n Braz. The remova of forest to make way for catte ranchng was theeadng cause of deforestaton n the Brazan Amazon from the md 1960s. Recenty,soybeans have become one of the most mportant contrbutors to deforestaton n theBrazan Amazon.| The Word watch Insttutesad the boomng economes of ChnaandIndaare panetary powers that are shapngthe gobabosphere. In2007, ChnaovertooktheUntedStates as theword's bggest producer of CO2. Ony 1 percent of the countrys560 mon cty nhabtants (2007) breathe ar deemed safe bytheEuropean Unon. At present rates, tropca ranforests nIndonesa woud be ogged out n 10 years, Papua New Gunea n13to16years. Ama|orsourceofdeforestatonstheoggngndustry, drvenspectacuarybyChnaand|apan. ChnaandInda are qucky becomng arge o consumers. Chna has seeno consumptongrowby8%yearysnce2002, doubngfrom1996-2006.%tate of the 3orld2006 report sad the twocountres' hgh economc growth hd a reaty of severe pouton.The report states:The*orld4s ecological ca&acit$is sim&l$ins"5cient tosatisf$ the ambitions of #hina, .ndia, 0a&an, E"ro&e and the-nited %tates as *ell as the as&irations of the rest of the*orld in a s"stainable *a$Wthout morerecycng,znccoudbeusedupby2037, bothndum and hafnum coud run out by 2017, and terbum coud begonebefore2012. It s sadthat f ChnaandIndaweretoconsume as much resources per capta as Unted States or |apann 2030 together they woud requre a fu panet Earth to meetther needs. In the ong term these ehects can ead to ncreasedconct over dwndng resourcesand n the worst case aMathusan catastrophe.Food #ecurit)Theheadof theInternatona FoodPocyResearchInsttute,statedn2008that thegradua changendet amongnewyprosperous popuatons s the most mportant factorunderpnnng the rse n goba food prces. From 1950 to 1984,as theGreen Revoutontransformedagrcuturearound theword, gran producton ncreased by over 250%. Thewordpopuatonhas grown by about 4 bon snce the begnnng ofthe Green Revouton and most beeve that, wthout theRevouton, there woud be greater famne and manutrton thanthe UN presenty documents (approxmatey 850 mon peopesuherng from chronc manutrton n 2005). It s becomng ncreasngy dmcut to mantan food securty n aword beset by a conuence of "peak" phenomena, namey peako,peakwater,peakphosphorus,peakgranandpeaksh.Growng popuatons, fang energy sources and food shortagesw createthe"perfect storm" by2030, accordngtotheUKgovernmentchefscentst. Hesadfoodreservesareata50-year owbut thewordrequres50%moreenergy, foodandwater by 2030. The word w have to produce 70% more food by2050 to feed a pro|ected extra 2.3 bon peope and as ncomesrse, the Unted Natons' Food and Agrcuture Organsaton (FAO)warned. Soca scentsts havewarnedof thepossbty thatgoba cvzaton s due for a perod of contracton and economcre-ocazaton, duetothedecnenfoss fuesandresutngcrss ntransportatonandfoodproducton. Onepaper evensuggested that the future mght even brng about a restoraton ofsustanabe oca economc actvtes based on huntng andgatherng, shftng hortcuture, and pastorasm. The|ourna%ciencepubshedafour-year studynNovember2006, whch predcted that, at prevang trends, the word woudrun out of wd-caught seafood n 2048. Di#ea#eGobazatonhasasohepedtospreadsomeof thedeadestnfectous dseases known to humans. Startng n Asa, the BackDeath ked at east one-thrd of Europe's popuaton n the 14thcentury.EvenworsedevastatonwasnctedontheAmercansupercontnent by European arrvas. 90% of the popuatons ofthe cvzatons of the "New Word" such as the Aztec, Maya, andIncawere ked by sma poxbrought by European coonzaton.Modern modes of transportaton aow more peope and productsto trave around the word at a faster pace, but they aso openthe arways to the transcontnenta movement of nfectousdsease vectors. One exampe of ths occurrng s AIDS/HIV. Dueto mmgraton, approxmatey 500,000 peope n the UntedStates are beeved to be nfected wth Chagas dsease. In 2006,thetubercuoss(TB) rateamongforegn-bornpersons ntheUnted States was 9.5 tmes that of U.S.-born persons. Drug and illicit good# tradeThe Unted Natons Omce on Drugs and Crme (UNODC) ssued areport that thegoba drugtradegenerates morethan$320bon a year n revenues. Wordwde, the UN estmates there aremore than 50 mon reguar users of heron, cocane andsynthetc drugs. The nternatona trade of endangered speces ssecondony to drugtramckng.Tradtona Chnesemedcneoften ncorporates ngredents from a parts of pants, the eaf,stem, ower, root, and aso ngredents fromanmas andmneras. The use of parts of endangered speces (such asseahorses,rhnoceroshorns,saga anteopehorns, andtgerbones and caws) has created controversy and resuted n a backmarket of poachers who hunt restrcted anmas. In 2003, 29% ofopen sea sheres were n a state of coapse.