evans pritchard azande

8/10/2019 Evans Pritchard Azande

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Edward EVANS-PRITCHARD

1976 [1937] Witchcraft !rac"#$ a%d &a'ic a()%' th#A*a%d#+ !,f)rd C"ar#%d)%+ [A.rid'#d witha% i%tr)d/cti)% .0 Ea 2i""i#$+]

CHAPTER IV

Are Witches Conscious Agents?

I

ONEof the most remarkable features of Euroean !itchcraft !as therea"iness !ith !hich !itches sometimes# not un"er "uress#confesse" their guilt an" ga$e length% accounts of their crimes

an" their organi&ation' It seems that# to some "egree at an%rate# eole li$ing in a communit% in !hich the facts of!itchcraft are ne$er "oubte" ma% con$ince themsel$es that the%ossess the o!er !ith !hich others cre"it them' Ho!e$er thisma% be# it is of interest to ask !hether A&an"e e$er confess thatthe% are !itches'

To A&an"e the (uestion of guilt "oes not resent itself as it !oul" tous' As I ha$e alrea"% e)laine"# their interest in !itchcraft is arouse"onl% in seci*c cases of misfortune an" ersists onl% !hile themisfortune lasts' The onl% !itch the% a% attention to is the !itch !hois actuall% causing them misfortune' When their misha is en"e" the%cease to regar" the man as a !itch# for# as !e ha$e seen# an%one ma%be a !itch# but a +an"e is onl% concerne" !ith a !itch !hose

!itchcraft is signi*cant to himself' Also# !itchcraft is something the%react to an" against in misfortune# this being the main meaning it hasfor them' It is a resonse to certain situations an" not an intricateintellectual concet' Hence a +an"e accuse" of !itchcraft isastonishe"' He has not concei$e" of !itchcraft from this angle' To himit has al!a%s been a reaction against others in his o!n misfortunes# sothat it is "i,icult for him to arehen" the notion !hen he himself isits ob-ecti$e in the misfortunes of other eole'

This roblem is e)cee"ingl% "i,icult' .ome African eoles aearto bri"ge o$er the "i,icult% !hich arises bet!een a ro$en act of!itchcraft an" the !itch/s a$o!e" ignorance of the act b% assertingthat a !itch ma% act !ithout $olition' 0ut +an"e notions "o not rea"il%ermit this thesis' Ask an% +an"e the straightfor!ar" (uestion

!hether a man kno!s that he is a !itch an" be!itches in fullconsciousness of his action# an" he !ill rel% that it is imossible thata !itch shoul" be ignorant of his con"ition an" of his assaults uonothers' Neither in rel% to such a (uestion# nor on the man% occasionsuon !hich I ha$e !itnesse" oracular consultations about !itchcraftan" seen fo!ls/ !ings being taken to those e)ose" b% the oisonoracle# ha$e I e$er hear" it suggeste" that a man might be ignorant ofbeing a !itch or might ha$e use" his o!ers unconsciousl%' 1or


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A&an"e think that !itches lea" a secret life an" share theircon*"ences !ith other !itches laughing about their mis"ee"s an"boasting of their e)loits against those !hom the% hate'

2et A&an"e are inconsistent in this matter' Although the% assert themoral guilt of others# ne$ertheless# !hen accuse" of !itchcraft

themsel$es the% lea" innocence# if not of the act3 for the% cannot!ell "o that in ublic3at least of intention' To an outsi"er it aearsthat there is a contra"iction bet!een "enial of $olition in one/s o!ncase an" insistence uon $olition in the cases of others' 0ut thesituation in !hich a +an"e is lace" "etermines !hich of a number ofbeliefs comes into la%# an" the fact that this belief contra"icts hisusual i"eas "oes not trouble him' He assumes that !itches areresonsible for their actions -ust as !e assume that the criminal isresonsible thr his crimes' When he is himself accuse" of !itchcraftthis is a eculiar an" secial case'

We must remember that a +an"e has onl% his o!n in"i$i"uale)erience to -u"ge b%# for one "oes not "iscuss matters of this kin"!ith one/s frien"s' Public oinion accets that a !itch is a conscious

agent# but on a articular occasion !hen the oison oracle "enouncesa certain man for ha$ing erforme" an act of !itchcraft he is a!are ofhis lack of intention' .o far as he kno!s he has ne$er $isite" the homeof the sick man !hom he is sai" to ha$e in-ure"# an" he is force" toconclu"e that either there must ha$e been an error or that he hasacte" unconsciousl%' 0ut he belie$es his o!n case to be e)cetionalan" that others are resonsible for their actions' Peole ha$e al!a%sbeen of the oinion that !itches lan their assaults# an" the fact thathe himself has not acte" !ith intent is no reason to suose thatothers "o not act consciousl%' In"ee"# a man in these circumstancesmust feel that if it is true that he is a !itch he is certainl% not anor"inar% !itch# for !itches recogni&e each other an" co4oerate intheir un"ertakings# !hereas no one has a secret un"erstan"ing !ith

him nor seeks his ai"'I ha$e fre(uentl% obser$e" that the attitu"e of m% +an"e frien"s# as

sho!n in their beha$iour rather than in their statements# !as"i,erent !hen someone !as accuse" of in-uring them b% !itchcraftfrom their attitu"e !hen the% themsel$es !ere accuse" of in-uringothers' Again# their resonse to a "irect (uestion !hether a !itchkno!s his o!n con"ition an" in-ures others of his o!n free !ill 5that is!hen I e$oke" a statement of accete" oinion6 !as "i,erent to theinformation the% sometimes $olunteere" !hen the (uestion !as note)licitl% raise"' The articular situation in !hich the% foun"themsel$es ointe" their statements an" coloure" their oinions'

In the course of "iscussions uon other sub-ects I ha$e sometimesfoun" that informants !ill a"mit that it is ossible that some !itches

ma% sometimes# in certain circumstances# be ignorant of theircon"ition# an" that their ignorance is generall% a"mitte" in the casesof !itch4chil"ren an" of a"ult !itches !ho ha$e been accuse" of!itchcraft on one or t!o occasions onl%' Also# !hen a man/s !itchcraftis 7cool/# as A&an"e sa%# or as !e shoul" sa% !hen it is inoerati$e# hema% !ell be ignorant of his con"ition'

I think# in fact# that it !oul" not be rea"ing too much into the i"easA&an"e sometimes e)ress on this sub-ect to "escribe them as follo!s8


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A man cannot hel being a !itch9 it is not his fault that he is born !ith!itchcraft in his bell%' He ma% be (uite ignorant that he is a !itch an"(uite innocent of acts of !itchcraft' In this state of innocence hemight "o someone an in-ur% un!ittingl%# but !hen he has on se$eraloccasions been e)ose" b% the oison oracle he is then conscious of

his o!ers an" begins to use them# !ith malice'When a man or one of his famil% or kin is sick he is $er% anno%e"' To

un"erstan" his feelings about the moral resonsibilit% of the man!hose name the oracle "iscloses as resonsible for the sickness# itmust be recollecte" that he laces before it the names of those eole!hom he "islikes most# so that the !itch is likel% to be someone !ith!hom he has been for some time on ba" terms' Ol" animosit% isreinforce" b% ne! resentment' It is therefore useless to suggest tohim that the !itch is una!are of his !itchcraft# for he is "isincline" toconsi"er such a ossibilit% !hen he has long kno!n of the man/shatre" an" "esire to "o him an in-ur%' In such a situation as this#moral resonsibilit% of !itches is assume" !ithout (uali*cations' It iscontaine" in the rocesses of selection an" accusation an" has no

nee" to be state"'0ut the same ersons !ho ha$e so strongl% asserte" the malice an"

$olition of others !hen the% are the in-ure" art% !ill seak in a"i,erent manner !hen the% are reciients of fo!ls/ !ings' I ha$eoften ha" an oortunit% to obser$e the same ersons in bothsituations' Ha$ing consi"ere" !hat are the usual oinions hel" b%

A&an"e about resonsibilit% of !itches# an" ho! their reaction toin-ur% brings out the notion of resonsibilit% in its mostuncomromising form# !e ma% no! obser$e ho! the !itch reson"sto an accusation'

If he is short4temere" he ma% make a scene !hen a fo!l/s !ing islace" before him' He ma% tell the messenger to take it a!a% an" ma%curse the eole !ho sent it# an" sa% that the% are siml% tr%ing to

humiliate him out of malice' .uch scenes are rare# but I ha$e either!itnesse" or ha" goo" kno!le"ge of se$eral# an" men ha$e beenkno!n to in-ure a messenger' A man !ho beha$es in this manner isacting contrar% to custom an" is insulting the chief/s "eut% !hoor"ere" the !ing to be lai" before him' He !ill be laughe" at as aro$incial !ho is ignorant of the manners of olite societ%# an" ma%gain the reutation of a har"ene" !itch !ho a"mits his !itchcraft b%the anger he "isla%s !hen it is foun" out' What he ought to "o is toblo! out !ater an" sa%8 7If I ossess !itchcraft in m% bell% I amuna!are of it9 ma% it cool' It is thus that I blo! out !ater'/

It is "i,icult to -u"ge from a man/s ublic beha$iour his real feelings!hen resente" !ith a fo!l/s !ing# for e$en if he is certain of hisinnocence he !ill erform this simle ceremon%# since it is the roer

thing for a gentleman to "o9 for it is not onl% lai" "o!n b% custom thathe must blo! out !ater# but the hrases in !hich he is e)ecte" toe)ress his regret are more or less stereot%e"# an" e$en the earnestan" aologetic tone Of $oice in !hich he utters them is "etermine" b%tra"ition'

When I ha$e ha" the oortunit% I ha$e soken to the ' accuse"man as shortl% as ossible after the resentation of a fo!l/s !ing tohim in or"er to "isco$er his $ie!s' Often enough the accuse" !as one


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of m% ser$ants# informants# or ersonal frien"s# so that I !as able to"o so in ri$ate an" !ithout sh%ness' I foun" that the% either "eclare"that the accusation !as sill%# e$en malicious# or the% accete" it !ithresignation' Those !ho resente" the accusation !oul" sa% that theiraccusers ha" not consulte" the oracles at all# but ha" -ust kille" fo!ls

an" stuck their !ings on a stick# or that if the% consulte" the oisonoracle it must ha$e ma"e a mistake o!ing to !itchcraft ha$ingin:uence" its $er"ict or a taboo ha$ing been broken' Thesesuggestions !oul" not be ma"e in ublic' A man ma% a"" in ri$atethat he has ne$er been accuse" of !itchcraft before# an" that it istherefore unlikel% that he !oul" start be!itching eole no!' A man!ho is able to oint to se$eral of his close kinsmen !ho ha$e beensub-ect to ost4mortem e)amination an" ha$e been foun" to lack!itchcraft4substance in their bellies !ill instance these cases to sho!that it is !ellnigh imossible for him to be a !itch' Ho!e$er# such aman !ill blo! on the !ing in or"er to en" the matter an" a$oi"unleasantness' He !oul" sa% to me after!ar"s8 7If I am a !itch Ikno! nothing about it' Wh% shoul" I !ish to in-ure an%one? 0ut since

the% ga$e me the fo!l/s !ing I ble! on it to sho! that I bear no oneill4!ill'/

;u"ging from these ri$ate con$ersations !ith A&an"e after the%ha$e recei$e" fo!ls/ !ings I !oul" sa% that it is mainl% "i,erence oftemerament !hich "eci"es the emotional reaction to an accusationof !itchcraft' In ublic e$er%bo"% reacts in a like manner for# ho!e$ero,en"e" a man ma% be# he ought to act !ith stan"ar"i&e" meekness'

I once hear" a man gi$e his son soun" a"$ice on this matter' 1romtime to time the %outh ha" been resente" !ith fo!ls/ !ings b% aneighbour an" ha" $igorousl% roteste" against !hat he consi"ere"insults an" nothing more' His father tol" him that the accusations!ere# of course# absur"# as se$eral of his kinsmen ha" been e)amine"ost mortem an" no !itchcraft4substance ha" been foun" in their

ab"omens' Ne$ertheless# it "i" no harm to blo! !ater' He sai" that it!as not onl% olite to "o so !hen re(ueste" but also sho!e" anabsence of ill4feeling !hich ought to characteri&e all goo" citi&ens' Itis better for an innocent man to coml% !ith goo" grace'

0ut though man% men "eclare in ri$ate that the% are not !itchesan" that there must ha$e been a mistake# m% e)erience of A&an"e!hen resente" !ith hens/ !ings has con$ince" me that some think#for a short time at an% rate# that erhas after all the% are !itches'Tra"ition about !itchcraft# so "e*nite about !hat cannot normall% beteste"3e'g' the concrete nature of !itchcraft4substance3is $aguean" in"eterminate about !hat might be ro$e" or "isro$e"# namel%#the oeration of !itchcraft' The manner in !hich !itches carr% outtheir e)loits is a m%ster% to A&an"e# an" since in !aking life the%

ha$e no e$i"ence uon !hich to base a theor% of action# the% fall backuon the transcen"ental notion of soul'


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its erran" of "estruction' Perhas !hen he !as aslee an" una!aresomething of the kin" haene" an" his !itchcraft le" its in"een"entlife' In these circumstances a man might !ell be a !itch an" %et notkno! that he is one' 2et I ha$e ne$er kno!n a +an"e a"mit his!itchcraft'

0ut a man !ill be $er% luck% if he escaes occasional accusations#an" after the oison oracle has "eclare" on se$eral occasions that aman has be!itche" others he ma% "oubt his immunit%' 7The oisonoracle "oes not err/ is e$er% +an"e/s credo. Its authorit% is backe" b%the olitical o!er of the rinces an" b% tra"ition' =oreo$er# the factthat a man has ublicl% to enact a confession of guilt b% blo!ing on afo!l/s !ing must ren"er him at least "oubtful about the e)istence of!itchcraft in his bell%'

II

I sometimes aske" a man# if I kne! him $er% !ell# 7Are %ou a !itch?/ Ie)ecte" a romt un(uali*e" "enial couche" in o,en"e" tone# butrecei$e" often a humble rel%# 7Ai# master#if there is !itchcraft in m% bell% I kno! nothing of it' I am no !itchbecause eole ha$e not seen !itchcraft in the bellies of our kin'/Ho!e$er# it !as less the relies I recei$e" than the tone an" mannerin !hich the% !ere gi$en that ga$e me an imression of "oubt' Ha" Iaske" them !hether the% !ere thie$es the tone an" manner of theirrel% !oul" ha$e been "eci"e" an" angr%'

In one of m% te)ts an ol" man ra%s to =bori# the .ureme 0eing# at"a!n before making his earl% morning ablutions# sa%ing that he hasstolen no man/s ossession# that he has not committe" a"ulter% !ithan% man/s !ife# that he bears no man ill4!ill# but "esires to li$e incharit% !ith his neighbours9 an" he a""s# 7E$en if I ossess !itchcraft

in m% bell% ma% I not harm the gar"ens of an% man' =a% the mouth ofm% !itchcraft cool9 let it rather $ent its sleen on those animals in thebush that "ail% "ance on the gra$es of m% kinsmen'/

It is usual# an" consi"ere" olite an" frien"l%# for a man !ho $isits asick frien" to ause near his frien"/s hut an" ask his !ife to bring!ater in a gour"' He takes a "raught of this !ater an"# after s!illinghis mouth !ith it# blo!s it in sra% to the groun" an" sa%s# 7O =bori#this man !ho is sick# if it is I !ho am killing him !ith m% !itchcraftlet him reco$er'/ It must be remembere"# ho!e$er# that this seech isa mere formalit%# an" !hilst it suggests a cultural recognition of theossibilit% of a man in-uring another una!ares# it !oul" be !rong toassume that the man !ho soke the !or"s ha" an% "oubts about hiso!n immunit% from !itchcraft at the time' Accor"ing to +an"e

notions# a !itch !oul" almost certainl% not $isit a man !hom he ha"be!itche"'

When consulting the rubbing4boar" oracle about a sick kinsman or!ife a man ma% ask it about his neighbours to "isco$er !ho isbe!itching the sick erson' .ometimes before lacing the names ofthese eole before the oracle one !ill hear him ask# 7Is it I !ho am toblame?/ Here again the (uestion sho!s a recognition of the ossibilit%


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of una!areness of !itchcraft# but there is no reason to suose thatthe man !ho asks it consi"ers for a moment that he might beresonsible' His (uestion is a ure formalit%' It looks !ell to sho!himself oen4min"e" in his in(uir%# an" he ma% "o so !ithout fear ofthe rubbing4boar" oracle accusing him# since either he or a frien" is

the oerator' A man !oul" not ask this (uestion of the oison oracle'It is sai" that !hen a man goes to !ar his !i$es take a "raught of

!ater an" blo! it out on the foot of the ghost4shrine in the centre ofhis homestea"# an" sa%8 7=a% nothing haen to him' =a% m%!itchcraft cool to!ar"s him' O fello!4!i$es# ma% nothing haen toour husban"' 0e cool to!ar"s him'/

It !ill be remembere" also that before making an autos% on a "ea"kinsman his relati$es !ill *rst ask the oison oracle for an assurancethat his bell% "oes not contain !itchcraft4substance'

III

One !oul" imagine that if !itchcraft is here"itar%# then a man mustsurel% ha$e a goo" i"ea !hether he is a !itch or not from the recor"sof his father# his aternal uncles# an" his gran"father' He must kno!!hether the% ha$e e$er ai" comensation for mur"er# recei$e" fo!ls/!ings# an" un"ergone unsuccessful ost4mortem e)amination' 0ut#!hilst a man !ill certainl% bring u cases in !hich the corses of hiskinsmen !ere e)amine" for !itchcraft an" foun" to contain none inor"er to boast his o!n immunit%# the fact that a man/s forebears !ere!itches is not stresse"' It is generall% not e$en kno!n# for it has nosigni*cance either to their sons or to other eole since no one isintereste" in the (uestion !hether a man is a !itch or not' To a +an"ethis aears an entirel% theoretical (uestion an" one about !hich hehas not informe" himself' What he !ants to kno! is !hether a certain

man is in-uring him in a articular situation at a articular time'Hence the "octrine of here"itar% !itchcraft robabl% has littlein:uence to!ar"s in"icating to a man his ossession of !itchcraft'

This lack of recision in i"enti*cation of !itchcraft is ren"ere" e$enmore ob$ious b% 0ritish rule# !hich "oes not ermit "irect $engeanceuon a !itch# nor accet the legalit% of his a%ing comensation foran imaginar% crime' In the ol" "a%s !hen !itchcraft became acriminal charge3that is to sa%# !hen mur"er ha" been committe"3there !as no "oubt !ho !ere !itches' If a man !as e)ecute" or ai"comensation for mur"er he !as a !itch# an" he must ha$e feltassure" of his o!n guilt an" his kinsmen must ha$e accete" thestigma that attache" itself# at an% rate for a time# to their name onaccount of this enaction of -ustice' 0ut to"a% a !itch is ne$er accuse"

of a crime' At the !orst he can be tol" that his !itchcraft is in-uringsomeone# but he !ill not be tol" that he has kille" him# an" there is noreason to suose that a man !ho has been e)ose" b% the oisonoracle as ha$ing cause" a man sickness !as also the man !ho actuall%kille" him# although he "ie" from the same sickness' Hence a !itchan" his kinsmen !ill remain in comlete ignorance that he hascommitte" mur"er' The relati$es of a "ea" man !ill e$entuall% killsomeone !ith $engeance4magic# but the general ublic an" the


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relati$es of the slain !itch !ill remain ignorant of the cause of his"eath' His kinsmen !ill suose that he has also "ie" from !itchcraft#an" the% in their turn !ill tr% an" a$enge themsel$es on a !itch' Noman or !oman to"a% has to face an accusation of mur"er b%!itchcraft# that is to sa%# an accusation b% a rince/s oracle# so that

this factor in the creation of self4kno!le"ge of !itchcraft is no!absent'

At the resent time there are no longer means of bringing a !itch tothe fore b% an act of ublic $engeance' All is $agueness an" confusion'Each small grou of kinsmen act in ri$ate sla%ing !itches b% theirmagic unkno!n to the rest of the !orl"' Onl% the rince kno!s !hatis haening# an" he is silent' The same "eath is consi"ere" b%neighbours as "eath an" little more# b% kinsmen as an act of!itchcraft# b% the kinsmen of other "ea" men as an act of their magic'In matters other than "eath it is ossible for one set of eole to sa%that their oracle has e)ose" a man for be!itching one of theirkinsmen# !hile the frien"s an" relati$es of the accuse" ma% easil%"en% the imutation an" sa% that he ble! out !ater as a mere matter

of form because there is no certaint% that the oracle has soken thetruth or e$en has e$er been consulte" at all# for it is not a rince/soracle' Hence it is# erhas# not e)traor"inar% that I shoul" ne$erha$e hear" a confession of !itchcraft'


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CHAPTER V

Witch4


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A&an"e regar" !itch4"octors as one of their man% oracles thoughthe% "o not normall% seak of them as oracles' The% consi"er theirrohecies an" re$elations to ha$e e(ual $alue !ith the "isclosures ofthe rubbing4boar" oracles but to be less reliable than the oisonoracle an" the termites oracle' I ha$e alrea"% "escribe" ho! a sick

man# or kinsmen acting on his behalf# consults $arious oracles# en"ing!ith the oison oracle# to "etermine !ho among his enemies isbe!itching him' 0ut instea" of commencing theraeutic oerations!ith the rubbing4boar" oracle the% ma% summon one or se$eral !itch4"octors to "i$ine on behalf of a sick man# or about economic failure'Though great attention is ai" to the "eclarations of !itch4"octorstheir re$elations ha$e no legal $alue# an" it is e$en consi"ere"ina"$isable to aroach a !itch b% the customar% roce"ure on thestrength of a !itch4"octor/s statement unsuorte" b% a corroborati$e

$er"ict of the oison oracle'

II

The +an"e cororation of !itch4"octors is a seciali&e" rofession!ith $este" interests in kno!le"ge of me"icines# so that man% of theiracti$ities are not easil% obser$e"' Therefore I reface m% "escritionof !itch4"octors !ith a short statement of the !a% in !hich I collecte"m% information'

In stu"%ing the +an"e cororation of !itch4"octors it !as necessar%to "i$i"e the *el" of in(uir% into t!o sections an" to emlo% "i,erentmetho"s in the in$estigation of each' Onesectioncomrise" theiracti$ities in relation to the rest of +an"e societ%# the art the% la% incommunal life# their lace in national tra"ition# their contacts !ith therinces# an" the current beliefs an" stories associate" !ith them inthe ublic min"' It !as eas% to recor" this art of their life# for there!as "i,icult% about !itnessing ublic erformances !hich are oen to

all comers' It !as like!ise eas% to obtain a commentar% on !hat isabstruse in the ritual from regular informants an" casual b%stan"ersalike' In this section it !as# in fact# ossible to emlo% the usualmetho"s of *el"!ork in$estigation 3"irect an" reeate" obser$ationof beha$iour# cross4(uestioning of nati$es# both in the situation ofritual !hen their attention is "irecte" to the erformance about !hichinformation is sought in more leisurel% con$ersations in tent# or hut#collection of te)ts# an" e$en mil" articiation in nati$e acti$ities b%the ethnograher himself'

On the other han"# the cororation has an esoteric life from !hichthe uninitiate" are e)clu"e"# an" this forms the secon" section of ourstu"%' Not onl% are kno!le"ge of me"icines an" tricks of the tra"ehi""en from outsi"ers# but much of the inner

social life of the cororation an" man% of its beliefs are unkno!n tothem' The usual metho"s of in(uir% !ere here largel% ine,ecti$e an"the or"inar% s%stem of controls inoerati$e' I coul" ha$e obser$e""irectl% onl% b% becoming m%self a !itch4"octor# an" !hile this !oul"ha$e been ossible among the A&an"e# I "oubt !hether it !oul" ha$ero$e" a"$antageous' Pre$ious e)erience of articiation inacti$ities of this kin" ha" le" me to the conclusion that ananthroologist gains little b% obtru"ing himself into ceremonies as an


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actor# for a Euroean is ne$er seriousl% regar"e" as a member of anesoteric grou an" has little oortunit% of checking to !hat e)tent aerformance is change" for his bene*t# b% "esign# or b% thes%chological resonse of the articiants to the rites being a,ecte"b% his resence' It is# moreo$er# "i,icult to use the or"inar% metho"s

of critical in$estigation !hen one is actuall% engage" in ceremonialan" is suose" to be an eager member of an institution' The man%ractical "i,iculties of a Euroean being acti$el% engage" in the tra"eof an African !itch4"octor !ere also !eight% enough to act as a"eterrent to this mo"e of in(uir%# eseciall% as members of the nobleclass 5A$ongara6 "o not become !itch4"octors'

The course of in(uir% !hich imme"iatel% suggeste" itself !as to tr%to !in the goo"!ill of one or t!o ractitioners an" to ersua"e themto "i$ulge their secrets in strict con*"ence' This I attemte" an"ma"e some hea"!a% in m% in(uiries before it became e$i"ent that I!as not likel% to rocee" $er% far' =% informants !ere reare" togi$e information !hich the% kne! coul" be obtaine" !ithout great"i,icult% from other sources# but !ere reticent about their rincial

secrets to the oint of refusal to "iscuss them' It !oul"# I belie$e#ha$e been ossible b% using e$er% arti*ce to ha$e e$entuall% !orme"out all their secrets# but this !oul" ha$e meant bringing un"ueressure on eole to "i$ulge !hat the% !ishe" to hi"e# so I "roe"in(uir% into this art of +an"e life altogether for se$eral months'.ubse(uentl% I a"ote" the onl% alternati$e course# of using asubstitute# to learn all about the techni(ue of !itch4"octors' =%ersonal ser$ant# >amanga# !as initiate" into the cororation an"became a ractising !itch4"octor' He ga$e me full accounts ofroce"ure from the commencement of his career ste b% ste as it"e$eloe"'

This might not be thought a $er% goo" metho" of in(uir%# an" I ha""oubts about its fertilit% !hen I began to emlo% it# but it ro$e"# in

e$ent# to be fruitful' While >amanga !as slo!l% being initiate" b% oneractitioner# it !as ossible for me to utili&e his information to "ra!out of their shells ri$al ractitioners b% la%ing on their -ealous% an"

$anit%' >amanga coul" be truste" to tell me e$er%thing he ha" learntin the course of his tuition# but I felt sure that# !hile he !oul" be tol"much more than I !oul" obtain from m% o!n in(uiries# art of histraining !oul" be cut out b% his teacher since !e acte" straight4for!ar"l% in telling him that his uil !oul" ass on all information tome' It !as "i,icult for him to lie "irectl% to >amanga# since he !asa!are that his statements !oul" be teste" !ith ri$al !itch4"octors inthe localit% an" !ith ractitioners from other "istricts# but he coul"#on the other han"# kee information from him !ith fair success# an"this is !hat he "i" "o' In the long run# ho!e$er# an ethnograher is

boun" to triumh' Arme" !ith reliminar% kno!le"ge nothing canre$ent him from "ri$ing "eeer an" "eeer the !e"ge if he isintereste" an" ersistent'

This is the kin" of in(uir% !hich nee"s leisurel% ursuit' Results canonl% be obtaine" b% a atient aroach an" a long !ait uonfa$ourable con"itions' I ne$er intru"e" uon ri$ate con$ersationsbet!een >amanga an" 0a"obo# his teacher# ho!e$er "ilator% theircon"uct' The astuteness of the teacher !oul" ha$e surrise" me more


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ha" it not been that I !as !ell ac(uainte" !ith the e)treme cre"ulit%of his uil# !hose "ee faith in magicians ne$er cease" to astonishme# though I ha" "ail% e$i"ence of it' .ubtle rocrastination might!ell ha$e ersua"e" me to -ettison m% in(uir% into the techni(ue of!itch4"octors in fa$our of other anthroological cargo ha" it not been

for the arri$al of a note" !itch4"octor on a rofessional tour from a"istant "istrict' This man# name" 0g!&u# !as arrogant to!ar"s thelocal ractitioners# !hom he treate" !ith alternating contemt an"con"escension' 0a"obo bore his conceit less easil% than the other!itch4"octors since he !as use" to the "eference no! ai" to hisri$al'

Here !as an oortunit% to be sei&e" at once# since it might notrecur' I :attere" 0g!&u/s self4esteem# suggeste" that he shoul"take o$er the tuition of >amanga# an" o,ere" to a% him muni*centl%so long as he taught his uil all he kne! I e)laine" to him that I !astire" of 0a"obo/s !iliness an" e)tortion# an" that I e)ecte" m%generosit% to be recirocate" b% the e(uiment of >amanga !ithsomething more than e)oteric kno!le"ge of a !itch4"octor/s

techni(ue' To 0a"obo I e)cuse" m%self on the groun"s that this ne!ractitioner !as "istinguishe" in his rofession an" ha" (uali*e"among the neighbouring 0aka eole# !ho are reno!ne" for theirmagic# as !ell as among A&an"e# so that he coul" teach >amanga theme"icines of t!o cultures' At the same time 0a"obo !as to continuehis instruction an" recei$e remuneration for his ser$ices'

When informants fall out anthroologists come into their o!n' Theri$alr% bet!een these t!o ractitioners gre! into bitter an" ill4conceale" hostilit%' 0g!&u ga$e me information about me"icinesan" magical rites to ro$e that his ri$al !as ignorant of the one orincaable in the erformance of the other' 0a"obo became alert an"sho!e" himself no less eager to "emonstrate his kno!le"ge of magicboth to >amanga an" to m%self' The% $ie" !ith each other to gain

ascen"anc% among the local ractitioners' >amanga an" I reae" afull har$est in this (uarrel# not onl% from the rotagonists themsel$esbut also from other !itch4"octors in the neighbourhoo"# an" e$enfrom intereste" la%men'

0ut# in site of their ri$alr% an" m% ersistence# the t!oractitioners mentione" abo$e "i" not "i$ulge to >amanga the metho"b% !hich the% e)tracte" ob-ects from the bo"ies of their atients# asurgical oeration erforme" b% !itch4"octors all o$er Africa# for the%!ell un"erstoo" that he !as a songe out of !hich I s(uee&e" all themoisture of information !hich the% ut into it' I mention this factbecause# although I caught them out an" comelle" them throughforce of a!k!ar" circumstances to "i$ulge their e)act mo"e oftricker%# it sho!s that in site of the metho"s of in$estigation !hich I

emlo%e"# m% informants "i" not communicate their entire kno!le"geto me# e$en in"irectl%# an" suggests that there !ere other"eartments of their kno!le"ge !hich the% "i" not "isclose' This ma%ha$e been the case' It !as ine$itable that I shoul" learn sooner orlater ho! ob-ects are remo$e" from the bo"ies of sick ersons b%+an"e !itch4"octors# since I kne! beforehan" !hat haens amongother African eoles# but it is ossible that in other matters !herethere !as not the same basis for in(uir% the !itch4"octors# if the%


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!ishe" to hi"e an%thing# conceale" it !ith greater success' I ha$e onl%to a"" that >amanga/s sustaine" interest an" in"ustr% enable" me totake "o!n the gist of his e)eriences in a large number of nati$ete)ts# gi$en !eek after !eek for man% months# an" that m% constantassociation !ith him enable" us to "iscuss these te)ts informall% an"

at leisure' A single informant kno!n intimatel% is often a more reliablesource of information than the oole" statements of man% informantsless !ell kno!n'

III

A Euroean in +an"elan" is likel% to come across !itch4"octors for the*rst time at a seance# at !hich the% "ance an" "i$ine# becauseseances are hel" in ublic an" heral"e" an" accomanie" b% "rums'These ublic erformances are local e$ents of some imortance# an"those !ho li$e in the neighbourhoo" regar" them as interestingsectacles !ell !orth a short !alk' It ma% be suose"# in"ee"# thatatten"ance at them has an imortant formati$e in:uence on the

gro!th of !itchcraft4beliefs in the min"s of chil"ren# for chil"renmake a oint of atten"ing them an" taking art in them as sectatorsan" chorus' This is the *rst occasion on !hich the% "emonstrate theirbelief# an" it is more "ramaticall% an" more ublicl% a,irme" at theseseances than in an% other situations'

.eances are hel" on a $ariet% of occasions# but generall% a@ "iere(uest of a househol"er !ho is su,ering# or fears# a misfortune'Perhas he or his !ife is ill or he fears his chil"ren !ill sicken'Perhas his hunting is consistentl% unsuccessful or he Wants to kno!!here in the bush he is likel% to *n" animals' erhas blight hasbegun to mar his groun"4nuts or he is merel% uncertain !here to so!his eleusine' Perhas his !ife has not gi$en him a chil" or he feelsthat someone is about to seak i of him to his father4in4la!'

One meets !itch4"octors as the% rocee" b% ones or t!os to!ar"s atrouble" homestea"# each !earing his hat "ecorate" !ith feathersan" carr%ing his large hi"e bag containing skins# horns# magic!histles# belts# leglets an" armlcts ma"e from $arious !il" fruits# an"see"s' In ol"en "a%s before Euroean a"ministration onl% t!o or three!itch4"octors !oul" atten" a meeting in an% one "istrict# but to"a%most go$ernment settlements can muster half a "o&en# !hileoccasionall% at oular seances# as !hen a ne! magician is beinginitiate" into the cororation# as man% as a "o&en !ill assist'

When the% meet at their "estination the% e)change greetings Bn""iscuss in lo! tones among themsel$es the a,airs of the seance !hilerearing the groun" for "ancing' In these con$ersations an"rearations the lea" is taken b% an e)erience" magician !ho has

generall% been a !itch4"octor for a longer erio" than the others# an"!ho ma% ha$e initiate" man% of the other erformers into the craft'His authorit% is not great'

=embers of the ruling class ne$er# to m% kno!le"ge# becomeractitioners' A noble !oul" at once lose restige b% associating !ithcommoners at their -oint meals of me"icine an" ublic "ances' I ha$ee$en hear" contemtuous remarks about a commoner hea"man !ho


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occasionall% took art in these rocee"ings# as it !as consi"ere"beneath the "ignit% of a man hol"ing a olitical osition from hisrince to "emean himself in this manner' It !as thought more *ttingthat he shoul" restrict himself to olitical life an" remain a sectatorof these acti$ities# articiation in !hich must lessen the social

"istance !hich "i$i"e" him from those !ho o!e" him allegiance asthe reresentati$e of his rince' Conse(uentl% the olitical attern of+an"e social life has left no imrint uon the institution of their !itch4"octors# for ha" rinces entere" into the cororation the% mustnecessaril% ha$e "one so as lea"ers'

It is $er% sel"om that !omen become !itch4"octors' A fe! are(uali*e" to act as leeches# an" occasionall% a !oman gains aconsi"erable reutation among her atients# usuall% ersons of hero!n se)# an" is aointe" ractitioner to a rince/s harem' =en also

$isit !omen leeches to be treate" for ailments' It is $er% rare#ho!e$er# for a !oman to take art in "ances of !itch4"octors' The% "onot take art in the communal meals of !itch4"octors# nor are the%initiate" into the craft through ritual burial' Women !itch4"octors an"

leeches are al!a%s ast their %outh an" are often !i"o!s'

IV

Prearations for a "ance consist in marking out an area of oerationsan"# !hen that has been "one# of robing' .tarting from the "rums# alarge circle is "ra!n on the groun"# an" this is generall% ma"e moreconsicuous b% !hite ashes being srinkle" along it' No la%man issuose" to enter into this circle reser$e" for the !itch4"octors/"ance# an" !ere he to "o so he !oul" risk ha$ing a black4beetle oriece of bone shot into his bo"% b% an outrage" magician' Eachractitioner# ha$ing unslung from his shoul"er his leather bag#ro"uces from it a number of horns of !aterbuck# bushbuck# "ik4"ik#

bongo# an" other animals# an" thrusts these in the earth along thecircular ash4line' On one of these straightene" horns often rests a otof !ater into !hich !itch4"octors ga&e in or"er to see !itchcraft'Interserse" among the horns are gnarle" ieces of magical !oo"#an" from both these an" the horns magical !histles sometimes"angle' The lace !here his horns are stuck in the earth an" thesace in front of them are regar"e" b% a !itch4"octor as his o!narticular *el" of oerations uon !hich he !ill resent encroachmentb% an% other !itch4"octor'

The horns# straightene" out b% being heate" in the *re an" bent#!hile hot# on the groun"# are *lle" !ith a aste# ma"e from ashes an"

-uices of $arious herbs an" shrubs mi)e" !ith oil# an" the% arerelenishe" from time to time !hen the sul% running short or

becoming "r%' These me"icines ha$e great imortance# for kno!le"geof the me"icines means kno!le"ge of the art of a !itch4"octor' It isnot magic !or"s nor ritual se(uences !hich are stresse" in initiationinto the cororation of !itch4"octors# but trees an" herbs' A +an"e!itch4"octor essentiall% a man !ho kno!s !hat lants an" treescomose the me"icines !hich# if eaten# !ill gi$e him o!er to see!itchcraft !ith his o!n e%es# to kno! !here it resi"es# an" to "ri$e ita!a% from its inten"e" $ictims' The +an"e !itch4"octor e)ercises


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suernatural o!ers solel% because he kno!s the right me"icines an"has eaten them in the right manner' His rohecies are "eri$e" fromthe magic insi"e him' His insiration "oes not sring from the.ureme 0eing nor from the ghosts of the "ea"'

The rofessional robes !ith !hich !itch4"octors a"orn themsel$es

!hile the "ancing groun" is being marke" out consist of stra! hatstoe" !ith large bunches of feathers of geese an" arrots an" othermarsh an" bush bir"s' .trings of magic !histles ma"e from eculiartrees are strung across their chests an" tie" roun" their arms' .kinsof !il" cats# ci$et cats# genets# ser$als# an" other carni$ora an" smallro"ents# as !ell as of monke%s 5eseciall% the colobus6# are tucke"un"er their !aist4strings so that the% form a fringe !hich entirel%co$ers the bark4cloth !orn b% all male A&an"e' O$er the skins the% tiea string of fruits of the "oleib alm 5Borassus fabellier6' A !oo"entongue has been inserte" into each of these fruits making of them"ull4soun"ing bells !hich rattle together from the !aist on the leastmo$ement' The% tie roun" their legs an" ankles# an" sometimes roun"their arms also# bun"les of orange4coloure" see"s' In their han"s the%

hol" rattles# iron bells attache" to !oo"en han"les# an" the% shakethese u an" "o!n in the erformance' As he "ances each !itch4"octor is in himself a comlete orchestra# !hich rattles an" rings an"bangs to the rh%thm of the "rums'

V

0esi"es the !itch4"octors there are man% other eole resent at aseance# an" !e ma% refer to them accor"ing to their functions assectators# "rummers# an" chorus of bo%s' =en an" bo%s sit un"er atree or granar% near the "rums' Women sit in another art of thehomestea" a long !a% remo$e" from the men# for men an" !omenne$er sit together in ublic' .eances are generall% !ell atten"e" b%

the neighbourhoo"# some eole coming !ith (uestions to be ut tothe !itch4"octors# others coming to hear local scan"al an" to look atthe "ancing' To a !oman eseciall% it is a relief from the monoton% ofthe famil% life to !hich she is tie" b% her "uties# an" from the "rabroutine of the househol" to !hich the -ealous% of her husban"con*nes her' As a rule the o!ner of the homestea" !ill thro! it oento all comers# since a large au"ience :atters the erformers an" theirhost alike'

Those !ho !ish to ut (uestions to the !itch4"octors bring smallresents !ith them in or"er to lace them before the man of !hoseoracular o!ers the% "esire to make use' These resents inclu"esmall kni$es# rings# iastres an" half4iastres# but consist mostcommonl% of small heas of eleusine an" bun"les of mai&e4hea"s an"

bo!ls of s!eet otatoes'The host has to ro$i"e gong an" "rums# an" since it is onl% here

an" there that one *n"s a househol" ossessing these instruments he!ill almost certainl% ha$e to sen" a art of the morning borro!ingthem from neighbours an" carr%ing them to his o!n resi"ence' He hasalso to suer$ise the $arious househol" arrangements conse(uentuon a $isit of !itch4"octors' If there are onl% one or t!o magicians agenerous househol"er !ill entertain them to a meal an" !ill robabl%


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ask a fe! of the more in:uential sectators as !ell' He must rearea fe! small resents for the !itch4"octors as a re!ar" for theirser$ices !hen the afternoon/s !ork is o$er' He sen"s most of theafternoon sitting !ith his guests'


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!ith less $iolence an" suorting his songs' .ometimes t!o or threeof them !ill a"$ance together u to the "rums an" gi$e a -ointerformance' When a member of the au"ience !ishes to ut a(uestion he or she uts it to a articular !itch4"octor !ho reson"sb% "ancing alone u to the "rums an" there gi$ing a sirite" solo

erformance' When he is so out of breath that he can "ance no longerhe shakes his han"4bells at the "rummers for them to cease beating#an" he "oubles u his bo"% to regain breath# or stumbles about thelace as though into)icate"' This is the moment for gi$ing an oracularrel% to the (uestion ut to him' suall% he commences to "o this in afar4o, $oice an" !ith faltering seech' It aears as though the !or"scome to him from !ithout an" that he has "i,icult% in hearing an"transmitting them' As he rocee"s !ith his utterances the !itch4"octor begins to thro! o, his air of semiconsciousness an" to gi$eforth his re$elations !ith assurance# an" e$entuall% !ith truculence'When he has *nishe" !hat he has to sa% he "ances again to obtainfurther kno!le"ge of the matter about !hich he is being (uestione"#since full information ma% not ha$e come to him "uring his *rst

"ance# or he ma% "ance to another (uestion if he consi"ers that hehas satisfctoril% "ealt !ith the *rst one'

.ometimes at these meetings the erformers "ance themsel$es intoa state of fur% an" gash their tongues an" chests !ith kni$es' I ha$e!itnesse" scenes !hich remin" one of the riests of 0aal !ho 7crie"alou"# an" cut themsel$es after their manner !ith kni$es an" lancets#till the bloo" gushe" out uon them/' I ha$e seen men in a state of!il" e)citement# "runk !ith the into)icating orchestral music of"rums an" gong# bells an" rattles# thro! back their hea"s an" gashtheir chests !ith kni$es# till bloo" oure" in streams "o!n theirbo"ies' Others cut their tongues an" bloo" mi)e" !ith sali$a foame"at the corners of their lis an" trickle" "o!n their chins !here it !ascarrie" a!a% in a :o! of s!eat' When the% ha$e cut their tongues

the% "ance !ith them hanging out of their mouths to sho! their art'The% ut on ferocious airs# enlarge the !hites of their e%es# an" oentheir mouths into grimaces as though contortions# "ue to greath%sical tension an" e)haustion# !ere not gruesome enough'

What is the meaning of all this fur% an" grotes(ue e)ression? This!e shall onl% "isco$er b% "issecting it an" making a careful anal%sis ofits arts'

VII

.eances are hel" !hen a househol"er has su,ere" some misfortune'It ma% be aske" !h% in these circumstances he "oes not consult oneof the oracles in ri$ate rather than go to the trouble of summoning

se$eral ractitioners to a more e)ensi$e ublic erformance#eseciall%# as !e shall see later# since other oracles are generall%consi"ere" to be more reliable as sources of re$elation than !itch4"octors# an" since he !ill in an% case ha$e to ask them for acon*rmation of a !itch4"octor/s utterances before he can act uonthem' The reason ma% be that ublic seances increase the socialrestige of a househol"er !ho initiates them# an" that re$elations of!itch4"octors ha$e a eculiar social $alue in that# although consi"ere"


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more liable to error than se$eral other oracles# the% ha$e the seciala"$antage !hich an oen in$estigation gi$es in "elicate ersonalmatters' =oreo$er# the !itch4"octor functions at these seances notonl% as an oracular agent but also as a *ghter against !itchcraft# sothat he can not onl% tell a erson in !hich "irection he must look for

the !itch !ho is in-uring him an" !hat stes he ma% take tocounteract the in:uence of !itchcraft# but also b% his "ances he!ages imme"iate !ar on !itches an" ma% succee" in "ri$ing themfrom his atient# so that# b% sho!ing them he is a!are of their i"entit%the% are scare" for e$er from his homestea"' 0ut I belie$e that the*rst of these reasons# the "esire to enhance one/s reutation b% gi$inga ublic entertainment# is the most imortant' To those resent aseance is a $er% goo" sho! !hich is amusing to !atch# no! an" againe)citing# an" al!a%s ro$i"es material for comment an" gossi for along time after!ar"s' To the master of the homestea" it is a means of*n"ing out !ho is troubling his !elfare9 of !arning the !itch# !ho isrobabl% resent in erson at the seance# that he is on his tracks9 an"of gaining ublic suort an" recognition in his "i,iculties# an"

esteem an" ublicit% b% thro!ing oen his house to the countr%si"ean" b% emlo%ing erformers'

An account of a seance !hich I !rote m%self on returning home inthe e$ening after !itnessing it !ill amlif% the rece"ing te)t an" tell!hat haene" from a Euroean/s oint of $ie!'

One of the !itch4"octors stes for!ar" after a short "ance an""eman"s silence' He calls out the name of one of those resent3/+ingbon"o# +ingbon"o# that "eath of %our father4in4 la!# listen# that"eath of %our father4in4la!# =uga"i# =uga"i is "ea"# it is true =uga"iis "ea"# %ou hear?/ He seaks as though in a trance# his seechlaborious an" "isconnecte"' 7=uga"i is "ea"# his "aughter 5%our !ife6is in %our homestea"# her mother has come to li$e !ith %ou' Disten#the% must not go an" !ee near the gra$e of =uga"i' If the% continue

to "o this then one among %ou !ill "ie# "o %ou hear?/ +ingbon"orelies meekl%# 72es# master# I hear# it is in"ee" as %ou ha$e soken#

%ou ha$e soken the truth'/ 5+ingbon"o is $er% lease" at thisannouncement as he resents his !ife ha$ing an e)cuse# !hich cannotbe "enie"# for fre(uent absence from his househol"'6

Another !itch4"octor stes for!ar" smiling !ith con*"ence3he isan ol" han"3an" turns to the local hea"man# name" 0an$uru# an"a""resses him thus# 7Chief# %our comanions are slan"ering %ou# the%are seaking e$il of %ou an" !ish to in-ure %ou9 be careful to consultthe rubbing4boar" oracle about them fre(uentl%'/ The hea"man "oesnot rel%# but someone !ho !ishes to curr% fa$our !ith him an" tosho! that it is not he !ho is la%ing traitor calls out# 7Tell us thenames of these men'/ 5This is more "i,icult# for the !itch4"octor

!ishes to a$oi" making enemies b% ersonal accusations'6 He retires#sa%ing that he !ill "ance to the (uestion' He signals to the "rummersto commence beating the "rums# to !hich he "ances an" leas about!il"l%9 his bells go wia wia wia, the "oleib fruits knock togetheraroun" his !aist9 s!eat ours from his bo"%# he an" his comanionsutter !il" %ells' He ants for breath an"# e)hauste"# stumbles to!ar"sthe "rums !hich he silences b% a "o!n!ar" stroke of his bells' Insu""en silence he stan"s for a long !hile in front of the hea"man' He


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"oes not seak' In a moment he falls hellessl% to the groun" asthough in a faint# an" for se$eral minutes he !rithes there# face to theearth# !ith the mo$ements of one !ho su,ers great ain' Then hemakes a "ramatic reco$er%# boun"s to his feet# an" utters a re$elation'7Those men/# he sa%s# 7!ho are in-uring %ou !ith !itchcraft# !ho are

slan"ering %ou# the% are so4an"4so/ 5be mentions the name of thehea"man !ho rece"e" the resent hol"er of the o,ice6# 7an" so4an"4so/ 5he gi$es the name of a man from !hom the hea"man has latel%taken a!a% his "aughter to gi$e in marriage to someone else6' The!itch4"octor hesitates' He utters 7an"' ' '7# then auses# looking *)e"l%at the groun" beneath his feet as though searching for some4 thingthere# !hile e$er%one a!aits another "isclosure' One of hiscomanions comes for!ar" to his assistance an" sa%s in an Assure"

$oice 7'''an" so4an"4so# he also is in-uring %ou# there are three ofthem'/ He mentions the t!o ersons !hose names ha" re$iousl%been "isclose" an" the one !hich he has -ust a""e" to his list'

Another !itch4"octor interruts him' 7No#/ se sa%s# 7there are four ofthem# so4an"4so is also be!itching %ou/ 5he mentions the name of one

of his ersonal enemies'hom he !ishes to lace out of fa$our !ith the hea"man for his o!nuroses' The other ractitioners un"erstan" his moti$es# but !itch4"octors ne$er contra"ict one another at a ublic seance9 the% resenta unite" front to the uninitiate"'6

The hea"man on his art listens to !hat he has been tol"# but he"oes not seak a !or"' Dater he !ill lace these four names beforethe oison oracle an" learn the truth' He thinks3 a +an"e tol" me3that after all the !itch4"octors ought to be correct in !hat the% sa%#for the% are !itches themsel$es an" ought to kno! their o!n mothers/sons'

Oracles ha$ing been "eli$ere" for the bene*t of the chief ersonresent the "ance is resume" an" continue" for hour after hour' An

ol" man calls out the name of a !itch4"octor an" gi$es him somemai&e4hea"s' He !ants to kno! !hether his eleusine cro !illsuccee" this %ear' The !itch4"octor runs to look into his me"icine4ot'He ga&es for a little !hile into the me"icate" !ater an" then sringsfor!ar" into a "ance' He "ances because it is in the "ance thatme"icines of the !itch4"octors !ork an" cause them to see hi""enthings' It stirs u an" makes acti$e the me"icines !ithin them# so that!hen the% are aske" a (uestion the% !ill al!a%s "ance it rather thanon"er it to *n" the ans!er' He conclu"es his "ance# silences the"rums# an" !alks o$er to !here his interlocutor sits' 72ou ask meabout %our eleusine# !hether it !ill succee" this %ear9 Where ha$e

%ou lante" it?/ 7.ir#/ he relies# 7I ha$e lante" it be%on" the littlestream 0agomoro'/ The !itch4"octor solilo(ui&es' 72ou ha$e lante" it

be%on" the little stream 0agomoro# hm hm Ho! man% !i$es ha$e%ou got?/ 7Three'/ 7I see !itchcraft ahea"# !itchcraft ahea"# !itchcraftahea"8 be cautious# for %our !i$es are going to be!itch %our eleusinecro' The chief !ife# it is not she# eh No it is not the chief !ife'


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seaking# sa$e in single !or"s an" clie" sentences' 7The chief !ife#it is not she' =alice' =alice' =alice' The other t!o !i$es are -ealousof her' =alice'


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VIII

I !ish to "irect attention to the mo"e an" content of a !itch4"octor/sre$elations' .ecial notice shoul" be taken of the manner in !hich a!itch4"octor makes his "eclarations# since I shall ha$e to refer back to

it later !hen consi"ering the !hole *el" of belief in conne)ion !iththeir acti$ities' The% ha$e t!o main mo"es of utterance# an" both"i,er from the seech forms of e$er%"a% life' The *rst is one oftruculence' The% are o$erbearing !ith their au"iences# takingliberties !ith them !hich !oul" at once be resente" in or"inar% life'The% assert themsel$es in an o$er!eening manner# bro!beating"rummers# chorus of bo%s# an" sectators alike# telling them to stotalking# or"ering them to sit "o!n# a"monishing them sharl% to a%attention# an" so on' All this is taken in goo" art b% those resentan" no one takes o,ence at !hat !oul"# on other occasions# beconsi"ere" unar"onable ru"eness' The same blatant con*"enceen$elos their oracular utterances# !hich the% accoman% !ith allsorts of "ramatic gestures an" e)tra$agant oses# aban"oning

or"inar% seech for the braggart tones of a "i$iner imbue" !itho!erful magic from !hich are "eri$e" !or"s !hich cannot be"oubte"' The% imress their re$elations on their hearers !ithassurance an" much reetition'

When the% "ro their o$erbearing attitu"e the% lase into tonese$en more abnormal' After a sirite" "ance the% "isclose secrets orrohes% in the $oice of a me"ium !ho sees an" hears somethingfrom !ithout' The% "eli$er these s%chic messages in "isconnecte"sentences# often a string of searate !or"s not strung togethergrammaticall%# in a "ream%# far4a!a% $oice' The% seak !ith "i,icult%#like men talking in a trance# or like men talking in their slee' This# as!e shall see later# is onl% artl% a ose# for it is also in art a ro"uctof h%sical e)haustion an" of faith in their me"icines'

Ho! "oes this mo"e of "eli$er% a,ect the content of theirutterances? Their re$elations an" rohecies are base" on akno!le"ge of local scan"al' It must be reeate" that in +an"e beliefthe ossession of !itchcraft gi$es a man o!er to harm his fello!sbut is not the moti$e of crime' We ha$e seen ho! the "ri$e behin" allacts of !itchcraft is to be looke" for in emotions an" sentimentscommon to all men 3malice# -ealous%# gree"# en$%# backbiting#slan"er# an" so on' No! the scan"al of nati$e societ% is largel%common roert%# an" !itch4"octors# being recruite" from theneighbourhoo"# are !ell informe" about local enmities an" s(uabbles'

A !itch4"octor !ho is on a $isit from a "istant ro$ince !ill takea"$ice on these matters from local !itch4"octors before an" "uring aseance' Therefore# !hen a man asks them to account for some

sickness or misfortune !hich has befallen him the% !ill ro"uce asthe cause of the trouble the name of someone !ho bears their(uestioner ill4!ill# or !hom their (uestioner imagines to bear him ill4!ill' A !itch4"octor "i$ines successfull% because he sa%s !hat hislistener !ishes him to sa%# an" because he uses tact'

It is fairl% eas% for the !itch4"octor# because there are a number ofstock enmities in +an"e culture9 bet!een neighbours# because the%ha$e a greater number of contacts hence more oortunities for


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(uarrelling than those !hose homestea"s are searate" b%consi"erable "istances9 bet!een Gi$es# because it is a commonlaceamong A&an"e that theol%gamous famil% sells friction among its members9 an" 7t!eencourtiers# !hose olitical ambitions are boun" to "ash' A !itch4

"octor asks his client for the names of his eighbours# !i$es# orfello!4courtiers as the case ma% be' He then "ances !ith the names ofthese eole in min" an" "iscloses one of them# if ossible b%imlication rather than "irectl%# #a !itch' It is erroneous to suosethat a !itch4"octor guesses at ran"om the name of a !itch' This!oul" be absur" from ie +an"e $ie!oint# since a gru"ge of somekin" is an essential oti$e of an act of !itchcraft' On the contrar%# hetakes the names of a number of eole !ho !ish his client ill or !hoha$e reason for !ishing him ill# an" "eci"es b% means of his magic!ho of these ha$e the o!er to in-ure him an" are e)ercising that is# those !ho ha$e !itchcraft4substance in their bellies' Witch4"octors "o not merel% e)ercise cunning to *n" out those are on ba"terms !ith their clients an" ro"uce these

7mes as !itches to lease those !ho a% them an" cannot see -roughtheir subtlet%' E$er%one is full% a!are of the manner ': !hich the%"isco$er !itches# an" their roce"ure is a necesar% outcome of i"easabout !itchcraft current in their culture'

It is imortant to note ho! a !itch4"octor ro"uces his re$elations'1irst of all he cross4e)amines his client' He ma% !ant to kno! thenames of his neighbours or !i$es or of those !ho took art in someacti$it% !ith him' No!# it shoul" be notice" that these names are utfor!ar" b% the client an" not b% the !itch4"octor himself an"therefore in$ol$e selection on his client/s art'

The !itch4"octor also gets his listeners into a suitable frame ofmin" for recei$ing his re$elations b% la$ish use of rofessional"ogmatism' Ha$ing obtaine" from his client a number of names# he

sa%s he !ill "ance to them' After his *rst t!o or three "ances hereeats# rather than ans!ers# the (uestion ut to him# .uring hisclient that he !ill "isco$er e$er%thing before long' He struts abouttelling his au"ience that the% !ill hear the truth to"a% because he haso!erful magic !hich cannot fail him# an" he !ill remin" them ofearlier rohecies !hich ha$e been ful*lle"' After another bout of"ancing he gi$es a artial ans!er couche" in a negati$e form' If it is a(uestion about sickness of a chil" he !ill tell the father that t!o of his!i$es are not resonsible an" that he !ill "ance to the others' If it is a(uestion about a ba" cro of some foo" lant he !ill assure the o!nerof the gar"ens that those neighbours of his !ho li$e in a certain"irection from his homestea" are not resonsible# but that he !ill no!"ance to the other "irections' Thus I ha$e !itnesse" !itch4"octors

"ance for half a "a% about a (uestion of unsuccessful hunting' After"ancing for a long time the% informe" the o!ner of the hunting area5m%self6 that the% ha" "isco$ere" that it !as neither the !omen northe %oung men !ho !ere soiling the sort# an" that the% !oul"surel% ferret out the real culrit before sunset' The% "ance" again#an" at the en" of the "ance the% ga$e the information that thoseresonsible !ere certainl% marrie" men' Dater in the "a% the% sai"that the same !itchcraft !hich ha" ruine" hunting the %ear before


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still hung o$er the hunting area# so that those marrie" men !ho ha"entere" the "istrict since coul" at once be e)onerate"' After further"ancing the% stoe" the "rums an" announce"# !ithout gi$ing theirnames# that the% ha" "isco$ere" three men resonsible for the ba"hunting' The% "ance" again an" tol" their au"ience that the% ha"

"isco$ere" a fourth culrit an" that the% ha" ascertaine" that there!ere no others besi"es these four men' To!ar"s e$ening the%"i$ulge" that the reason for these four men using !itchcraft to in-urehunting !as that the %ear before the% ha" not been aske" to take artin the acti$it%' It !as this !hich ha" *rst occasione" their en$%'

Although the (uestion about !ho !as in-uring the hunting area !asut to the !itch4"octors in the morning# it !as not till after the sunha" gone "o!n that the% !hisere" the names of those resonsible totheir client# this being the usual roce"ure at court'

Often !itch4"octors a$oi" e$en !hisering names an" con$e% theirre$elations b% innuen"o# b% sanza, as the A&an"e call it' Thiscon$e%ance of meaning b% hints !as e)tremel% "i,icult for me tofollo! since I al!a%s stoo" to some e)tent outsi"e the inner life of the

communit%' It !as a form of seech !hich m% kno!le"ge of or"inar%linguistic usage enable" me to un"erstan" onl% in art' E$en nati$elisteners sometimes miss full meaning of a !itch4"octor/s !or"sthough it is un"erstoo" b% the man !ho is asking about his troubles'Wor"s !hich con$e% no meaning to the ethnologist an" "oubtfulmeaning to other b%stan"ers recei$e rea"% interretation b% the(uestioner# !ho alone has a full un"erstan"ing of the situation' A manasks the ractitioner !ho is causing blight on his groun"nuts# an" isinforme" that it is no one outsi"e his househol"# nor the chief !ife inthe househol"# !ho is resonsible# but one of the other !i$es# !hobears the chief !ife malice' The !itch4"octor ma% not gi$e an oinionabout !hich of the other !i$es it is# but the househol"er himself !illha$e his o!n i"eas about the matter# as he has full kno!le"ge of the

feelings of members of his homestea" to!ar"s one another# of the!hole histor% of mutual contacts# an" of an% recent e$ents !hich ha$e"isturbe" the calm of his househol" life' When he kno!s that it is notan outsi"er !ho is "oing him in-ur%# but one of his !i$es# he guesses!hich of them it is# an" can check his surmise b% consulting theoison oracle# !hile strangers !ithout the same kno!le"ge ofcon"itions are left in the "ark' This is a $er% simle illustration# but it!ill ser$e' Often a !itch4"octor/s innuen"o an" its interretation inthe min" of his client are much more in$ol$e"'

Hence !e see ho! at both en"s of an in(uir% the la%man goes far tomeet the !itch4"octor' At the beginning he selects to some e)tent thenames of those ersons about !hom the !itch4"octor is to "ance# an"at the en" he sulies in art an interretation of the !itch4"octor/s

utterances from his o!n eculiar social circumstances an" mentalcontent' I think also that as a !itch4"octor brings out his re$elationsbit b% bit# at *rst# almost as suggestions# e$en in(uiries# he !atchescarefull% his interlocutor to obser$e !hether his ans!er is inaccor"ance !ith the (uestioner/s o!n susicions' He becomes more"e*nite !hen he is assure" on this oint'

A !itch4"octor $er% sel"om accuses a member of the aristocrac% of!itchcraft# -ust as a commoner "oes not consult oracles about them'


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He ma% gi$e an imortant rince information about attemts to usesorcer% against him b% members of his famil% or clan# but he "oes notsuggest that the% are !itches' Princes# ho!e$er -ealous of each otherthe% ma% be# al!a%s maintain class soli"arit% in oosition to theirsub-ects an" "o not allo! commoners to bring contemt uon an% of

their relati$es' I "o not think a !itch4"octor !oul" e$er ha$e "isclose"the name of a noble as a !itch in the ast# but to"a% I ha$e on rareoccasions obser$e" nobles accuse" of !itchcraft# though the% ha$enot been closel% relate" to ruling rinces'


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%ou ask a +an"e# la%man or ractitioner# he !ill tell %ou that the!itch4"octor begins to "ance !ith the names of three or four likel%ersons in his min"# an" that he "ances to these eole an" goes on"ancing until the me"icines !hich he has re$iousl% eaten ro"uce inhim a reali&ation of !itchcraft in one of them' It is in"ee" almost

imossible to be more e)licit# but I am con$ince" that the% select oneof the names through !hat is largel% unconscious mental acti$it%' Inthe *rst lace# the% "ance themsel$es into a con"ition bor"ering on"issociation' The% are into)icate" !ith music create" b% themsel$esan" others an" are h%sicall% rostrate"' As far as I can gather from!hat !itch4"octors ha$e tol" me# the% kee the names in theirmemor% an" reeat them no! an" again# but other!ise allo! theirmin"s to become a comlete blank' .u""enl% one of the ersons to!hom he is "ancing obtru"es himself uon the !itch4"ctor/sconsciousness# sometimes as a $isual image# but generall% b% anassociation of the i"ea an" name of the !itch !ith a h%siological"isturbance# chie:% in a su""en (uickening of the heart4beats'

IK

A !itch4"octor "oes not onl% "i$ine !ith his lis# but !ith his !holebo"%' He "ances the (uestions !hich are ut to him' A !itch4"octor/s"ance contrasts strikingl% !ith the usual ceremonial "ance of A&an"e'The one is sirite"# $iolent# ecstatic# the other slo!# calm# restraine"'The one is an in"i$i"ual erformance organi&e" onl% b% tra"itionalmo$ements an" rh%thm# the other a collecti$e erformance' It is truethat se$eral ractitioners ma% erform together# an" !hen the% "o sothe% generall% conform to a rough common mo$ement# i'e' the% keein line an" make similar stes to rh%thm of gong an" "rums' 0ut inthis case the% often form themsel$es into a rofessional chorus !hichbacks u the songs of an in"i$i"ual erformer an" gi$es him a

suorting backgroun"' suall% onl% one# or t!o at the most# !ill beactuall% 7"ancing (uestions/ ut to them at the same time' Ver% oftenthere is onl% one !itch4"octor resent at a seance'

These "ances ro$i"e an a""itional reason !h% no aristocrat coul"become a !itch4"octor# since !hat is a roer ritual e)ression inothers !oul" be for him an un"igni*e" "isla%' On those rareoccasions !hen a !oman !itch4"octor takes art in a seance shekees in the backgroun" an" erforms a se"ate "ance of her o!n' .he"oes not attemt to imitate the $iolent "ancing of the men# as this!oul" be regar"e" as unseeml% con"uct'

It is imortant to notice that !itch4"octors not onl% "ance but maketheir o!n music !ith han"4bells an" rattles# so that the e,ect incon-unction !ith gong an" "rums is into)icating# not onl% to the

erformers themsel$es# but also to their au"ience9 an" that thisinto)ication is an aroriate con"ition for "i$ination' =usic#rh%thmic mo$ements# facial grimaces# grotes(ue "ress# all len" theirai" in creating a roer atmoshere for the manifestation of esoterico!ers' The au"ience follo! the "isla% eagerl% an" mo$e their hea"sto the music an" e$en reeat the songs in a lo! $oice !hen the% areleasing themsel$es rather than a""ing to the $olume of chorus' It!oul" be a great mistake to suose that there is an atmoshere of


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a!e "uring the ceremon%' On the contrar%# e$er%one is -o$ial an"amuse"# talking to each other an" making -okes' Ne$ertheless# thereis no "oubt that the success of the !itch4"octor/s rofession is largel%"ue to the fact that he "oes not rel% entirel% uon the settle" faith ofhis au"ience# but makes belief easier b% comelling their surren"er to

sensor% stimuli'We ha$e to remember# moreo$er# that the au"ience is not obser$ing

siml% a rh%thmic erformance# but also a ritual enactment of magic'It is something more than a "ance# it is a *ght# artl% "irect an" artl%s%mbolic# against the o!ers of e$il' The full meaning of a seance as aara"e against !itchcraft can onl% be grase" !hen this "ancing isun"erstoo"' An obser$er !ho recor"e" onl% (uestions ut to the!itch4"octors an" the relies !hich the% ga$e !oul" lea$e out the!hole mechanism b% !hich the ans!ers are obtaine"# an" e$en theans!ers themsel$es' A !itch4"octor 7"ances the (uestions/'

0efore the commencement of a seance the erformers eat some oftheir me"icines !hich gi$e them o!er to see the unseen an" toenable them to resist great fatigue' I ha$e been tol" b% !itch4"octors

that it !oul" not be ossible to stan" so much e)ertion ha" the% notre$iousl% eaten me"icines' =e"icines rime them !ith o!er toresist !itchcraft' It goes into their stomachs an" "ancing shakes it uan" sen"s it all o$er their bo"ies# !here it becomes an acti$e agent#enabling them to rohes%' In this acti$e state it tells them !ho are!itches an" e$en enables them to see siritual emanations of!itchcraft :oating about as little lights' Against these e$il o!ers the%!age a tremen"ous *ght' The% rush back!ar"s an" for!ar"s#stoing su""enl% an" listening intentl% for some soun" or searchingeagerl% for some sight' .u""enl% one of them sees !itchcraft in aneighbouring gar"en# though it is in$isible to the uninitiate"# an"rushes to!ar"s it !ith gestures of resolution an" "isgust' He (uickl%runs back to get some me"icine from his horn an" "ashes a!a% again

to smear it on a lant or tree !here he has seen the !itchcraft settle'The% fre(uentl% make "ashes into the bush in this !a% an" eagerl%search for !itchcraft along a ath in the grass# or from the to of atermite4hill'

E$er% mo$ement in the "ance is as full of meaning as seech' Allthis -uming an" leaing embo"ies a !orl" of innuen"o' A !itch4"octor "ances in front of one sectator or ga&es intentl% at another#an" !hen eole see this the% think that he has sotte" a !itch# an"the ob-ect of their attention feels uncomfortable' .ectators can ne$erbe (uite certain about the meaning of a !itch4"octor/s beha$iour# butthe% can interret in a general !a% from his actions !hat he is feelingan" seeing' E$er% mo$ement# e$er% gesture# e$er% grimace# e)ressesthe *ght the% are !aging against !itchcraft# an" it is necessar% for

the meaning of a "ance to be e)laine" b% !itch4"octors as !ell b%la%men to areciate its full s%mbolism'


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CHAPTER VI

Training of a No$ice in the Art of a Witch4


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shrubs an" trees from ich the me"icines are "eri$e"' Ho!e$er# thereis no *)e" se(uence in these rites'

II

I ha$e often obser$e" three or four !itch4"octors# an" sometimes asman% as se$en or eight# gather in the homestea" of e)erience"colleague# !ho kno!s all the me"icinal herbs an" trees from !hich amagic ste! is ma"e# an" there artake of a communal meal' Thissenior !itch4"octor# !ho is also generall% the o!ner of the homestea"at !hich the ceremon% takes lace# has alrea"% "ug u in the bush anumber of roots# an" scrae" an" !ashe" them rearator% tocooking' He laces them !ith !ater in a ot an" he an" his colleaguesgather roun" the *re to !atch them boil' The% chat an" -oke amongthemsel$es about a $ariet% of secular sub-ects# though the a,airs oftheir rofession are also sometimes "iscusse"' The% "isla% out!ar"manifestations of a!e an" re$erence' After the !ater has boile" forsome time an" become coloure" from the ices of the lants# the !itch4

"octor !ho has gathere" them an" is cooking them# an" !hom I shallrefer to as their o!ner# takes the ot o, the *re an" ours out theli(ui" into a secon" !hich he laces on the *re for further boiling' Theroots from !hich the -uices ha$e been e)tracte" are remo$e" to anearb% hut# !here the% are store" for another occasion'

At this oint the !itch4"octors commence to ri$et their attentionuon the business4in han"# "ro their secular con$ersation# "e$elo anoticeable "egree of concentration on the me"icinal -uices no!boiling on the *re' This is the *rst sign in their beha$iour that the%are "ealing !ith magical forces' .ells from this oint accoman%

$arious hases of the cooking an" continue seriatim till the en" of theceremon%' When the o!ner is ouring out his me"icinal -uices into asecon" ot for their further boiling he generall% a""resses them in a

fe! !or"s# asking for the !elfare of !itch4"octors as a !hole an" forthe success of their rofessional interests' He then "i$i"es u a ball ofaste# ma"e from oil4bearing see"s groun" "o!n !ith a magic root#into se$eral small roun" balls# one for each !itch4"octor resent' Theo!ner laces these along the eriher% of the ot an" *rst he an"then each !itch4"octor in or"er of seniorit% :icks his ball into the ot'The o!ner no! takes a little !oo"en stirrer an" slo!l% stirs the oil inthe -uices# a""ressing the me"icines as he "oes so# artl% on his o!nbehalf an" artl% on behalf of the no$ice !hom he is initiating8

=a% no e$il fall uon me# but let me rest in eace' =a% I not "ie' =a% Iac(uire !ealth through m% rofessional skill' =a% no relati$e of mine "ie fromthe ill4luck of m% me"icines9 ma% m% !ife not "ie9 m% relati$es are animals#

m% relati$e is eleusine# ma% m% eleusine be fruitful'5About his uil'6 When %ou "ance in the !itch4"octors/ "ance ma% %ou not

"ie' =a% %our home be roserous an" ma% no !itchcraft come to in-ure %ourfrien"s' =a% none of %our relati$es "ie' 2our relati$es are animals# %our fatheris an elehant# %our father/s el"er brother is a re" ig# %our !i$es are cane4rats# %our mother is a bush4 buck# %our maternal uncles are "uikers# %ourgran"father is a rhinoceros'

5About himself'6 If !itchcraft comes here to m% home let it return !hence itcame' If a man makes sorcer% against me let him "ie' If a man bears ill4!ill


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to!ar"s m% home let him kee a!a%# an" ma% "isgruntle" fello!s !ho cometo sho! their site in m% home recei$e a nast% surrise' Det m% home beroserous'

5About his uil'6 Det e$il go o$er there# o$er there9 let me"icine makethings roserous for %ou' If an%one refuses %ou a%ment for %our ser$ices

ma% he not reco$er from his sickness' When %ou go to "ance !ith !itch4"octors an" the% ga&e into %our face ma% the% not be angr% !ith %ou# but letthem be contente" so that eole ma% gi$e %ou resents' When %ou go to aseance ma% man% resents be gi$en %ou' When %ou "ance ma% %ou not makean error in locating !itchcraft' When %ou blo! %our !histle against !il" cats@ma% %ou not "ie' When %ou blo! %ourzunga!histle let the soul of a mancome back to him so that he ma% not "ie'

The senior !itch4"octor no! han"s the stirrer to his uil# !houtters a fe! !or"s o$er the me"icine as he stirs it8

2ou me"icine !hich I am cooking# min" %ou al!a%s seak the truth to me'


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o!ner# but !hen there are a large number of !itch4"octors# inclu"ingse$eral no$ices# resent# it is customar% for the o!ner not to allo!them free sells# but to "eman" a fee from each erson !ho artakesof the communal meal' He tells them that he !ill not take the ot o,the *re until e$er%one has ma"e a a%ment' Whereuon each !itch4

"octor ro"uces half a iastre# or a small knife# or a ring# an" laces iton the groun" in front of the *re or e$en in the ot itself' Thesea%ments must be lace" in the sight of the me"icines# !hichnormall% must be bought or the% !ill not be otent' Purchase is a artof the ritual con"itioning of the magic !hich gi$es it otenc%' I ha$ee$en seen a !itch4"octor !ho !as treating a atient for nothing lacea iastre of his o!n on the groun"# an" !hen I aske" him !hat he !as"oing he e)laine" that it !oul" be a ba" thing if the me"icine "i" notobser$e a fee# for it might lose its otenc%' If an%one fails to ro"uce agift the o!ner ma% threaten to lea$e the me"icine on the *re an" let itburn# or# it is sai"# he ma% sometimes remo$e it from the *re# but notlet an% of his colleagues eat it till the% ha$e ma"e su,icient a%ments'The me"icines are his' He gathere" them in the bush an" reare"

them an" cooke" them in his o!n utensils' He is their o!ner an" the%must be urchase" from him' It must be remembere" that since magic!hich is not urchase" in this manner is of "oubtful otenc% it is tothe a"$antage of the eater to a% a small fee# as !ell as to thea"$antage of the o!ner to recei$e it# for not onl% "oes a%ment of afee form an integral art of the magic ritual# but also in +an"elan" itis thought essential that !hen magical o!ers are transmitte" fromone erson to another their seller shoul" be satis*e" !ith the "eal#since other!ise the% !ill lose their o!ers in the transference' Thegoo"!ill of the o!ner is also a rele$ant con"ition in the sale of magic#an" his goo"!ill can be assure" b% a small a%ment'

When resents ha$e been ma"e to him the o!ner remo$es the otfrom the *re an" "ecants the oil !hich has e)u"e" from the aste

"uring its secon" boiling# an" then laces the ot on one si"e for theresi"uum to cool' If there is a no$ice resent on !hose secial behalfthe% are cooking me"icines# the ot is lace" in front of him an" heuts his face in the steam# taking care to kee his e%es oenmean!hile so that it enters into them' Other !itch4"octors "o thesame# an" some of them utter a fe! !or"s to the magic as the% hol"their faces in the mouth of the ot'

When the aste has coole" its o!ner ser$es it# usuall% heling theno$ice before the others' The metho" of ser$ing is a regular feature ofmagic meals among A&an"e' The ser$er scraes some me"icine !ith astick from the bottom of the ot an" "irects it to the mouth of oneman# but !hen this man is about to eat it he (uickl% remo$es it an"laces it in the mouth of another' He fee"s each ractitioner in turn in

this manner# an" !hen each has been ser$e" the% all cro!" roun" theot itself an" eat the resi"ue of the me"icate" aste !ith their han"sas the% !oul" eat an% other foo"'

When it is *nishe"# the o!ner takes the oil !hich he has I-' earlier"ecante" an" a""s to art of it some ashes of burnt ngbimizawa5aarasite of Dohira alata6 an" stirs it into a black :ui"' He han"sroun" the rest of the oil to the !itch4"octors to "rink' He then takes aknife an" makes incisions on their chests an" abo$e their shoul"er4


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bla"es an" on their !rists an" faces# an" # rubs some of the black :ui"into the cuts' As he rubs it into a man/s !rist he sa%s8

Det this man treat his atients successfull% an" "o not let ob-ects of!itchcraft elu"e him'

As he rubs it into a man/s breast he sa%s8

If this man sees a !itch let his heart shake in cogni&ance of !itchcraft'

As he rubs it into his back abo$e the shoul"er4bla"es he sa%s8


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no attemt to "i$ine' The% !ere not su,icientl% e)erience"# for the%ha" onl% eaten a small (uantit% of me"icine# ha" not %et beeninitiate"# an" ha" not learnt the roots from !hich the me"icines aree)tracte"' E$er% no$ice hoes soonerorlatertoreacha osition in thecororation !hen he !ill be able to initiate uils of his o!n# an" he

can onl% ac(uire this status !hen he has learnt the roer herbs an"trees'

There is no chance of recogni&ing these lants from obser$ing theirroots at a communal meal# an" conse(uentl% there is no ob-ection tola%men being resent at these meals as !ell as secialists# an" I ha$eoften seen la% frien"s of the magicians sitting besi"e them as the% eattheir aste# though I ha$e ne$er obser$e" them artaking of the meal'

Witch4"octors are sai" to be $er% careful lest an%one shoul" *n" out!hat lants the% "ig u for magical use' The% remo$e their stalks an"lea$es an" hi"e them in the bush some !a%from !here the% ha$e "ug them u lest an%one shoul" follo! In theirtracks an" learn their me"icines' A lant is kno!n b% its stalk an"lea$es an" not b% its roots'

IV

=agic must be bought like an% other roert%# an" the reall%signi*cant art of initiation is the slo! transference of kno!le"geabout lants from teacher to uil in e)change for a long string offees' A teacher ma% sho! them casuall% to his uil at an% time !henthe% are both out in the bush together# as on a hunting tri# or he ma%seciall% take him out for the urose' nless the me"icines arebought !ith a"e(uate fees there is a "anger that the% !ill lose theirotenc% for the reciient "uring the transference# since their o!ner is"issatis*e" an" bears the urchaser ill4!ill' Also# it is al!a%s ossiblefor a teacher# if he "oes not think that he has recei$e" su,icient

a%ment for his me"icines# to make magic to cancel them so that the%!ill no longer function in the bo"% of their urchaser' This can be"one either b% a !itch4"octor cooking me"icines an" uttering a sello$er them to "eri$e a no$ice of the o!er of the magic !hich he hasconsume"# or b% the erformance a secial rite to the same e,ect' Hetakes a forest creeer# calle" ngbanza# an" attaches one en" of it tothe to of a :e)ible !ith% stuck in the earth# an" fastens the other en"in the groun" so that it is like the string of a bo!' He then bringsmagic of thun"er an" "ros some of it on the lo!er en" of the creeerin or"er that thun"er ma% roar an" strike the creeer an" cut it int!o# the to art :%ing u on high an" the lo!er art remaining in theearth' As the to art :ies on high so "oes the me"icine :% out of theman !ho has consume" it'

In the case of >amanga# the a%ment of fees !as not (uite normal#since I ma"e resents of sears to his teacher# though hesulemente" these gifts from his o!n roert%' A man is suose" togi$e his teacher t!ent% baso'Basois the +an"e !or" for sears# but itis often use"# as in this conne)ion# for an% kin" of !ealth' Actuall% auil# being generall% a %oung man# has $er% little roert% of hiso!n# so that he !ill a% b% instalments o$er a number of %ears# an" hean" his teacher !ill kee a recor" in their hea"s of !hat he has ai"'


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He ma% raise one or t!o sears# but for the most art his basoconsistof rings# kni$es# iastres# ots of beer# baskets of foo"# meat# an"other ob-ects of small $alue' .ome of these gifts come into his han"sb% ritual e)change or gift on ceremonial occasions# others he begsfrom his relati$es# an" %et others he ma% earn b% erforming

Fo$ernment labour# such as orterage' =ost of them are resente" tohis teacher at his initiation'

If a no$ice is keen an" cle$er he is soon able to start ractising onhis o!n account# though he is e)ecte" to gi$e his *rst fees to histeacher# an" to make him occasional resents after!ar"s'

A man "oes not learn from his teacher all the me"icines !hich it isossible to learn# for no man kno!s all of them' amanga to sho!him the lants !hich the other ha" taught him' The lants mentione"in the succee"ing aragrahs are the better4kno!n an" moreessential me"icines# an" most of them are taught to a no$ice shortl%before or after his initiation ceremon%'

0a"obo an" >amanga use" to sho! me lants !hich are emlo%e"b% !itch4"octors !hen I !as hunting !ith them in the bush# but I "i"not collect them for i"enti*cation' I ha$e onl% once been out !ith0a"obo !hen he !as sho!ing >amanga some of these lants# on!hich occasion he tol" him in a fe! !or"s the uroses an" names ofa fe! lants' I shall therefore rel% almost entirel% on >amanga/s

account of his e)e"ition to the source of a stream to learn me"icinesof !itch4"octors'

V

+an"elan" is co$ere" !ith a net!ork of streams !hich :o! alongeither si"e of the NileCongo


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hol" of them an" "rag them out of the soil an" retire back!ar"s !iththem' 0a"obo !oul" sho! them to >amanga# so that he in his turn!oul" one "a% be able to sho! them to his uils' =ean!hile Alen$o!oul" stan" outsi"e the ca$ern# ringing his han"4bells# an" the%!oul" make their !a% to!ar"s the soun" in the "arknless' If it !ere

not for these bells the% !oul" be lost'>amanga !as in some "oubt about the e)act nature of the ghosts

!hich haunt these "ark# "am regions' He kne! that the% !ereor"inar% ghosts of "ea" ersons# but he belie$e" also that the% !ereghosts of "ea" !itch4"octors'

I gi$e >amanga/s "escrition of !hat haene"8

We !alke" a long !a% to the source of a stream along a tin% ath !hich le"to it' We !ent on for about as far as that tree o$er there an" then the%stoe" an" sai" to me that the% !ere about to go !ith me into the earth tothe lace !here li$e the ghosts of me"icine an" the .ureme 0eing# so !hatabout gi$ing them a resent? It !as not likel% that the% !oul" accoman% methere emt%4han"e"' I stoe" at this an" thought for a !hile# an" then I took

a iastre an" ga$e it to them' 0a"obo then sai" that the% !oul" continue an"sho! me me"icines' We continue" for some time until !e reache" the mouthof a ca$ern# e$er such a big ca$ern# !here the% sai"8 7Det us enter'/

0a"obo tol" me to stra""le his back as he rocee"e" on all fours# so I satastri"e his back# an" clase" him !ith m% han"s' He tol" me that he !asabout to take me ahea" an" that I !as not to be afrai"' We entere" into thisca$ern' .u""enl% he lace" his hea" to the groun"# resting it on the back ofhis han"s' All this time I !as on his back' We !ent on farther# an" 0a"oboagain reste" his face on the back of his han"s' The !hole :oor of the ca$ern$ibrate"# 7li li li li li/' We continue" an" aroache" another entrance to theca$ern# !here he erforme" his *nal crouchings to the groun"' He sai" to me87When I make a su""en sring an" sei&e a lant# %ou sei&e hol" of it as !ell'/ Iassente"'

He crouche" "o!n thus# then su""enl% leat u# su""enl% starte" o,# an"sei&e" a lant in the mi""le of the ca$ern# an" I sei&e" it too' He sai" to me87This is the lant !hich I !as going to sho! %ou'/ He tol" me that if it !asan%bo"% else# he !oul" most certainl% ask him for a a%ment# eseciall% asthe ghosts ha" not "one us an% harm on the :oor of the ca$ern an" !e ha"hear" no !ailing !hile he !as sho!ing me this me"icine# so that it aeare"that m% initiation rosere"9 for if m% initiation ha" not rosere"# then theghosts !oul" ha$e been angr% an" !e shoul" ha$e hear" them !ailing87Bazogare oooo'/B


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together at this stream the% al!a%s sai" !hen the% ulle" it u8 7.earssears searsThe% soke in this !a% about all the me"icines of the !itch4"octors'

50a"obo sho!s >amanga other me"icines'6

We then !ent an" stoo" in the mi""le of the stream !here 0a"obo sai" tome8 7I !ant %ou to sho! me# !hile !e are both here together# !hat lantsamong all these lants 0g!o&u taught %ou as those in use among 0aka!itch4"octors'/

I tol" him the names of these lants !hich 0g!&u ha" taught me an"#!hen I reache" this oint# 0a"obo sai" to me8 72es' He taught %ou much' Allour me"icines are the same' Those me"icines !hich he taught %ou are alsom% me"icines# but there are still three me"icines !hich he "i" not teach %ou'/0a"obo then began to teach me further me"icines# namel%8 thezigaSof !itch4"octors !hich is &erengbon"o' He sai" to me that he !as sho!ing me thezigaof !itch4"octors so that !hen I began to cook me"icines often# an" became animortant !itch4"octor# I !oul" kno! its leaf among other lants' He tol" menot to scrae its !oo" to!ar"s the east# but onl% to!ar"s he !est' When I

cooke" it an" uttere" a sell o$er it I shoul" sa%8 7=a% no one kill me as aresult of m% rofessional acti$ities' =a% m% !i$es not lea$e m% homestea"'=a% m% !ife not "ie as a result of the ractice of m% craft'/ He tol" me that Ishoul" utter a sell in this manner# an" that !hen I ha" cooke" the me"icinesI shoul" take their resi"ue 5i'e' the !oo"s !hich ha" been boile" to e)tracttlieir -uices6 an" bur% it in the threshol" of m% hut an" in the lace here m%househol" *re burns' He sai" that I shoul" then eat the '#:Ie"icinal aste an"anoint m% !i$es an" chil"ren !ith its oil' He that !hene$er I !ent to "ancethe "ance of "i$ination mighte$il haen to me an" might m% !ife not "ie on account of m% rofessionalacti$ities# because it is for this reason that the% cook the alga lest the ill4luckof the me"icines shoul" fall uon their !i$es# G that no !ife of a !itch"octor!oul" li$e long' He then *nishe" -s talk about me"icines !ith !hat he ha"sai" about theziga'

I ha$e not recor"e" the e$ents of >amanga/s initiation in khe or"erin !hich the% occurre"# for he !as rituall% burie" @efore he s!allo!e"!itchcrafthlegm an" he s!allo!e"itchcraft''hlegm before he ai" his $isit to streamsources kat theor"er in !hich I ha$e gi$en them is more suitable to the te)ture of m%account# an" their e)act chronolog% is not a matter of imortance'Each rite is a self4containe" in$estment of magic o!ers !hich# intheir totalit%# comose the full e(uiment of a !itch4"octor'

VI

>amanga/s tuition a"$ance" b% gra"ual stages' He learnt one

me"icine to"a% an" another erhas a month or t!o later# an" as0a"obo generall% manage" to e)tract a small fee from him in

In reference to a%ments ma"e to a teacher b% his uil'S=an% +an"e me"icines ha$e a &iga or anti"ote' In this ce the anti"ote iseaten r"er to re$ent misfortune falling on the famil% of the no$ice# since# ase)laine" an earlier footnote# it is consi"ere" that the ac(uisition of ao!erful magic ma% se the "eath of one of his famil% or kin' It is hoe" thatthe ob-ect of their ill4luck# a:%one# !ill be a "istant relati$e'


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e)change for each iece of kno!le"ge he taught him as slo!l% asossible' A %outh ma% sen" %ears before his teacher has e)hauste"his stock of information about herbs an" trees# art of !hich he han"so$er long after ublic initiation# though in >amanga/s case I e)ercise"ressure to get his tuition comlete" !ithin a coule of %ears# since

other!ise I !oul" not ha$e been able to follo! its course' 0esi"esteaching his uil me"icines# a !itch4"octor is e)ecte" to gi$e him afe! skins an" rattles to start his rofessional out*t'

I belie$e that the teachings of 0a"obo an" 0Ug!&u in resect tome"icines !ere erfectl% genuine# an" usuall% it !as ossible tocheck from other sources the information the% sulie" to >amanga'=oreo$er# >amanga himself !as an)ious to check their statements b%reference to other !itch4"octors# since he "i" not feel certain thatthe% !ere teaching him all the me"icines the% kne!' He ha"oortunities for comaring notes !ith in"een"ent ractitioners# alarge number of !hom he met after he ha" begun to eat magicalmeals an" to take art in seances'

Ne$ertheless# our in(uir% stuck *rml% at one oint' Neither 0a"obo

nor 0g!&u !oul" teach him ho! to remo$e ob-ects of !itchcraftfrom his atients' The% tol" him of me"icines !hich !oul" enable himto erform oerations# an" the% left him !ith the imression that#ha$ing artaken of these me"icines# he ha" onl% to make an incisionon a atient/s bo"%# lace a oultice o$er it# an" massage it for ob-ectsof !itchcraft to aear'

amanga full%' He no!!ante" to return to his home# !hich !as a "a% an" a half/s -ourne%a!a%# an" aske" for his resent an" "ismissal' When I urge" that>amanga !as not roerl% traine" he informe" me that his uilkne! e$er%thing there !as to be kno!n'

As a bo% of m% househol" !as slightl% sick at the time# I suggeste"that >amanga shoul" oerate on him that e$ening# an" I tol" 0g!o&uthat if his uil !ere able to erform the oeration successfull% I!oul" gla"l% gi$e him his ten sears an" let him return home on thefollo!ing morning' 0g!&u reare" a oultice of kpoyobark# an"!hile >amanga !as making an incision on the sick bo%/s ab"omen# heinserte" a small iece of charcoal into it' I !as sitting bet!een

0g!&u an" >amanga' When the teacher han"e" o$er the oultice tohis uil I took it from him to ass it to >amanga# but in "oing so I feltfor the ob-ect !hich it containe" an" remo$e" it bet!een m% *ngeran" thumb !hile reten"ing to make a casual e)amination of the kin"of stu, a oultice consiste" of an" commenting on the material' I amnot certain !hether 0g!o&u sa! !hat I ha" "one# but I think that hesusecte" m% moti$e in han"ling the oultice# for he certainl% looke"susicious' It !as a "isagreeable surrise for >amanga !hen# after


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massaging his atient/s ab"omen through the oultice# in the

evans pritchard azande

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