european community relations with latin america

20
European Community Relations with Latin America Author(s): Wolf Grabendorff Source: Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Winter, 1987- 1988), pp. 69-87 Published by: Center for Latin American Studies at the University of Miami Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/165818 . Accessed: 09/05/2014 20:43 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . Center for Latin American Studies at the University of Miami is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Upload: wolf-grabendorff

Post on 09-Jan-2017

224 views

Category:

Documents


8 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: European Community Relations with Latin America

European Community Relations with Latin AmericaAuthor(s): Wolf GrabendorffSource: Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Winter, 1987-1988), pp. 69-87Published by: Center for Latin American Studies at the University of MiamiStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/165818 .

Accessed: 09/05/2014 20:43

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

Center for Latin American Studies at the University of Miami is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserveand extend access to Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 2: European Community Relations with Latin America

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY RELA TIONS WITH LATINAMERICA

by WOLF GRABENDORFF

FIVE YEARS AFTER the lapse that occurred in European-Latin American relations as a result of the Malvinas/Falklands conflict

(Rhein, 1983; Bodemer, 1985), and two years after the entry of

Spain and Portugal into the European Community (CE), it would

appear appropriate to review the relations between the European Community and Latin America. At the suggestion of the president of the Spanish government, Felipe Gonzalez, who, among European heads of state, not only has a strong personal interest in Latin America, but also displays the most differentiated

knowledge of the region, the European Council decided, in 1986 at The Hague (La Vanguardia, 1986), to charge the Commission of the European Community to come up with new guidelines regarding EC relations with Latin America.1 As a result of their

proposals (CCE, 1986a), on 22 June 1987, the Council of Ministers issued its first official statement regarding Latin America since its

founding (Europe, 1987). On the one hand, the policy statement

recognized that both regions shared similar views of the world economic and political order, and, on the other, expressed the

desirability of joining together to forge an active international role. In its statement, the Council of Ministers recognized the spe-

cial importance of the region as evidenced by increased coordina- tion of, and cooperation in, activities with Latin America by various member states of the EC, thus representing a net increase in the resources being expended by the Community.2 The Council of Ministers document also acknowledged the joint declaration of

Spain and Portugal, made at the time of their application to join the Community, in which they pledged their efforts to strengthen and develop relations between the European Community and Latin America.3 Nevertheless, this will continue to be a mere will-

Wolf Grabendorff is Director of the Institute for European-Latin American Relations, Madrid, Spain. He is the author of numerous articles and books on international affairs and Latin American foreign policies.

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 3: European Community Relations with Latin America

70 JOURNAL OF INTERAMERICAN STUDIES AND WORLD AFFAIRS

o-the-wisp until the European Community reaches the point where its expansion to the south shall include formal ties with Latin America (Rosenzweig, 1987). Clearly, biregional relations have not displayed any substantial change up to now. Spain has

distinguished itself within the Community by focusing greater at- tention on the problems of Latin America, functioning not so much as a broker who acts as an advocate or, at the least, critic, but more as a defender of the region within the EC, a role previously played-to a certain extent-by Italy, and by the FRG (Federal Republic of Germany).

The recent enlargement of the EC has doubtless helped to spur, in general, a greater sensitivity to concerns of the South. But, taking into account the enormous priorities within the Community with which Spain and Portugal have been faced since their entry, it is possible to state that only an alliance of a number of member

states-Italy and the FRG in particular, together with Spain and

Portugal-will be able, in the long run, to raise the interests of Latin America into becoming a major consideration on the EC

agenda. The shock produced by the Malvinas/Falklands conflict

revealed the state of relations with the region, which had received such scant attention, from the point of view of Latin America, as to border upon the discriminatory. Up to this point, the Com-

munity has made a notable effort to improve its relations with Latin America. This process has been accelerated by decisive changes in the domestic affairs and foreign policies of the region as well.

POLITICIZATION OF RELATIONS

DURING THE 1970S it would have been impossible to foresee the degree of politicization which now characterizes EC/Latin American relations (Boselli, 1985b) as a consequence of the

higher-though substantially different-international profile which both regions have developed in the 1980s (Boselli, 1977). Nevertheless, coordination of biregional and bilateral relations of both parties has not been easy, particularly where the extremely high expectations of the Latin Americans have encountered the

very limited role assigned them by European Cooperation Policy (Duran, 1985). Thus, in a majority of questions related to coopera-

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 4: European Community Relations with Latin America

GRABENDORFF: EUROPEAN RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA

tion with Latin America, the Commission of the EC has taken on a leadership role, to which at least some of the member countries have responded, upon occasion, only with difficulty.

On the one hand this politicization of relations has helped to focus attention on the central problem of commercial relations be- tween the two regions, thereby, and at the same time, engender- ing problems and/or difficulties with third countries, such as, to give only one example, with the dominant power for both regions: the United States. Contrary to the situation involving economic relations, it is difficult to imagine any political or strategic arran- gements between Latin America and Europe which do not take into consideration the interests of the United States (Yafnez-Bar- nuevo, 1986).5 For instance, the close and obvious political cooperation between the European Community and the states of the Central American isthmus caused, over and above any reper- cussions within the biregional relations themselves, complicated problems within the Atlantic Alliance.

The foreign policy issue most decisive in accelerating this politicization of relations was the crisis in Central America. Fol- lowing the 1979 revolution in Nicaragua, Central America became rapidly transformed into a center of international crisis (Graben- dorff, 1983) requiring Europe to develop a joint position toward it. Ministers of foreign affairs of the European Community (includ- ing the future member states of Spain and Portugal), together with the states of Central America and the Contadora Group, held a meeting in 1984 in San Jose, Costa Rica,6 which has been termed, with obvious intent, "the final blow to the Monroe Doctrine." That meeting represented a critical turning point in the relationship be- tween Europe and Latin America (Moran, 1985) and, at the same time, became a test of the Atlantic Alliance (Mertes, 1985; Hen- ning, 1985): would the EC devise for itselfa role in Central America that was competitive to, or complementary with, that of the Atlan- tic Alliance? (Grabendorff, 1987) Precisely because of the basic in- terests which the United States has in the region, the ability of the European Community to reach meaningful consensus remained extremely limited.7 It is for this reason that the accord signed in Luxemburg with the states of the Central American isthmus (Cuadernos Semestrales, 1985:395-405), and the support for the peace process in that region demonstrated at the conference in

71

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 5: European Community Relations with Latin America

72 JOURNAL OF INTERAMERICAN STUDIES AND WORLD AFFAIRS

Guatemala (Comunidad Europea Y Grupo de Contadora, 1987), represent key landmarks on the road to accommodation between the EC and Central America. In addition, the EC has now become an actor involved in the crisis management of a region which has

always had its eye on Europe in its search for diversification in

foreign policy. The ability of the EC to communicate, even under the

anomalous circumstances of crisis, its own vision of regional in-

tegration or, better, of cooperation and peaceful resolution of con- flict, engendered significant international support for the Contadora Group. Some of the European ministers of foreign af-

fairs, among whom may be singled out Hans-Dietrich Genscher, Leo Tindemans, Francisco Fernandez Ordonez and the Commis- sioner of the EC, Claude Cheysson, have had an influence in dis- cussions of the Central American conflict which should not be underestimated. Including the actual cessation of hostilities in Central America, support from the Community will continue to be a significant factor in the region. In spite of criticism from the United States and from some of the states in Central America, its contribution to the creation of a solid regional infrastructure, not

only from an economic point of view, but also from a political one, will have consequences which cannot be disregarded.

The second aspect testfying to the politicization of relations be- tween the two continents regards domestic policy: democratiza- tion or, in this case, redemocratization. In this sense, Europe has become converted into Latin America's favorite broker. It was

precisely during the years of persecution that many Latin American political parties and unions established both personal and political contacts with some of their counterpart organizations in Europe, despite the fact that member states of the Community continued to maintain good and correct relations with the ruling military regimes. The solidarity displayed during this period en-

gendered the hope expressed today by many of the politicians who have come to power in the wake of democratic elections: that Europe should not confine itself to expressions of flattering rhetoric regarding the democratic process, but should now direct attention to other social factors crucial to that process in order to avoid a social and economic crisis which could allow a resurgence in authoritarian dictatorships.8

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 6: European Community Relations with Latin America

GRABENDORFF: EUROPEAN RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA

Evidently it appears that both parties now recognize their joint responsibility in the political sector, in which they share common interests, such as, for example, economic cooperation and the foreign debt. Given that the European Community has declared itself fully in favor of democratic institutions, Latin America's democratization contributed, without doubt, to facilitate Europe's accommodation with Latin America. In this context, the European Parliament, whose sensitivity and interest is well known to Latin America, plays an important role. The need to create "political families" within the region, that is to say, to organize-at the party level-a democratic cooperation which transcends national boun- daries, should perhaps have been converted into a stronger inter- national policy, not only for Europe, but also between Europe and Latin America.

Undoubtedly, biregional relations have been affected in a posi- tive way, as much by factors within Latin American domestic politics as in foreign policies, although the evidence suggests that there may be at least two negative aspects to this development. The Central American crisis, as well as the process of democratiza- tion, are processes that impact at the international level, that is to say, they represent conflicts or developments which carry no specific risk to the biregional relationship, only excepting, per- haps, those international relations which the Europeans maintain in this sense. On the other hand, a politicization of relations based on concepts of real, shared interests becomes vulnerable in the face of political change, whereas economic relations are capable of greater stability since material interests of both parties are in- volved.

LIMITED ADVANCE ON FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS

THE MAIN PROBLEMS of the Community and Latin America arise out of their economic relations. This will continue to be so in the future. Much of the common agrarian policy, as closely allied to the rebuff of protectionism as its Latin American critics are to the subsidized exports of the Community's surplus or to restrictions on access to markets, only demonstrates different aspects of the structural deficiency in the relationship. This deficiency can only

73

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 7: European Community Relations with Latin America

74 JOURNAL OF INTERAMERICAN STUDIES AND WORLD AFFAIRS

be overcome in the long run, if and when economic relations un-

dergo substantial change on a global level (Kiirzinger, 1986; Giun- ti, 1986).

Latin America's imports from the Community declined by 38% from 1980 to 1885 (CCE, 1986a), reflecting both the decrease in prices of primary products and repercussions of the debt crisis as well as the imbalance in economic relations between the two regions. Apart from the reasons mentioned, the fall-off in trade has other causes, internal, external, and institutional, which can- not be calculated for all the states in the same way.9 The decline in trade has also been affected by fluctuations in the exchange rate, geographic distance, and by willingness to grant export credits encumbered by as few restrictions as possible. While, during the 1970s, EC participation in overseas trade with Latin America temporarily approached that of the United States, since then it has dropped off considerably compared with the US, so that, in 1985, the EC accounted for only 17.9% of imports [the US share was 41.3%] and 21.5% of exports [US share being 47.5%](IRELA, 1987a).

The harsh criticism which Latin America has directed toward the EC has become somewhat diluted as a result of new gestures and efforts by the EC to facilitate, at least in some ways, Latin American exports to the EC by means of special programs, the System of General Preferences, and by tolerating the high Latin American trade deficits. The greatest dissension arises from those cases in which the Community competes with Latin American sub- sidized agricultural exports in third markets, assuming these are in Latin America itself. Argentina and Uruguay are most affected by this policy of the Community owing to their dependence upon agricultural exports and, consequently, they are the most vehe- ment critics of the EC trade policy (El Dia, 1986).

Up to now, tie European Community has involved itself only minimally with the issue of greatest concern to Latin America and which dominates, in absolute terms, its relations with the in- dustrialized world: external debt. Only the Commissioner of the EC, Claude Cheysson, has made an effort to enter into a dialogue with the Group of Consensus of Cartagena in order to contribute to a lessening of tensions between the two continents.1? Never- theless, his efforts have been frustrated because member states

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 8: European Community Relations with Latin America

GRABENDORFF: EUROPEAN RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA

were not disposed to follow his lead, and he finally abandoned this Europe/Latin America dialogue, on grounds that indebted- ness did not fall within the competence of the Commission. Despite the fact that presentation of a European option would af- fect the problem of relations with Latin America significantly, 1 the great majority of member countries persist in viewing the issue exclusively as a problem for the banks, which implies not having to face its true dimensions. The Latin American democracies find themselves trapped in a vicious circle produced by the close relationship between democratic stability and economic in- stability, owing to a net flight of capital combined with simul- taneous growth in external debt. For the moment no solution has been found for the problem mentioned. Equally, with reference to agrarian policy and some aspects of foreign trade, a structural problem exists in the relationship which cannot be reduced or resolved by financial means.

The only problem of a non-economic nature which exerts pres- sure on the biregional relationship over the long run is located in the South Atlantic. The crisis of the Malvinas/Falklands which, in principle, was a bilateral issue between Argentina and the United Kingdom, became converted into the "original sin" of biregional relations owing to the Argentine invasion, to which the EC reacted by imposing a trade embargo (from 16 April to 22 June 1982). The Community's strong reaction on that occasion has never been fully comprehended, either by Argentina or by the rest of the countries of the region since, until that moment, the EC had always behaved moderately in matters of economic boycott.

If one takes into consideration voting in the United Nations, one can see that there has recently been a growing tendency for EC member states to pressure the United Kingdom-lightly-to be more willing to negotiate with Argentina (Bor6n, 1986: 600- 602). The Community clearly realizes that Argentina will continue to be a key country in the region and, until that time, pose a problem for the future of their relations (Ashoff, 1985).

Already in 1980, that is to say, prior to the Malvinas conflict, Ar- gentina failed to renew its trade agreement with the EC, concluded in 1971. Besides, the case ofArgentina is anomolous in other ways, not only in the arena of economic relations but also in the absence of its diplomatic relations with one of the member states. This case

75

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 9: European Community Relations with Latin America

76 JOURNAL OF INTERAMERICAN STUDIES AND WORLD AFFAIRS

clearly illustrates the high degree of inter-relatedness between each of these problem areas. One might say that the problems be- tween Buenos Aires and the EC typify those biregional problems which are most critical and most apt to lead to conflict. In the meantime, these relations continue to be affected by agricultural policy, trade protectionism, indebtedness, and London's intran- sigence in the Malvinas/Falklands negotiations (Grabendorff, 1984). Some of the new initiatives by the Community contain many elements which would allow for rapid progress on those very issues which continue to cast a shadow over the future path of the European/Latin American relationship.

SCARCITY OF INSTITUTIONAL RELATIONS

THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY has always had a problem in securing Latin American intermediaries suitable for inter-regional dialogue (Boselli, 1977; Grabendorff, 1986). Latin America is the exception in providing the kind of mechanisms for dialogue which are in force in other parts of the so-called "third world," such as are represented by the Arab-European dialogue, ccopera- tion with ASEAN (Association of South-East Asian Nations), and the Lome Convention. The official dialogue with the Latin American ambassadors (GRULA or the Grupo de Latinoamerica), held in Brussels in 1982, was disrupted as a consequence of the EC's embargo of Argentina and has only been renewed, in an in- formal way, since 1985, at the initiative of Commissioner Cheys- son. On various occasions, SELA (Sistema Economica de Latinoamernca) has tried to establish a comprehensive dialogue between the EC and Latin America but these usually ran into obstacles owing to the Latin American illusion that they were en- titled to "equal treatment." The Community's argument is that the many different economic structures in Latin America combined with the limited development of regional decision-making institu- tions works against the possibility for equal dialogue between the two regions.

One possible way out of this situation, viewed negatively by at least part of Latin America, could come from cooperation at the sub-regional level, based on the Community's promotion of Latin American centers of sub-regional integration. A prime example

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 10: European Community Relations with Latin America

GRABENDORFF: EUROPEAN RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA

would be the Andean Pact, whose role in integration has been growing, supported by the EC with which it concluded a coopera- tion agreement in 1983, and since ratified (in 1987) by the last three of the participating Andean states (CCE, 1985).13 This agreement proposes a series of cooperative development ventures between the Community and Andean Pact, primarily involving regional programs and projects.

Politically speaking, the most important agreement is a treaty of cooperation between the states of the Central American isthmus and the European Community, despite the fact that the political dialogue was separated from the major part of the treaty, existing only as an annex to the treaty of economic cooperation. Political goals, along with amount and kind of development assistance, are determinants for the region, as is the worldwide principle which forbids exclusion of any country from participating in a scheme of regional cooperation for political reasons-in this case, Nicaragua. Nevertheless, this fact ought not to obscure the weight accorded ideological arguments within internal debates of the Community during discussion of the forms which cooperation with Central America might take. On the other hand, the Central American states are not always successful in achieving unanimity among themselves due to their own bilateral problems.

In the Southern Cone, the Community faces its most intractable sub-regional situation, due not only to the specific tensions which exist between itself and Argentina, but also to the traditional com- petition which has existed between Argentina and Brazil for regional leadership in the area of foreign commerce. Recently, this competition appears to be on the wane as a result of a joint in- tegration accord concluded between the two countries in 1986 (Integracion Latinoamericana, 1986, 1987). In the event that this integration initiative proves successful, bringing together not just Argentina and Brazil, but also Uruguay and-after democratiza- tion-Chile and Paraguay, the Southern Cone would then present the Community with an ally, due to the degree of development and economic potential represented, of major interest. The countries which are not included in the spectrum of subregional relations with the EC are few, 14 some of which, like Mexico and Brazil, have biregional accords at their disposal, while others, like Haiti and the Dominican Republic, are in the process of develop-

77

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 11: European Community Relations with Latin America

78 JOURNAL OF INTERAMERICAN STUDIES AND WORLD AFFAIRS

ing a system of cooperation which bears a certain similarity to that of the Lome Convention.

When the Community uses the argument of lack of adequate Latin American intermediaries, the Latin Americans frequently respond by citing a lack of interest by the EC and the complexity of the latter's decision-making apparatus. The institution of the EC which is most detached in its relations with Latin America is the

European Parliament. Besides publishing a considerable series of

really constructive reports regarding desirability of improving relations with Latin America, it clearly indicated a high degree of flexibility, at the inter-parliamentary meetings held in Brasilia in 1985 and in Lisbon in 1987, toward a more positive develop- ment of joint relations.

Among other EC institutions which have displayed interest in the region, next is the Commission, which, under the leadership of Commissioner Cheysson, has undertaken various creative in- itiatives toward Latin America and whose suggestions to the Coun- cil of Ministers on expanding the relationship (2 December 1986) have borne fruit. Debates do take place within the Commission to which Latin Americans often over-react, being extremely sensitive to the change of attitude which takes place when member states

contemplate the responsibilities inherent in, or possible negative outcomes of, proposals for economic cooperation or implemen- tation of development policies. Nevertheless, it is frequently the Council of Ministers which restricts the activities of the Commis- sion. At the same time, some member states display a proclivity to

strengthen their own bilateral relations with the countries of Latin America, testifying to the benefits to be derived from

European/Latin American cooperation. As much as the directive of the Council of Ministers provides a glimpse of hope for qualita- tive change in inter-regional relations, at the same time one must

acknowledge that, to date, the role allotted to Latin America has been of minimal significance; practically the same thing happened with the European Cooperation Policy, where issues related to Latin America seldom appeared. A closer institutional relationship is made more difficult by the lack of Latin American structures for

dialogue as well as by the complexity and differentiation of the

decision-making apparatus on the European side. Nevertheless, closer ties are a necessity if stability and development ofbiregional

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 12: European Community Relations with Latin America

GRABENDORFF: EUROPEAN RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA

relations are to be attained. The large number of participants has contributed to the rise of both conflict and emotion at the bilateral level, subsequently transferred to the biregional level, which has diminished considerably the ability to control biregional relations in the long run.

NEW FORMS AND SPHERES OF COOPERATION

NEW AND STRONGER FORMS of cooperation are beginning to be developed,16 which are reflected in the many exchange visits between Europe and Latin America at the diplomatic level, and which also extend to contacts with the European Community and meetings of joint commissions preliminary to various cooperative agreements. Examples of this tendency are the regular political consultations with Central American states, perhaps indicative of increased political cooperation. At the 1987 meeting of the UN General Assembly, many informal conversations were held by EC ministers and representatives of the Grupo de Rio, embracing much broader topics than the Central American problem alone. It is probable that these contacts may succeed in becoming institu- tionalized in so far as the Rio Group may be able to develop an informal Latin American policy for cooperation. At the parliamen- tary level, the EC is disposed to lend technical support to forma- tion of a Central American parliament, thus creating a third intermediary capable of drawing up closer forms of parliamentary cooperation, in addition to the Latin American parliament and the Andean parliament.

Among possible areas for cooperation, special mention must be made of those designed to encourage investment and financ- ing of exports.18 With regard to industry, one area to explore would be that of increased technological cooperation, for which it would first be necessary to develop adequate mechanisms, since existing arrangements are quite limited. Other areas which hold promise would be in the fields of environmental cooperation, con- trolling the drug trade, and the refugee problem. Regarding the issue of development, of particular relevance is the need to in- crease food production.19 It is also important to recognize the ef- fort that both parties have made to abandon problem areas and dead ends produced by mutual recrimination, in favor of goals

79

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 13: European Community Relations with Latin America

80 JOURNAL OF INTERAMERICAN STUDIES AND WORLD AFFAIRS

respresenting complementary, or convergent, interests. Luigi Boselli, the EC delegate to Latin America, highlighted potential spheres for cooperation when he said:

If the present political affinities are translated into economic

relations, Europe and Latin America could be converted into natural allies in the third millenium (Boselli, 1985a).

POLICY WITHOUT ILLUSIONS

CONSIDERING THE DISPARATE positions of Latin America and of the European Community within the international system, par- ticularly the assymetry in their relations with one another, a dis-

passionate inter-regional policy needs to be devised, which does not necessarily have to be a policy lacking in perspective.20 Depending on the way in which the Latin American countries are able to acknowledge this imbalance, due to their differences in in- terests and in geopolitical priorities, and abandoning the illusion of equal partnership,21 a path could be opened for direct coopera- tion, at defined levels, between the two regions. The an- nouncement of the Council of Ministers provides firm foundation for cooperation based on these considerations. For Latin America the Community can only be one friend among many, even though a highly desirable one, and one which figures prominently in its

relations, a situation which Latin Americans have already ex-

perienced on more than one occasion.

Strictly bilateral relations now exist between some countries of the Community and Latin America, relations which hold an im-

portant place in their affairs and which ought to be incorporated, little by little, into the system of bilateral relations of the European Community as a whole, including those cases in which this

development is not viewed too comfortably. Transnational actors who have already established close ties with both continents could also help to further the integration process through facilitat-

ing biregional dialogue, and, with the support of the Community, contributing their pluralistic perspective to such a dialogue.

Taking into account all the improvements desired in

European/Latin American relations, one must not underestimate the constraints inherent in achieving them. These constraints are not based on the comparative development of the two regions,

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 14: European Community Relations with Latin America

GRABENDORFF: EUROPEAN RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA

nor on their different positions in the context of the North-South conflict, but derive primarily from the historical evolution of the

European Community itself, which bears an institutional

preference for Africa and Asia, a bias not likely to change in the short run (Estrella, 1987), and which is characterized by contrac- tual obligations toward third countries, such as the Lome Conven-

tion, as well as preferential accords with states of the southern Mediterranean which leave little room for maneuver in increasing cooperation with Latin America. Moreover, the European agricul- tural policy plays such an important political role within the

European Community that, in this sphere also, it is unlikely that

any rapid progress could be made that would produce immediate results for Latin America.2 Finally, the role of the Community in Latin America remains conditioned by the United States and the

quality of its relations with this most important member of the western alliance, since many member countries prefer to har- monize their interest with those of Washington rather than initiate a new policy toward Latin America.

Viewed realistically, it is unlikely that economic relations be- tween the two regions are going to experience any basic improve- ment over the next five years, date of the Cinquecentennial and

anniversary of their first meeting. That same year will see the com-

pletion of a unified internal market for the EC, which presumab- ly will have reduced access of Latin American products to the

Community. Thus it is not unrealistic to foresee an increased economic marginalization of that continent by this part of Europe, a prospect that Latin Americans view with foreboding. Precisely for that reason, the EC must strengthen itself to grow rapidly and to secure politically those levels of the Latin American relationship which remain. On the other hand, the danger exists that in 1992 the only thing to celebrate will be Europe's historical role in Latin America.

NOTES 1. The last directives were published by the Commission on 6 April

1984 under the title of "Directions for Strengthening Relations between the Community and Latin America" (CCE, 1984).

2. Financial help granted for development by the EC represents 1.7% of the total received by Latin America while, at the level of the member states, this reached some 23.90/0 [United States was 32.4%] (CCE, 1986b).

81

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 15: European Community Relations with Latin America

82 JOURNAL OF INTERAMERICAN STUDIES AND WORLD AFFAIRS

3. The text is in the "Declaration of Common Intent Relative to

Development and Intensified Relations with the Countries of Latin America" (ICI, 1986).

4. For a general view of the problem see Ashoff (1983); for a more critical view, in the same volume, see Ehrke (1983).

5. With respect to the general problem of triangular relations, see Grabendorff and Roett (1984).

6. See the text of the Declaration in Cuadernos-Semestrales (1985) 7. "The Luxembourg conference declared that the potential and

political will of the European Community has limitations in creating an autonomous foreign policy toward regions which carry no priorities in the economic and strategic fields and which, moreover, are located

geographically so close to the United States" (Esser, 1987: 59). 8. More solidarity with Latin American democracies is demanded by

Elena Flores (1987), whereas the significance of Europe for the democratization of Latin America is advanced by Alberto van Klaveren (1986).

9. On the different profiles which EC member states turn toward Latin America, see Langhammer (1984). With respect to problems of trade in

general, see Julienne (1987). More detailed statistics can be found in the IRELA Working Paper entitled "Economic Relations between the

European Community and Latin America: A Statistical Profile" (IRELA, 1987a).

10. The first session of dialogue took place the 15th and 19th of April 1984 (Unomasuno, 1985).

11. A Latin American perspective on this point can be found in Bor6n (1986: 595-600).

12. The proposals suggested can be found in the SELA publication America Latina y la Comunidad Economica Europea: Problemas y Perspectivas (1984).

13. General perspectives on relations between the EC and Andean Pact are analyzed in El Pacto Andino, Anmrica Latina y la Comunidad Economica Europea en los Aios 80(INTAL, 1984).

14. An exception is the case of Cuba through its integration in CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) so that it was able to institu- tionalize its relations with the Community only after negotiation of the EC-CMEA accord.

15. See especially the views of the European parliamentarians Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul and Ernest Glinne on Central America, and of Jochen van Aerssen and Marlene Lenz on Latin America.

16. Between 1985 and 1987 more than 60 official visits from Europe to Latin America were logged at the level of sovereigns, presidents, vice-

presidents, heads of state and ministers of foreign affairs, while the figures for equivalent visits from Latin America to Europe came to 98. Moreover, there were 29 visits from commissioners of the European

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 16: European Community Relations with Latin America

GRABENDORFF: EUROPEAN RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA

Community to Latin America and 17 corresponding tours to the EC (IRELA, 1986 and 1987b).

17. Conversations were held in New York, on 23 September 1987, between the ministers of foreign affairs of the 12 member states of the European Community and their counterparts from the Rio Group, con- stituting a first step towards institutionalizing political dialogue between the two regions (El Pais, 1987).

18. Direct investment in Latin America by the European Community accounts for approximately 50/o of the Community's total investments in developing countries. At the same time, this investment represents al- most 200/o of total foreign investment in Latin America (the US accounts for 54%; Japan for 15%). In 1984-85, member states of the EC invested US$1,200-million in South America, while the US took out US$170-mil- lion (CCE, 1986a).

19. In this sense, cooperation between the EC and CADESCA (Comitd de Accion de Apoyo al Desarrollo Economico y Social de Centro America) has had much success (Informe Centroamericano, 1987).

20. From the point of view of the Soviet Union, relations would not offer any positive benefits (Kulistikov, 1985).

21. Manfred Mols has condensed into 6 points the reasons for the as- symetry in relations between Europe and Latin America in his article en- titled "Reciprocal Perceptions of Europe and Latin America: A European Perspective" (Mols, 1987). A condensed version of this article was published in Spanish by Le Monde Diplomatique en Espagnol (Mexico) 8, 97 (February-March 1987): 26-27.

22. On the limited possibilities for a better economic relationship, see Sideri (1985).

REFERENCES ASHOFF, G. (1985) "Relations between Argentina and the European

Community: Present State and Opportunities for Improvement," pp. 61-135 in Guido Ashoff and Klaus Esser (eds.) Argentine Economic Cooperation with the Federal Republic of Germany and the European Community: Problems and Prospects. Berlin, Germany: German Development Institute (DIE).

(1983) "Konsequensen der EC-Suderweiterung fiir die Beziehun-

gen zwischen der EB und Lateinamerika," pp. 213-236 in Hans J. Petersen (ed.) Die Besiehungen zwischen der Europaischen Gemeinschaft und Lateinamerika. Baden Baden, FRG: Nomos.

BODEMER, K. (1985) "Perspectivas de las relaciones interregionales entre la Comunidad y America Latina." Integracion Latinoamericana (Buenos Aires) 10, 100 (abril): 22-31.

83

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 17: European Community Relations with Latin America

84 JOURNAL OF INTERAMERICAN STUDIES AND WORLD AFFAIRS

BORON, A. (1986) "De San Jose a Luxemburgo: Perspectivas y Obstaculos de la Conexi6n Europea-Latinoamericana en 1985," pp. 595-600 in Heraldo Mufioz (ed.) America Latina y el Caribe Politicas Exteriores para Sobrevivir. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Grupo Editor Latinoamericano.

BOSELLI, L. (1985a) "EC Boosts Ties to Latin America: Political and Economic Dialogue is Institutionalized at Ministerial Level." Europe (Washington) (November-December): 12-14.

_ (1985b) "La Comunidad Europea y America Latina: El Nuevo Reto." Cuadernos del Instituto Matias Romero de Estudios Diplomaticos (Mexico), No. 11.

____ (1977) "Die Beziehungen zwischen der Europaischen Gemeinschaft und Lateinamerika: Auf dem Wege zu neuen Zielen?" Europa Archiv 32, 14: 427-432.

Comision de las Comunidades Europeas (CCE) (1986a) "La Comunidad Europea y America Latina" (Communication of the Commission to the Council). COM (86) 720 final, 2 December.

(1986b) Annex 3 of "La Comunidad Europea y America Latina" (Communication of the Commission to the Council). COM (86) anexo 3.

_ (1985) "Acuerdo de Cooperaci6n entre la Comunidad Economica Europea, por una parte, y, por otra, el Acuerdo de Cartagena y sus Paises Miembres, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru y Venezuela." Caracas, Venezuela: Delegacion CE-Caracas, Servicio de Prensa y In- formacion.

(1984) "Orientaciones para un fortalecimiento de las relaciones entre la Comunidad y America Latina" (Communication of the Com- mission to the Council). COM (84) 105 final, 6 April.

Comunidad Europea y Grupo de Contadora (1987) "Comunicado Economico Conjunto" and "Comunicado Politico Conjunto." Guatemala City, Guatemala: Third Conference of Foreign Ministers of Central America, the European Community, and the Contadora Group, 9-10 February.

Cuadernos Semestrales-Estados Unidos: Perspectivas Latinoamericana (Mexico) (1985) Numero 18, segundo semestre: 395-405 and 413-418.

El Dia (Mexico) (1986) "Rechazo de Sanguinetti y Alfonsin a practicas desleales y proteccionismo de la CEE y de EEUU." 23 February.

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 18: European Community Relations with Latin America

GRABENDORFF: EUROPEAN RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA

DURAN, E. (1985) European Interests in Latin America (Chatham House Paper 28). London, England: Royal Institute of International Affairs.

EHRKE, M. (1983) "Zur Bruckenfunktion Spaniens im Rahmen der kunftigen Beziehungen zwischen der Europaischen Gemeinschaft und Lateinamerika," pp. 253-268 in Hans J. Petersen (ed.) Die Beziehungen zwischen der Europaischen Gemeinschaft und Lateinamerika. Baden Baden, FRG: Nomos.

ESTRELLA, R. (1987) "Europa y America Latina: La Cooperaci6n al Desar- rollo." Leviatan (Madrid) 27 (Spring): 103-112.

ESSER, K. (1987) "Zentralamerika: USA, EG und Bundesrepublik Deutschland." Berlin, Germany: German Development Institute (DIE).

Europe (Brussels) (1987) "Conclusions of the Council and the Represen- tatives of the Governments of the Member States on Relations be- tween the Community and Latin America," issued by the Council of the European Communities, 7120/87, Press 110, 22 June. Issue No. 1460, Documents, 26 June.

FLORES, E. (1987) "Europa y America Latina: El Desafio del Cooperaci6n." Leviatan (Madrid) 27 (Spring): 93-101.

GIUNTI, L. (1986) "Relaciones Econ6micas Europa/Iberoamerica," pp. 35-49 in Instituto de Cooperacion Iberoamericana (ICI) (ed.) En- cuentro en la Democracia: Europa/Iberoamerica. Madrid, Spain: Cul- tura Hispanica.

GRABENDORFF, W. (1987) "Centroamerica: iUn dilema para las Relaciones entre Europa y Estados Unidos?" Politica Internacional (Caracas) 7 (July-September): 8-11.

(1986) "America Latina y Europa: Esperanzas y desafios." Nueva Sociedad 85 (September-October): 126-133.

(1984) "Argentiniens neue Aussenpolitik: Demokratisierung und Verschuldung." Europa Archiv 39, 19: 595-602.

_ (1983) "America Central como Region de Crisis Internacional." Es- tudios Internacionales (Santiago de Chile) 16, 63 (July-September): 483-497.

GRABENDORFF, W. and R. ROETT (eds.) (1984) America Latina, Europa Occidental y Estados Unidos: ,Un Nuevo Triangulo Atlantico? Buenos Aires, Argentina: Grupo Editor Latinoamericano.

HENNING, O. (1985) "Was Konnen die Europaer tun?: Europaische und Deutsche Mittelamerikapolitik," pp. 29-45 in Jurgen Aretz and

85

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 19: European Community Relations with Latin America

86 JOURNAL OF INTERAMERICAN STUDIES AND WORLD AFFAIRS

Riidiger May (eds.) Zentralamerika in der Krise. Munich, FRG: Gunter

Olzog.

Informe Centroamericano (Guatemala) (1987) "CADESCA, un ensayo viable." 5 March.

Instituto de Cooperacion Iberoamericana (ICI) (1986) "Declaraci6n Comun de Intenciones relativa al desarrollo y a la intensificacion de las relaciones con los paises de America Latina," pp. 151 ff. in ICI (ed.) Encuentro en la Democracia: Europa-Iberoamerica. Madrid, Spain: Editor Cultura Hispanica.

Instituto de Integracion de America Latina (INTAL) (1984) El Pacto An-

dino, America Latina y la Comunidad Econ6mica Europea en los Afios 80. Buenos Aires, Argentina: INTAL.

Instituto de Relaciones Europeo-Latinoamericanas (IRELA) (1987a) "Economic Relations between the European Community and Latin America: A Statistical Profile." Madrid, Spain: IRELA Working Paper 10.

(1987b) "Cronologia de las relaciones entre Europa Occidental y America Latina, 1986." Madrid, Spain: IRELA Working Paper 11.

(1986) "Cronologia de las relaciones entre Europa Occidental y America Latina, 1985." Madrid, Spain: IRELA Working Paper 2.

Integracion Latinoamericana (Buenos Aires) (1987) "El Programa de in-

tegraci6n argentino-brasilefio." Vol. 12, No. 122 (April): 1-58.

(1986) "Acta para la integracion argentina-brasilefia." Vol. 11, No. 116 (September): 97-104.

JULIENNE, H. (1987) "Cooperacion economica entre la Comunidad

Europea y America Latina: Posibilidades y Opciones." Madrid, Spain: IRELA Working Paper 4.

KULISTIKOV, K. (1985) "Los escollos de la 'alternativa euro-occidental."' America Latina (Moscow) (March): p.47 ff.

KURZINGER, E. (1986) "America Latina y la Comunidad Europea: Reper- cusiones de los Cambios en la Economia Mundial. Madrid, Spain: IRELA Working Paper 3.

LANGHAMMER, R. (1984) "Handelsbeziehungen EG-Lateinamerika:

Marktzugangsprofile einzelner EG-Staaten gegenuber der Region." pp. 74-83 in Klaus Esser and Albrecht von Gleich (eds.) Lateinamerika: Entwicklungsprozesse am Wendepunkt. Hamburg, FRG: Institut fiir Iberoamerikakunde.

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 20: European Community Relations with Latin America

GRABENDORFF: EUROPEAN RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA

MERTES, A. (1985) "Europe's Role in Central America: A West German Christian Democratic View," pp. 106-113 in Andrew J. Pierre (ed.) Third World Instability: Central America as a European-American Issue. New York, NY Council on Foreign Relations.

MOLS, M. (1987) "Reciprocal Perceptions of Europe and Latin America: A European Perspective." Aussenpolitik (Hamburg) 38, 1: 73-85.

MORAN, F. (1985) "Europe's Role in Central America: A Spanish Socialist View," pp. 6-44 in Andrew J. Pierre (ed.) Third World Instability: Central America as a European-American Issue. New York, NY: Coun- cil on Foreign Relations.

El Pais (Madrid) (1987) "La CE y Latinoamerica institucionalizan su

dialogo politico en Nueva York." 24 September.

RHEIN, E. (1983) "Die Beziehungen zwischen Lateinamerika und

Europa nach dem Malvinas-Konflikt aus Brusseler Sicht," pp. 25-31 in Hans J. Petersen (ed.) Die Beziehungen zwischen der Europais- chen Gemeinschaft und Lateinamerika. Baden Baden, FRG: Nomos.

ROSENZWEIG, G. (1987) "Espafia y las relaciones entre las Com- unidades Europeas y America Latina." Madrid, Spain: IRELA Working Paper 8.

Sistema Economica de Latinoamerica (SELA) (1984) America Latina y la Comunidad Economica Europea: Problemas y Perspectivas. Caracas, Venezuela: Monte Avila Editores.

SIDERI, S. (1985) "Europa y America Latina en la crisis mundial." In-

tegraci6n Latinoamericana (Buenos Aires) 10, 100 (April): 3-21.

Unomasuno (Mexico) (1985) "Dialogo politico entre CEE y el grupo de Cartagena respecto al problema de la deuda." 18 April.

La Vanguardia (Barcelona) (1986) "Los problemas agricolas del mercado interior y America Latina, otros temas de la reuni6n de la CEE." 28 June.

VAN KLAVEREN, A. (1986) "Europa y la democratizacion de America Latina." Nueva Sociedad (Caracas) 85 (September-October): 134-140.

YANEZ-BARNUEVO, J.A. (1986) "Relaciones entre Europa y Iberoamerica en el marco de las relaciones Norte-Sur y Este-Oeste," p. 240 in ICI (ed.) Encuentro en la Democracia: Europa-Iberoamerica. Madrid, Spain: Editor Cultura Hispanica.

87

This content downloaded from 62.122.76.35 on Fri, 9 May 2014 20:43:23 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions