euthanasia in the major world religionsethics.isramags.ir/article_16640_771b486ba98bc88c... · we...

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Euthanasia in the Major World Religions “Euthanasia” or voluntary termination of life is one the most complicated issues in the moral, legal and religious debates nowadays. In the meantime, the role of religions in directing the views of researchers is obvious. In this article, a brief look at the different religions of the world to the issue of euthanasia (whether in the form of active or passive) will be provided as much as possible and we will analyze these ideas. At first, we study three monotheistic religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Hinduism and Jainism, then, will be examined and finally, Far Eastern religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and Shinto school will say about euthanasia. Keywords: euthanasia, religions, morality, law. 1. aristotle university of thessaloniki ([email protected]).

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Page 1: Euthanasia in the Major World Religionsethics.isramags.ir/article_16640_771b486ba98bc88c... · we study three monotheistic religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Hinduism and

Euthanasia in the Major World Religions

Angeliki Ziaka

1

Abstracts

“Euthanasia” or voluntary termination of life is one the most complicated issues in the

moral, legal and religious debates nowadays. In the meantime, the role of religions in

directing the views of researchers is obvious. In this article, a brief look at the different

religions of the world to the issue of euthanasia (whether in the form of active or

passive) will be provided as much as possible and we will analyze these ideas. At first,

we study three monotheistic religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Hinduism and

Jainism, then, will be examined and finally, Far Eastern religions such as Buddhism,

Taoism, Confucianism and Shinto school will say about euthanasia.

Keywords: euthanasia, religions, morality, law.

1. aristotle university of thessaloniki ([email protected]).

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It is a great honor and pleasure for me to spend a few days in the city of Qom, the

cradle of the Shiite world. I have studied for many years the fine theology of itna‘

‘ashariya and I have dedicated much of my research to Shi‘a Islam and Iran. I keep

abreast, primarily through the Internet, with important developments and fatwa in Iran

on bio-ethical issues, which are timely and often intractable issues for every nation,

every legal code, and every religion.

One of the most difficult issues is that of the early, voluntary termination of life, or

“euthanasia,” a Greek word that means “good death,” and which is inextricably tied to

the mystery of human existence. The question of where human life comes from and

where it is going is one of the great issues one encounters in any world religion. When

we look around us, especially at the burial customs of ancient civilizations, we realize

that even from primeval times and the simplest forms of religiosity; man has attributed

significance to the continuation of life and to the need to preserve the body. Death and

the manner of burial-seated, in the fetal position, facing east, etc.-indicate a ritual

transition to another dimension of existence. Yet, no religion provides for the

premature termination of life, either voluntarily (suicide) or by inducing a painless

death and/or hastening it, in order to curtail the sufferer’s agony from an incurable

disease (euthanasia). In the world’s major religions, the sacrifice of life is justified

only for a higher purpose-i.e., for freedom, to preserve one’s personal dignity in the

face of being disgraced during periods of violence and war, to fight for social justice

against totalitarian regimes, etc.-, but never to avoid an arduous bodily condition

brought about by illness or old age. These religions offer prayers for a good, painless,

and peaceful natural end to each person’s life, not for the hastening of death through

human intervention.

Rare Cases of "Euthanasia"

The cases, primarily among those of advanced age, in which death occurs through

fasting or by the deliberate abandonment of the elderly outside, are rare. When they do

occur, they are usually in rather “primitive” societies. But here also, this choice is

justified by reference to a higher purpose. Among the Jains of India, for example,

death by fasting (prayopavesa) is sometimes practiced by ascetics who believe that

they have reached the stage of perfection, and thus have passed to the ideal state of

another dimension of life, superior to the present. Additionally, among some relatively

closer to nature peoples, such as the Inuit Eskimos of the Arctic and some Native

Americans, the elderly man who can no longer keep up with nomadic life and

contribute to the community voluntarily exiles himself in the wilderness, offering

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himself to the natural food chain with the belief that he would be reincarnated in

another form of life. This practice was necessary because of the harsh natural

environment, the nomadic way of life, and the survival needs of other members of the

community, who were unable to care for or minister to the needs of the aging members

of their tribe. But even in these cases, no special drugs were used either by the

community or voluntarily by the individual. Additionally, in many cases among some

Native Americans, newborns with serious disabilities were abandoned, out of

compassion, in rivers to drown. History bears witness to such cases of infanticide in

many cultures from the Far East to the Far West, as well as in Greece’s own city of

Sparta, with its well-known Kaiadas gorge. In some of these cultures, such as that of

the Native Americans, killing a suffering or stillborn infant had to be done with

compassion and painlessly. In other cultures, on the contrary, such as that of the

Spartans, the taking of the life of disabled newborns was rather violent, inasmuch as

they were thrown into a gorge, the Kaiadas, so as not to impede the Spartan

commonwealth, whose prototype was its robust and hardy citizens.

The Three Monotheistic Religions’ Attitudes toward Euthanasia

For the three monotheistic religions-Judaism, Christianity and Islam-, life is a gift

from God and euthanasia is impermissible as interference with his will. For Jews and

Christians, man is made in the image of God, while for Muslims man was appointed

caliph, vicar of God, on earth. Thus, for all three Abraham religions, God is the patron

of life and man is responsible for life and creation, which he must protect and preserve

as a good manager. The creation of the world and man belongs to God and not to man.

Of course, all three of these religions have a place for voluntary death via

martyrdom, which is understood in Christianity as an imitation of Christ’s crucifixion

and a faithful adherence to the Christian faith. This faith is confirmed by the power of

a voluntary sacrifice for the salvation, not only of the martyr or the community of faith

of which he is a member, but also of his persecutors. It is well known that the early

Church was founded on the blood of the martyrs, many of whom, although not yet

baptized, are nevertheless considered by the Church as baptized in the blood of their

martyrdoms.

In Islam, the concept of martyrdom is directly connected with jihad (holy struggle).

The shahîd, the quintessential martyr, is identified with Mujahid, the zealous fighter

who is ready to sacrifice his life in the struggle for Islam. Thus, the "martyr forth faith"

is the most honored person within the Muslim community and is set up as someone to

be emulated, being considered purified by the blood of his martyrdom and

immediately translated to paradise, where he enjoys its delights. The practice of

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euthanasia, however, falls outside these limits and is seen as interference in the

creative power of Allah, who, according to the Quran, is the sole creator and preserver

of life.

In Judaism, one of the Faithfull's highest obligations is the kiddush Ha-shem, the

"consecration of God's name." Every Jew has the obligation to sanctify the name of the

God of Israel and not to dishonor it, not committing hillul Ha-shem, an insult against

the name of God. The ultimate manifestation of devotion to the name of God and to its

consecration (kiddush Ha-shem) occurs when a Jew offers himself as a sacrifice in the

name, and for the Law, of God. The concept of martyrdom can be clearly discerned

from as early as the time of the Babylonian captivity (586-538 BC) and is strongly

manifested in Hellenistic and Roman times by the Jewish Zealots, who vowed to enact

the will of God, even if it meant their death, and to oppose any foreign powers that

were detrimental to Judaism.

Of course, this commitment, even unto death, to the name of the God of Israel and

his law constitutes an act of sacrifice and martyrdom which bears no resemblance to

suicide and euthanasia. In the Jewish tradition, any form of euthanasia is explicitly

prohibited, and the act is condemned as a premeditated murder. Anyone who hastens

the death even of a condemned man is deemed worthy of the death penalty and is

treated as a murderer. The Babylonian Talmud notes that he who closes the eyes of a

dying man is a murderer, because he hastened his impending death. The practice,

however, of passive euthanasia is not universally condemned. In cases of the artificial

preservation of life, some consider it permissible to discontinue artificial life support.

The Attitudes of the Great Religions of the East toward

Euthanasia

Among the major religions of the East, the view of the world and life is completely

different from the three monotheistic religions. Man is seen as part of the world and its

harmony. For Hinduism and Buddhism, the concept of euthanasia operates in the

framework of man's position in the universal order and in the harmony of the universe

(dharma).

Hinduism

Hindus believe that man’s every action is registered in the law of the universal order

and has a reciprocal effect on the quality of that person’s return in another life, in a

reincarnation. Generally in Hindu thought, the present form of life is considered

painful. The ideal is to liberate man’s existential condition from perishable matter,

moksa, and to transition to another form of life, superior to the present, in which there

is no reincarnation of beings (samsara). Thus, each person’s actions (karma) will

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determine his ability to transition to a higher form of spiritual life and freedom from

painful and perishable matter. According to this view, the violent arrest of a man's life,

either by suicide or euthanasia, is a disruption of the universal order (dharma), and this

action has a direct impact not only on the life of the deceased but also on the life of

those who helped him. It is said that the doctor will assume the unfinished karma of

the patient, i.e., the work that was left unfinished due to the abrupt termination of his

life. Generally, active euthanasia is contrary to the principle of ahimsa, nonviolence

toward all living beings and respect for life. Ahimsais understood as the highest ideal

of dharma, the universal order. Nevertheless, among Hindus, there are those who

accept passive euthanasia because they believe that the prolongation of life by artificial

means or providing medicines that suppress the patient’s consciousness in the face of

his impending death violate man's natural movement toward perfection and, as such,

are contrary to the law of the universe. Of course, the majority position in Hinduism

rejects euthanasia at both the religious and social levels. The diverse and seemingly

contrary views on the issue, however, reflect Hindus’ complex realities and their

stance toward metaphysical questions.

Buddhism

Similarly, Buddhism also does not accept euthanasia, because such an action would

lead man into the vicious cycle of reincarnations and would deprive him of the ability

to achieve the highest good, which is nirvana, the other-worldly and ineffable bliss.

Although Buddhism views the world as a source of pain and sadness, it nevertheless

does not recommend a violent escape from this painful world. Its ideal, of course, is to

help man achieve enlightenment and reach the ineffable state of nirvana, i.e., another-

worldly bliss, but only through struggling in this world of suffering. The violent

interruption of the natural course of life is considered bad karma, bad practice, and

results in the remuneration of the action and the return and rebirth of the person intothe

same painful situation of the present life, or an even worse situation. According,

therefore, to the texts of the great Buddhist Pâli canon, we can see that Buddhism is

opposed to the suicide of both those who have reached enlightenment and, even more

so, of those who have not reached this ultimate ideal. According to the texts of the

monastic rules (Vinaya), there are also indications that Buddhism is opposed not only

to suicide but also to passive euthanasia because of its adherence to the moral principle

of ahimsa (non-violence). These texts do not support the views of some intellectuals of

our time who assume that Buddhism is in favor of euthanasia because it is a religion of

mercy and compassion for people and all beings.

Of course, Buddhist monks’ self-immolation in protest against totalitarian regimes

and social injustices and to promote peace and the achievement of the higher social

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good is well known, but this is an expression of the lofty ideal of self-sacrifice, which

has no connection with suicide, much less with euthanasia.

Confucianism/Taoism

The two great philosophical systems of China, Confucianism and Taoism, have their

own conceptions of man, society, and the world within the universal order.

Confucianism, in extremely rare cases, permits euthanasia as a "dignified death" in

order to avoid political violence and disgrace. For Taoism, the goal is the immortality

of the body. To achieve this, popular or folk Taoism employs elixirs believed to

prolong life and to lead to immortality. Euthanasia is thus the inverse of this quest. The

Taoist persistently looks to cure people and to extend their lives as much as possible.

The issue, however, is muddied when outside medical-primarily artificial-life support

intervenes. Taoists accept only minor medical treatments and only if the patient's body

will be able to recover and return to its original natural state, which is consistent with

the natural flow of the Tao, the eternal principle of the universe that transcends reality.

But if medical intervention is futile and man is close to death, then Taoists consider it

meet to be left to the will of the Tao. It is thus a kind of passive euthanasia, inasmuch

as they do not accept artificial life support.

Japan: Shinto and Buddhism

The case of Japan, in which there are two primary religions, Shinto and Buddhism,

is a unique case. Here, the debate about euthanasia, which has gone on for several

decades, is colored by the traditional Japanese values of honor and dignity. These

values, combined with modern demographic and psychological problems, have led a

portion of Japanese society to look on the issue of euthanasia with sympathy, while

others have reservations.

Professor Emeritus of the Medical School of the University of Hirosaki, Shinryo

Shinagawa, admirably captured the complexities inherent in the issues of euthanasia

and bioethics, as well as the diversity in the experience and life of the religions and

cultures of the world, in his talk to the Health Care Ethics Committee in January 1993:

Japan, he said, is a mountainous country with numerous tunnels; the longest is the

Seikan Tunnel (53.9 km) running 240 meters below the water of the Tsugaru Strait;

linking the main Japanese island of Honshu with the island of Hokkaido. The tunnel

resembles that of medical ethics in Japan: there are numerous long, dark tunnels in the

medico-ethical and medico-legal controversies, and, in most of them there appear no

light at the end. In some cases, I think it will be impossible to reach the end of the

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tunnel and regain the light. I would like to discuss seven “tunnels” in medical ethics.

[…]

The seven tunnels are the legalization of induced abortion because of serious genetic

disorders, the issue of contraception, the artificial insemination with donor sperm, the

definition of death, the gender selection, the selective killing of embryos in cases of

pregnancy with multiples, and euthanasia.

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∗اكايز كايآنجل

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1..prayopavesa

2. Inuit

�) .Kaiadas gorge (��� א��א��ש>� '��א�@ א O�� �� ?א .��<א # א�64l�، �א��א� �ש>�� א�A כ� א��א���א� כ��כא� �א

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1. prototype

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1..kiddush Ha-shem

2. Zealots

3 .dharma

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هندوئيسم

�א �א � �א��� כ �! כ�ש �ש! ��� ،M"א M?f ���אfـ!' ، �� �0א"q، �� 1א��/ �hא�

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1.moksa

2. samsara

3. karma

4. dharma

5. active euthanasia

6 . ahimsa

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بوديسم

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1..Pâli canon

2. Vinaya

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شينتو: ژاپن

و بوديسم

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1. Confucianism/Taoism

2 . Shinto

3 . honor and dignity

Page 16: Euthanasia in the Major World Religionsethics.isramags.ir/article_16640_771b486ba98bc88c... · we study three monotheistic religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Hinduism and

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1 . Hirosaki

2 . Shinryo Shinagawa

3. Seikan

4. Tsugaru Strait

5. Honshu

6. Hokkaido

7 . Bushido

Page 17: Euthanasia in the Major World Religionsethics.isramags.ir/article_16640_771b486ba98bc88c... · we study three monotheistic religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Hinduism and

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1. Seppuku/ Harakiri

Page 18: Euthanasia in the Major World Religionsethics.isramags.ir/article_16640_771b486ba98bc88c... · we study three monotheistic religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Hinduism and

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