• Darwin’s Idea of Common DescentDarwin’s Idea of Common Descent

• Darwin’s Idea of GradualismDarwin’s Idea of Gradualism

• Darwin’s Idea of Multiplication of Darwin’s Idea of Multiplication of SpeciesSpecies

• Darwin’s Idea of Natural SelectionDarwin’s Idea of Natural Selection

Darwin’s Idea of Darwin’s Idea of COMMON DESCENTCOMMON DESCENT

• evolution = descent with modification

• All organisms are related through descent from some unknown ancestor that lived in the distant past.

• As the descendants spilled into various habitats over time, they accumulated diverse modifications (adaptations) that fit them to specific ways of life.

• The history of life is like a tree.

• The Linnean classification scheme reflected the branching genealogy of the tree of life, with organisms at the different levels related through descent from common ancestors.

The evolutionary history of organisms can be portrayed as a tree growing through time.

Genealogy of the primatesGenealogy of the primates

Darwin’s Idea ofDarwin’s Idea ofGRADUALISMGRADUALISM

• The origin of new species and adaptation are closely related processes.

• A new species would arise from an ancestral form by the gradual accumulation of adaptations to a different environment.

• e.g. Darwin’s finches ADAPTIVE RADIATION

large ground finch small tree finch woodpecker finch

Darwin’s Idea of Darwin’s Idea of MULTIPLICATION of SPECIESMULTIPLICATION of SPECIES The existence of an enormous number of

species

some species are very similar (not as distinct from each other!)

gradual changes in various characteristics as organisms became modified according to the conditions in which they lived

Darwin’s Idea of NATURAL SELECTION Darwin’s Idea of NATURAL SELECTION as the Mechanism for Evolutionas the Mechanism for Evolution

• Overproduction- All species have a tendency and the potential to increase at a geometric rate.

2. Competition- The conditions supporting life are limited. - Only a fraction of the offspring in a population will live to produce offspring, so that the number of individuals in a population remains fairly constant.

The environments of most organisms have been in constant change throughout geologic time.

3. Variation- Individuals in a population vary greatly in their characteristics.

4. Adaptation- Some variations enable individuals to produce more offspring than other individuals.

5. Natural Selection- Individuals having favorable traits will produce more offspring, and those with unfavorable traits will produce fewer offspring.

• Speciation- Given time, natural selection leads to the accumulation of changes that differentiate groups from one another, such that a new species may arise.

Industrial Melanism: Industrial Melanism: The Peppered Moth (The Peppered Moth (Biston betularia)Biston betularia)

Natural Selection Survival of the FittestOther examples:1. Insecticide resistance2. Drug resistance in bacteria

A population is the smallest unit that can evolve. Natural selection acts on individuals, but individuals do not evolve.

Natural vs. Artificial Selection

Camouflage as an example of Camouflage as an example of evolutionary adaptationevolutionary adaptation

Divergent evolution – from one species to several different forms; adaptive radiation

Convergent evolution – results in increased resemblance between unrelated species

Coevolution – occurs when two or more species evolve in response to each other

Biological diversity is the product of evolution.

The mechanism of modification has been natural selection working continuously over long periods of time.

At the time, Darwin did not understand the genetic basis for evolution.

Variations arise from mutation and genetic recombination.

Much of the variation observed in the individuals of a population is heritable.

Variation mostly occurs as a result of gene mutations and genetic recombination.

Evolution is the change in allele frequency within a population over time.

geneallelefrequencygene pool

Ernst Mayr

The Processes

Evolution involves populations, not Individuals

Species is a population of organisms whose members can interbreed under natural circumstances and reproduce fertile (viable) offspring

Two fundamental processes give rise to new species:

Cladogenesis: The splitting off of one species into two clades, usually because of geographical isolation, but also because of reproductive isolation.

Two kinds of species develop by cladogenesis: Sympatric Species: Those whose speciation is

the product of geographical isolation Allopatric Species: Those whose speciation is

the product of reproductive isolation of population in the same region.

Anagenesis: The replacement of an ancestral species by a daughter species over time; the ancestral species become extinct.

Cladogenesis: Time I: Genes flow freely in

region Time II: Barrier separates two

populations Time III: Mutations change

genotype and phenotype of 2 populations

Time IV: Two populations cannot interbreed even with removal of barrier

Definition: Branching of one species into two

From clade (“branch”) or group with common evolutionary ancestry.

Allopatric speciation occurs when two populations are separated by a geographical barrier (river, mountain range)

In this example, three species of fish have evolved in separate zones

Sympatric species are those that are separated by a reproductively isolation mechanism

Speciation occurs among three populations of fish even though the different species occupy the same region

There are several ways for subspecies to become reproductively isolated

Ecological Isolation: Different populations are separated by occupy a slightly different niche

Seasonal Isolation: The breeding season of two closely related populations do not match.

Sexual Isolation: One or both sexes of a species initiate mating behavior that does not act a stimulus to the opposite sex of a closely related population

Mechanical isolation: Populations do not mate because of an incompatibility of the male and female sex organs of the individuals (extreme example: wolves and Chihuahuas)

Gamete Isolation: Incompatibility of sex cell with bodily environment

Hybrid Infertility or Sterility: Hybrids do not survive or reproduce (mules)

Micromutation: Mutations with

extensive or important phenotypic results

Example: Axolotl (species of salamander)

This salamander starts life as tadpole-like larvae, as do other salamanders

Axolotl, however, never grows up—doesn’t sprout mature legs, keeps its gills, remains aquatic existence.

Injection of a hormone enables maturity and to live on land, so that one mutation can and does create major change

Definition: Evolution and spreading out of related species into new niches

Niche: An environment in which an organism is found and its adaptive response to that environment

Generalized Adaptive Radiation: The adaptation of a species to a wide range of niches. Homo sapiens is an example.

Specialized Adaptive Radiation: The adaptation of a species to a narrow range of niches.

Absence of similar and therefore competing species

Occurrence of extensive extinction, thereby emptying an environment of competitors

Adaptive generalization of new group of related species which enable it to occupy several niches and displace species already there.

Example: Darwin’s finches on Galápagos Islands who were blown there by winds from mainland Ecuador

Niches opened up for 13 varieties with different bills, including those that feed on cactus or eat specific insects in trees

Others use twig or cactus spine to probe for insects

A vampire finch sucks blood from larger birds

Ground finches (Geospiza) who are seed and cactus eaters; Tree finches (Camarhynchus), who are insect and bud eaters Warbler finches (Certhidea) who vary by color.

Definition: Adaptation of a species to a narrow range of environmental niches

Example: Again, some species of Darwin’s finches on Galápagos Islands are examples.

Medium ground finch was nearly wiped out in the 1977 drought

Sudden change could eliminate this or others of these genera and species of finches

Example: prosimians adapt on in habitats afforded by Madagascar and are close to extinction.

Definition: Adaptation of a species to a wide range of environmental niches

Examples: Mammals spread after the disappearance of

dinosaurs 65 m.y.a. and occupied innumerable niches, from grassland (ungulates) to trees (bats)

Monkeys with a mixed diet occupied diverse arboreal (tree) habitats; they displaced the prosimians

Humans: from frozen north to tropical rainforest or desert—thanks to culture—are the most generalized primate

Definition: Slow, step-by-step changes over time Intermediate forms assume “missing

links” Darwin postulated this model Examples: From monkeys to apes; apes

to hominins (e.g. Lucy); and from early hominins to modern Homo sapiens

Fossil record does not reveal fine gradations from one lifeform to a descendant life form: no “missing links.”

Bipedalism occurred quickly as the fragmentary fossil record shows.

Reproductive advantage: do slight changes bestow this advantage?

Continuum question: at which point does a population become two species?

Sometimes, change can take place rapidly, either through oscillating selection or punctuated equilibrium

Definition: Adaptive variation around a norm rather than direction in response to environmental variation

Example: Medium and small ground finch lacked a bill strong enough to crack tough seeds

Occurrence of drought selected plants whose seeds had a tough exterior

Survival of large, longer-billed finches Smaller, shorter-billed finches returned after the

climate returned to normal, Shifting bill size and lengths reflected the

oscillation of the environmental conditions.

Definition: Species tend to remain stable over time, then, evolutionary changes occur suddenly (in terms of centuries or millennia)

Causation: Populations may become fragmented and isolated, and from there new forms arise

Small, new populations may invade a region, and through the founder effect and better adaptation, create and spread a new species

Example: Archaeopteryx (ancient bird), a dinosaur with feathers: suddenly appears and may have created a new class known as Aves (birds)

A summary of gradualism and punctuated equilibrium

Pseudoscience consists of scientifically testable ideas in form that are taken on faith even after they are proven as false

(Scientific) Creationism is the belief in a literal biblical interpretation of the creation of earth in six days 6,000 to 10,000 years ago

The claim is testable, has been tested, and has been demonstrated to be false.

Existence of strata, such as the Grand Canyon, accumulated over 2 billion years falsifies the claim that the earth is only a few thousand years old

Presence of extinct lifeforms, from fossil fish to dinosaurs, demonstrate that other forms existed at one time but are now extinct

Presence of ancient hominins establish extinct humanlike creatures that look like us but are not us.

Both kinds of evidence are abundant

Species is unit of evolution Evolutionary change is more random

than progressive Speciation is the basic process of

evolutionary change Changes may be gradual or rapid Scientific rule: follow the evidence Evidence for evolution is overwhelming in

the form of geological strata and fossil lifeforms

Mike RiddleMike Riddle

Answers in GenesisAnswers in Genesis

Mike RiddleMike Riddle

Answers in GenesisAnswers in Genesis

A history of apemen – the track record

Two case studies1. Neandertals2. Australopithecines and Lucy

How evolution hinders critical thinking

How things change

Evolution begins with Evolution begins with the assumption that the assumption that

man has evolved from man has evolved from ape-like creaturesape-like creatures

Evolution begins with Evolution begins with the assumption that the assumption that

man has evolved from man has evolved from ape-like creaturesape-like creatures

Pick your relativePick your relativePick your relativePick your relative

The Bible teaches that The Bible teaches that God created manGod created man

The Bible teaches that The Bible teaches that God created manGod created man

So God created man in his own image, in So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and the image of God created he him; male and femalefemale

Genesis 1:27Genesis 1:27

So God created man in his own image, in So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and the image of God created he him; male and femalefemale

Genesis 1:27Genesis 1:27

“Look closely at your hand. You have five flexible fingers. Animals with five flexible fingers are called primates. Monkeys, apes, and humans are examples of primates….Primates most likely evolved from small, insect-eating rodentlike mammals that lived about 60 million years ago.”

“Look closely at your hand. You have five flexible fingers. Animals with five flexible fingers are called primates. Monkeys, apes, and humans are examples of primates….Primates most likely evolved from small, insect-eating rodentlike mammals that lived about 60 million years ago.”

Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, Biology – Visualizing Biology – Visualizing Life,Life, 1998, p. 213. 1998, p. 213.Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, Biology – Visualizing Biology – Visualizing Life,Life, 1998, p. 213. 1998, p. 213.

“But all researchers agree on certain basic facts. We know, for example, that humans evolved from ancestors we share with other living primates such as chimpanzees and apes.”

Miller and Levine, Miller and Levine, BiologyBiology, 2000, p. 757., 2000, p. 757.Miller and Levine, Miller and Levine, BiologyBiology, 2000, p. 757., 2000, p. 757.

Segment of human skullSegment of human skullSegment of human skullSegment of human skull

Segment of lower ape-like jawSegment of lower ape-like jawSegment of lower ape-like jawSegment of lower ape-like jaw

New York Times ran an article: New York Times ran an article: ““Darwin Theory Proved True.”Darwin Theory Proved True.”

Featured in textbooks and encyclopedias Featured in textbooks and encyclopedias In 1953 scientists studied the bonesIn 1953 scientists studied the bones

Featured in textbooks and encyclopedias Featured in textbooks and encyclopedias In 1953 scientists studied the bonesIn 1953 scientists studied the bones

A fraud (600 year old bones)A fraud (600 year old bones)

The TruthThe TruthThe TruthThe Truth

1922 fossil evidence was discovered Used to support evolution in the 1925

Scopes trial The claim: 1 million year old

intermediate link

An extinct pig’s toothAn extinct pig’s tooth

The TruthThe TruthThe TruthThe Truth

What they drewWhat they drewWhat they drewWhat they drew

What they foundWhat they foundWhat they foundWhat they found

1930s1930s1930s1930s

““Ramapithicus is ideally structured to Ramapithicus is ideally structured to be an ancestor of hominids. If he isn't, be an ancestor of hominids. If he isn't, we don't have anything else that is.”we don't have anything else that is.”

““Ramapithicus is ideally structured to Ramapithicus is ideally structured to be an ancestor of hominids. If he isn't, be an ancestor of hominids. If he isn't, we don't have anything else that is.”we don't have anything else that is.”

Time Magazine (Nov. 7, 1977)Time Magazine (Nov. 7, 1977)Time Magazine (Nov. 7, 1977)Time Magazine (Nov. 7, 1977)

In 1970 a baboon living in Ethiopia was discovered. Same dental structure Similar morphological features found on

Ramapithecus Ramapithecus dropped from human line

The claim: 14 million year old intermediate between ape-like creatures and The claim: 14 million year old intermediate between ape-like creatures and humanshumans

The truthThe truthThe truthThe truth

Piltdown Man ……… Hoax Nebraska Man …….. Pig Ramapithecus …….. Ape

In each case the date (age) In each case the date (age) was completely WRONG!was completely WRONG!

What about the dates?What about the dates?What about the dates?What about the dates?

NeandertalsNeandertals

Lucy and the AustralopithicinesLucy and the Australopithicines

Original Drawing of NeandertalOriginal Drawing of NeandertalOriginal Drawing of NeandertalOriginal Drawing of Neandertal

Constructed to look ape-like Brain capacity about 200 cc larger

First found near Dusseldorf, Germany in 1856First found near Dusseldorf, Germany in 1856 First found near Dusseldorf, Germany in 1856First found near Dusseldorf, Germany in 1856

Initial construction discovered to be wrongInitial construction discovered to be wrongInitial construction discovered to be wrongInitial construction discovered to be wrong

Used jewelryUsed jewelry Used musical instrumentsUsed musical instruments Did cave paintingsDid cave paintings Capable of speechCapable of speech Buried their deadBuried their dead

Used jewelryUsed jewelry Used musical instrumentsUsed musical instruments Did cave paintingsDid cave paintings Capable of speechCapable of speech Buried their deadBuried their dead

“Most anthropologists recognize burial as a very human, and a very religious, act. But the strongest evidence that Neandertals were fully human and of our species is that at four sites Neandertals and modern humans were buried together.”

Marvin Lubenow, “Recovery of Neanderthal mtDNA: Marvin Lubenow, “Recovery of Neanderthal mtDNA: An Evaluation,” An Evaluation,” Creation Ex Nihilo Technical JournalCreation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal, , 1998 p.89.1998 p.89.

Marvin Lubenow, “Recovery of Neanderthal mtDNA: Marvin Lubenow, “Recovery of Neanderthal mtDNA: An Evaluation,” An Evaluation,” Creation Ex Nihilo Technical JournalCreation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal, , 1998 p.89.1998 p.89.

Lower jaw 30 mm (over an inch) out of the Lower jaw 30 mm (over an inch) out of the socketsocketLower jaw 30 mm (over an inch) out of the Lower jaw 30 mm (over an inch) out of the socketsocket

Drawing of a Neandertal fossil Drawing of a Neandertal fossil purchased at the souvenir counter at purchased at the souvenir counter at the museum in Berlin giving an ape-the museum in Berlin giving an ape-like appearancelike appearance

Drawing of a Neandertal fossil Drawing of a Neandertal fossil purchased at the souvenir counter at purchased at the souvenir counter at the museum in Berlin giving an ape-the museum in Berlin giving an ape-like appearancelike appearance

From From Buried AliveBuried Alive by Dr. Jack Cuozzo by Dr. Jack CuozzoFrom From Buried AliveBuried Alive by Dr. Jack Cuozzo by Dr. Jack Cuozzo

Flat, human Flat, human appearanceappearanceFlat, human Flat, human appearanceappearance

From From Buried AliveBuried Alive by Dr. Jack Cuozzo by Dr. Jack CuozzoFrom From Buried AliveBuried Alive by Dr. Jack Cuozzo by Dr. Jack Cuozzo

Lower jaw 30 mm (over an inch) out of the Lower jaw 30 mm (over an inch) out of the socketsocketLower jaw 30 mm (over an inch) out of the Lower jaw 30 mm (over an inch) out of the socketsocket

Thick browThick browThick browThick brow

Stocky body buildStocky body buildShort extremitiesShort extremitiesStocky body buildStocky body buildShort extremitiesShort extremities

Common dates for Neandertals are 130,000 to 30,000 years ago

Neandertals existed for about 100,000 years (2,500 generations)

There should have been over 50 billion Neandertals that lived during this time!

Where are the fossils?Where are the fossils?Where are the fossils?Where are the fossils?

1111 2000200020002000

300 million300 million300 million300 million 6 billion6 billion6 billion6 billion

100 generations100 generations100 generations100 generations

1964: Neanderthals are a sub-species of humans

1997: Neanderthals are a separate species (based on mtDNA find)

““The results of mitochondrial DNA show clearly that Neandertal was not our The results of mitochondrial DNA show clearly that Neandertal was not our direct ancestor, unlike earlier hypotheses made by some direct ancestor, unlike earlier hypotheses made by some paleoanthropologists.” paleoanthropologists.”

Luigi Cavalli-Sforza (Professor of genetics Stanford Luigi Cavalli-Sforza (Professor of genetics Stanford University), University), Genes, People, and Languages, Genes, People, and Languages, 2000, p. 35.2000, p. 35.Luigi Cavalli-Sforza (Professor of genetics Stanford Luigi Cavalli-Sforza (Professor of genetics Stanford University), University), Genes, People, and Languages, Genes, People, and Languages, 2000, p. 35.2000, p. 35.

1,669 modern humans were compared with one Neanderthal

How was this comparison made?How was this comparison made?How was this comparison made?How was this comparison made?

Between modern humans the range is from 1 to 24 mtDNA differences

What does this mean?What does this mean?

Neanderthal and humanNeanderthal and humanNeanderthal and humanNeanderthal and human

Human and humanHuman and humanHuman and humanHuman and human

When compared to modern humans there were 22 mtDNA substitution When compared to modern humans there were 22 mtDNA substitution differencesdifferences

When compared to modern humans there were 22 mtDNA substitution When compared to modern humans there were 22 mtDNA substitution differencesdifferences

There are a few modern humans who differ by 2 substitutions more than the Neanderthal individual

Therefore, using evolutionists logic, these Therefore, using evolutionists logic, these people are a separate species (not human)people are a separate species (not human)

Therefore, using evolutionists logic, these Therefore, using evolutionists logic, these people are a separate species (not human)people are a separate species (not human)

~ 8% of the people here tonight ~ 8% of the people here tonight are not humanare not human

Protruding brow ridge Stocky body build and short extremities Isolated population of people Lived in a cold, harsh climate 100% human

Neandertal man, Neandertal man, reconstructed from a reconstructed from a skull found in La skull found in La Chapelle-aux-Saints, Chapelle-aux-Saints, France France

Neandertal man, Neandertal man, reconstructed from a reconstructed from a skull found in La skull found in La Chapelle-aux-Saints, Chapelle-aux-Saints, France France

A Case Study in DeceptionA Case Study in Deception

Lucy and the Lucy and the AustralopithecinesAustralopithecines

What was found Did Lucy walk upright

Note: Lucy is Note: Lucy is our ancestorour ancestor

Artistic conceptionArtistic conceptionArtistic conceptionArtistic conception

Note contemplative gaze, human Note contemplative gaze, human hands and use of tools. hands and use of tools.

AustralopithecusAustralopithecusafricanusafricanus

AustralopithecusAustralopithecusafricanusafricanus

What do you notice about this picture?What do you notice about this picture?What do you notice about this picture?What do you notice about this picture?

“I wanted to get a human soul into this ape-like face, to indicate something about where he was headed.”

“I wanted to get a human soul into this ape-like face, to indicate something about where he was headed.”

John Gurche, artist, John Gurche, artist, National Geographic, National Geographic, March, March, 1996 p. 109.1996 p. 109.John Gurche, artist, John Gurche, artist, National Geographic, National Geographic, March, March, 1996 p. 109.1996 p. 109.

Lucy discovered in 1974 About 40% of the fossil was found Claimed to be 3.5 million years old Claimed bipedal (walked upright)

Long arms are identical to chimpanzees Jaws are similar to chimpanzees Upper leg bone is similar to chimpanzees Lucy’s legs were very ape-like Brain size (400-500 cc) overlaps chimpanzees Large back muscles for tree dwelling Hands similar to pygmy chimpanzee Feet were long and curved

No similarity in appearance to humansNo similarity in appearance to humans No similarity in appearance to humansNo similarity in appearance to humans

1.The rib cage2.The pelvis3.Leg and foot bones

To determine if Lucy walked upright three areas of anatomy were examinedTo determine if Lucy walked upright three areas of anatomy were examinedTo determine if Lucy walked upright three areas of anatomy were examinedTo determine if Lucy walked upright three areas of anatomy were examined

Ape ribs are conical shaped Human ribs are barrel-like

Circular barrel-likeCircular barrel-likeCircular barrel-likeCircular barrel-like

HumanHumanHumanHuman

Conical shapeConical shapeConical shapeConical shape

ApeApeApeApe

“I noticed that the ribs were more round in cross-section, more like what you see in apes. Human ribs are flatter in cross-section.But the shape of the rib cage itself was the biggest surprise of all. The human rib cage is barrel shaped, and I just couldn’t get Lucy’s ribs to fit this kind of shape.”

Peter Schmid (paleontologist at the Anthropological Institute Peter Schmid (paleontologist at the Anthropological Institute in Zurich) Quoted from in Zurich) Quoted from Origins reconsidered: In Search of Origins reconsidered: In Search of What Makes Us Human What Makes Us Human by Richard Leakey and Roger Lewinby Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin

Peter Schmid (paleontologist at the Anthropological Institute Peter Schmid (paleontologist at the Anthropological Institute in Zurich) Quoted from in Zurich) Quoted from Origins reconsidered: In Search of Origins reconsidered: In Search of What Makes Us Human What Makes Us Human by Richard Leakey and Roger Lewinby Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin

“In Lucy’s case, her ribs are conical, like those found in apes.”

Brad Harrub (Ph.D. Anatomy and Neurobiology) Brad Harrub (Ph.D. Anatomy and Neurobiology) and Bert Thompson (Ph.D. Microbiology), and Bert Thompson (Ph.D. Microbiology), The The Truth About Human OriginsTruth About Human Origins, 2003, p. 47., 2003, p. 47.

Brad Harrub (Ph.D. Anatomy and Neurobiology) Brad Harrub (Ph.D. Anatomy and Neurobiology) and Bert Thompson (Ph.D. Microbiology), and Bert Thompson (Ph.D. Microbiology), The The Truth About Human OriginsTruth About Human Origins, 2003, p. 47., 2003, p. 47.

ChimpChimpChimpChimp

HumanHumanHumanHuman

“The fact that the anterior portion of the iliac blade faces laterally in humans but not in chimpanzees is obvious. The marked resemblance of AL 288-1 (Lucy) to the chimpanzee is equally obvious…It suggests to us that the mechanism of lateral pelvic balance during bipedalism was closer to that in apes than in humans.”

“The fact that the anterior portion of the iliac blade faces laterally in humans but not in chimpanzees is obvious. The marked resemblance of AL 288-1 (Lucy) to the chimpanzee is equally obvious…It suggests to us that the mechanism of lateral pelvic balance during bipedalism was closer to that in apes than in humans.”

J. Stern & R. Sussman, J. Stern & R. Sussman, American Journal ofAmerican Journal ofPhysical AnthropologyPhysical Anthropology, 1983, pp. 291 & 292., 1983, pp. 291 & 292.J. Stern & R. Sussman, J. Stern & R. Sussman, American Journal ofAmerican Journal ofPhysical AnthropologyPhysical Anthropology, 1983, pp. 291 & 292., 1983, pp. 291 & 292.

PBS Nova SeriesPBS Nova Series; In Search of Human Origins; In Search of Human Originsepisode one 1994episode one 1994 (Dr. Owen Lovejoy) (Dr. Owen Lovejoy)

PBS Nova SeriesPBS Nova Series; In Search of Human Origins; In Search of Human Originsepisode one 1994episode one 1994 (Dr. Owen Lovejoy) (Dr. Owen Lovejoy)

Lucy’s pelvis is “wrong” Lucy’s pelvis is “wrong” because it is very ape-likebecause it is very ape-likeLucy’s pelvis is “wrong” Lucy’s pelvis is “wrong”

because it is very ape-likebecause it is very ape-like

PBS Nova SeriesPBS Nova Series; In Search of Human Origins; In Search of Human Originsepisode one 1994episode one 1994 (Dr. Owen Lovejoy) (Dr. Owen Lovejoy)

PBS Nova SeriesPBS Nova Series; In Search of Human Origins; In Search of Human Originsepisode one 1994episode one 1994 (Dr. Owen Lovejoy) (Dr. Owen Lovejoy)

1515°° carrying carrying angle (valgus)angle (valgus)

Human = 9Human = 9°°Gorilla = 0Gorilla = 0°°Chimp = 0Chimp = 0°°

1515°° carrying carrying angle (valgus)angle (valgus)

Human = 9Human = 9°°Gorilla = 0Gorilla = 0°°Chimp = 0Chimp = 0°°

Orangutan = 9Orangutan = 9°°Spider monkey = 9Spider monkey = 9°°

•http://www.slideshare.net/PaulVMcDowell/speciation-and-http://www.slideshare.net/PaulVMcDowell/speciation-and-evolutionevolution

•http://www.slideshare.net/whittumjd/facts-about-apemen

•http://www.slideshare.net/chuckiecalsado/darwins-theory-of-evolution-4857892