ethnicity and ethnic conflict in pakistan

8/22/2019 Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in Pakistan

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Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in Pakistan

AbstractThere is hardly any state in the world, which is not ethnically plural. Pakistan isalso no exception in this regard. Pakistan is a country with unique ethnic

diversity. This present study focuses on the concept of ethnicity and differentvariables such as religion, language, territory and caste, which have potential togive birth violent conflicts among different ethnic identities of Pakistan. Processof national integration can be secured only when ethnic identities would be givenadequate representation according to the constitution to decide their futurethemselves and opportunities to flourish their specific cultural identity. Ethnicidentities come into conflict when they face imbalance in the society. Economicresources should be judiciously distributed among different ethnic identities.Political system should have capability to articulate social capital on the properplace according to their intellectual level. System should have capability togenerate resources and to utilize these resources in the best interest of varioussegment of society. Political system should initiate various economic, social and

political measures to curb ethnic conflict.Key words: Ethnic diversity, prescribed limits, imbalance society, judiciously distributed,articulate social capitalIntroductionStratification and diversification with variegated dimensions and context, is an inboundmechanism of social fabric of a society and state. Different scholars studied this phenomenon

with different tools and methodologies. Some name ethnicity as minority, group1

, race, caste,class, inner and outer group. There are others who studied it in terms of insiders and outsiders,

the others, nationalities, aborigines, and immigrants2

. Ethnicity and ethnocentrism as a concepthave been of recent origin, though the phenomenon of ethnicity is not new.

After the nation building efforts of Bismarck and Garibaldi succeeded in Europe during the 19th

century, the European states were mainly considered mono-national states3

, where theinfluence of any sub-national ethnic group


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was largely neglected. After the end of Second World War, with numerous multinational and

multiethnic identities got independence.4

After getting independence from the clutches ofcolonial masters most of the post colonial states have faced the problem of ethnicity in one form

or the other ever since.5

In many cases ethnic assertion has assumed violent forms. Since theend of Cold War and the dissolution of Soviet Union, various centrifugal forces based upon

ethnicity, regionalism, sectarianism, etc. have manifested themselves as a substitute, forideology-based style of politics. Ethnicity in particular has sprung up as a most pronouncedpolitical phenomenon in post communist world. South Asian region is also no exception in this

regard.6

Western democracies as well as socialist states of Europe are plagued by ethnic, regional,

linguistic, religious and cultural minorities, old and new.7

Kazakhstan, Estonia, Armenia,Azerbaijan faced various ethnic conflicts being part of Soviet Union and in EastEurope different countries such as Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary and Yugoslavia faced

numerous problems8

and in non- communist world different states such as Nether land,

Belgium, Spain, Ireland Canada and America have been facing different ethnic problems.9

All these examples are a reminder that the problem of ethno-nationalism remains unsolved

despite the socialist or secular democratic political framework, which may otherwise have manyother achievements to their credit. Srilanka faced Sinhalese Tamil conflict

10

, India has been

facing Mezzo and Naga problem11

and Pakistan has faced the process of disintegration in formof separation of East Pakistan in 1971 in very short period of its independence. There werecertain reasons of this separation such as Bengalis were major portion of population of Pakistanbut their language was not given due status soon after creation of Pakistan. Bengalis resistedviolently when Urdu was declared as national language of Pakistan. Punjabi ruling elitedominated political scenario of Pakistan after 1947 and Bengalis felt they are just a colony ofWest Pakistan.Many countries of the world have been experiencing some sort of ethno dissonance

encompassing various level of intensity of politicized ethnicity.12

Even developed countries of the

world such as U.S.A and Britain do suffer with this phenomenon.13

However, it is not so muchconspicuous as it is in the developing countries of the world. There are many ethnic groups indifferent parts of the world, which have been demanded or demanding a separate province,state or region within the same country or greater autonomy for their existing province or a

separate and independent state.14

For instance the plight of Turkish community in Bulgaria,massacres and retaliatory mass killings and looting between Senegalese and Mauritanians, theexplosive situation in the Soviet Republic of Georgia, Armenia, Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict inPakistan 53


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Azerbaijan and Tajikistan etc.15

Britain which appeared to have achieved national integration toa high degree, the growing strength of Scottish and Welsh nationalist groups in pressing their

demand for greater autonomy in their respective regions is an open question.16

The Basquenationalists in Spain, the Eritrain in the Ethopia, the Kashmiris and Sikh in democratic andsecular India, the Moros of Philippines, the Tibetan insurrection in the Peoples Republic of

China. The list is endless and unfortunately a growing one. Pakistan too, has undergone theagonizing experience of a civil war resulting in the break up of country.Before going into detail it will not be out of context to define the concept of ethnicity.

Anthropologists describe ethnic as:A group possessing some degree of coherence and solidarity composed of people who are, or

at least latently, aware of having common origin and interests.17

According to CambridgeEncyclopedia:

It is group of individuals identified on the bases of race, colour, language and territory.18

According to Devos:An ethnic group is a self-perceived inclusion those who hold in common a set of traditions notshared by others with when they are in contact. Such traditions typically include folic, religiousbelief and practices, language, a sense of historical continuity and common ancestry or place of

origin.19

However the Encyclopedia Britannica described ethnic group in much more elaborateway:A social group or category of population that in a larger society is set apart and bound togetherby common ties of race, language, nationality or culture. As a general case, at the core of ethnicidentification are what have been termed as primordial affinities and attachments derived fromthe place of birth, kinship relationship, religion, language, and social practices that come naturalto an individual to attach himself to other individuals from the same background. These

attachments remain in the unconscious and can be rekindled by appropriate stimuli.20

One can define that ethnicity is a group of individuals living side by side but not interminglingwith each other. These people grouped together on the basis of territory, professions,languages, geography without conflicting with each other until and unless they are triggered to

do so. Ethnicity itself is not harmful for the existence of any state. The intensity of differentvariables creates contradictory point of view and hostile environment within the territory of anystate. For example in Balochistan Baloch do not feel comfortable with other ethnic identitiesbecause they feel that outsiders are a Gulshan Majeed54


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major source to deprive them from different economic social and political advantages. Balochoften come into conflict with other ethnic identities.Based on above given various definitions, it can be safely generalized that an ethnic group ischaracterized in terms of multiplicity of attributes such as religion, caste, region, language,nationality, race, colour and culture. One can derive some common characteristics of an ethnicgroup such as: collective name, common Myth of descent, shared history, distinctive shared

culture, association with a specific territory, sense of solidarity, shared language and commonreligion.It will not be out of context to give brief introduction of interactional pattern of different ethnicidentities with special reference of Pakistan since its creation till today. Some writers,intellectuals and religious elite believe that Pakistan was created on the basis of Islam, and

Islam as an ideological power dominates all socio-cultural barriers.21

Theoretically, it reflects thetruth because Muslims are one and during the freedom movement, the underlying objective was

to establish a state where Islamic ideology would prevail22

but immediately after partition thisideological support could not be provided and the tempo of the ideological fervour, which wasthe mobilization factor during the freedom movement it could not be kept at the peak in the postindependence period.

Since 1947, the society and state of Pakistan has been caught in the whirpool of divergent crosscutting social-political fiber. The country is fraught with multifarious problems of crucial andintricate nature but ethnicity has emerged as the most significant and delicate issue. Thedilemma before Pakistan has been to create a national identity out of diverse regional and

linguistic loyalities.23

Ideology was considered to be the suitable dough for the workable mouldof Pakistan, but ideas were frustrated when the socio-regional linguistic and racial realitiesbegan surfacing and ideological hegemony was being eroded. Therefore, ethnic identitiesemerged in 1948. The Bengalis became vocal and resorted agitational tactics when Urdu wasdeclared national language. Their contention was that the language of majority should beaccepted as national language, the students of Dhaka University took out procession in favourof their language and government instead of persuading them, opted for lathi-charge and

imprisonment of the protestors.24

This incident provided incentive to ethnic identities to re-

emerge. Bengalis were not happy even with Objective Resolution in 1949. The attitude ofreligious clergy towards the non Muslims minorities and especially on the issue of Ahmedies(in 1953 ulemas started protest against Ahmedis in Lahore and Punjab government gotassistance from Pakistan Army through federal government to get control over the situation ofLahore) opened a door for minorities to strengthen their cores and they demanded more rightsfor their existence. Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in Pakistan 55


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Political elite of different provinces, who were very important, but had lost their turfs afterpartition failed to reconcile with their displacement and as they were too weak to re-inforce theirpersonalities, they projected regional sentiments. Sindh Mutthida Mahaz, Jeay Sindh, BalochVerna, Pakhtun Zalmry and National Awami Party, these parochial parties became active inputting demands on political system of Pakistan for giving them provincial autonomy. Centralruling authority intentionally or unintentionally adopted such policies, which widened gulf

between East and West Pakistan. Ill planed economic strategies followed by the centralgovernment, kept East Pakistan under-developed. The door of the power structure (politico,administrative and military) was closed on the Bengalis on one pretext or the other. Forinstance, the era of Ayub Khan (1958-1969) especially harbored an ethnic bias. In this eratwenty two families controlled two-third of Pakistans industries assets, 80% of banking and 70%

of insurance companies, majority of them were from West Pakistan.25

Such kind of economicpolicies became a major source to create a sense of insecurity among Bengalis andconsequently, Sheikh Mujeeb presented Six-Point formula, which was ethnically triggered,politically mobilized and ethnically fuelled, brought serious upheavals. The elections of 1971remained unable to bridge the gulf between East and West Pakistan. These elections paved away for dismemberment process of Pakistan. East Pakistan emerged as an independent stateof Bangladesh.Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto who entered in the power parlour was unable to bridle the forces, which hehimself had unleashed. G.M Syed in Sindh, Mengals in Balochistan and Khan and Khataks inKhyber Pakhtun Khawa became more vocalists against the central ruling authority. Theprovincial political factions flared ethnicity. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto did not take the identitiesseriously. The germs of regionalism got fertile soil in Sindh. Karachi attracted the majority ofUrdu speaking people, who began to play a significant role in the economic life of the province,

displacing the local elite, who cultivated pro-sindh feelings among the local people.26

LocalSindhis began hating the urdu speaking. Baloch in Balochistan were not satisfied with thecentral ruling authority. Pathans were also dissatisfied with the federal government. General Zia

ul-Haq played a different game to deal with different ethnic identities. In Sindh he supportedUrdu speaking people to counter local Sindhis and PPP (Pakistan People Party). In Balochistan

he supported nationalist leaders through providing them advantages. Benazir Bhutto and NawazSharif government also remained unable to control the unleashed forces and situation becameworse by every passing day. General Pervez Musharraf launched various operations againstthe extremist elements (extremist elements are those elements who showed rigidity regardingstate internal as well as external policies) of society of Pakistan during his regime. President

Asif Ali Zardari government has been playing an important role to fight against terrorism.


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Here it is deemed necessary to highlight different factors which are a major source to give birthconflicts among different ethnic groups of Pakistan.

After the separation of East Pakistan it was thought that Pakistan might emerged as unifiedentity in South Asia. But it could not happen. The heterogeneous society of Pakistan remainedunable to evolve a viable and stable political system. Runaq Jahan aptly pointed out that

Pakistan emerged as a state but failed to create nationalism.27

Consequently ethnic identitiesvigorously re-emerged on the political scenario. Ethnic groups who were under represented feltgrievances and so they resisted, which resulted in conflicting situation. It is still continuingthough different governments devised various policies such as to provide opportunities todifferent ethnic groups to participate in policy making process but desired results could not beachieved.There are different variables which have been playing a vital role in generating more conflictingsituation in the country such as ethnic conflict on religious ground, ethnic conflict on the basis oflanguage, ethnic conflict on the basis of territoriality and ethnic conflict on the basis of caste.Ethnic Conflict on Religious GroundIn case of Pakistan it is truly stated that ruling elite remained unable to maintain ethnic identitiespositively. Political socialization and institutionalization of masses could not be brought-forth dueto less economic resources and their unequal distribution among different segments of society.

After the death of Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Prime Minister Khan Liaquat AliKhan, political leaders who assumed power were politically weak and could not develop strongdemocratic political system which was necessary for equal representation of all ethnic identitiesof Pakistan. Ruling elite not only military but civilian also exploited the differences amongdifferent religious groups for strengthening their power base. Religious groups such as Jamat-e-Islami and Jamiat-ul-ulema-e-Islam always got opportunity during military rule in restrictiveatmosphere to manipulate their identities. But religious leaders remained unable to devise acohesive policy for the well being of common people due to severe ideological differencesamong their ranks. In Pakistans peculiar circumstances, the differences between Shia andSunni (Shia and Sunni have differences over the performance of different rituals of Islam)preclude any possibility of the acceptance by the entire nation of a truly religious state with asingle religious ideology. Infact more the state regulates the lives of the people in religious

matter to suit its own requirement; the more are the Muslims religious minorities likely to resentand resist this move (Zias Islamic reforms created conflicting situation among Shia and Sunnisects). Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in Pakistan 57


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Even among the Sunni Blocs, sharp differences exist in religious beliefs and practices. Sub-blocs the most prominent of these being the Brelavi and Deobandi. These religious groups donot want to perform their religious practices at same place under same imam. Whenever theefforts have been made to bring them close to each other by the state or by religious Zealots,serious trouble has resulted.For preserving their own specific personal interests rulers pushed different religious groups into

war of sectarianism. Latent differences among different religious groups became explicit by thepolicies of General Zia-ul-Haq in 1977. General Zias era was an era of politico -religious

indoctrination, which widened gulf between Sunni and Shia groups.28

Sectarianism emergedmore forcefully in the era of General Zia. The organized gangs of sectarian thug by Sunni andShia sects were involved in sectarian violence and serial killings. This attitude created anatmosphere of unrest and polarization in the country in 1980s and 1990s.In a society likePakistan, which is heterogeneous in nature and homogeneous on the name of Islam, obviouslyIslam has significant role to play for creating balance among different ethnic groups. But religion

could not prove a binding force among different ethnic groups.29

Conflicts between Shia andSunni sects became order of the day during Zia regime. The role of Ulemas was very crucialbecause the people of both these sects have great affiliation with religion but with weak

knowledge about the basic principles of Islam they follow ulemas of their specific sect. Ulemaspropagated very narrow-minded creeds by which religious bigotry and fanaticism acquiredmilitate overtones. Sunni sect started to attack Imambarghas and Shia sect for settling scoreattack on the mosques of Sunni sect. Minor differences were there among Sunni and Shia sectand remained dormant most of the times but the policies of the government of General Zia togive preference to Sunni than Shia converted minor implicit conflicts into major explicit conflictswhich not only polluted the political environment of country but also widened the already existinggulf between Sunni and Shia. Religious leaders of Sunni and Shia group received economicassistance in form of funds and Zakat from foreign countries and they opened Madrassa and

enrolled thousand of students within the country as wellas from other countries.30

TheseMadrassas also trained these students militarily. These trained students played an importantrole during Afghan war in 1979. These militant groups of society started to pose serious threat

to the integrity of state. After 9/11 incident the government of Pakistan started to play asignificant role against war on terror. Musharraf regime formulated various policies to tackleextremist elements of society. Religious forces became active for achieving their specificobjectives. Suicide bombing created terror in the society of Pakistan. Law enforcement agencieshave been initiating different steps to control extremist elements of society.


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Ethnic Conflict On the Basis of Language.The politics of Pakistan is basically the politics of linguistic groups. Pakistan is a multilingualstate, where the Pakhtuns, Sindhi, Balochi, Punjabi, Mohajir and Siraiki identities are expressedthrough Pashto, Sindhi, Balochi, Punjabi, Urdu and Siraiki Languages. It is pertinent to mentionhere that ethnic identities of Pakistan adopted language factor as powerful tool for assertingtheir power and launched language movements for determining their identity. Language issue

created serious threat for the integrity of state particularly the Bengali language issue. Languagecan be unifying force, it can also awaken and sustain a community sense of its separate

existence as with other symbols of identities.31

The single issue, which caused the mostbitterness and the major factor for the alienation of Bengalis, was the language question. Theyinsisted on the recognition of Bengali as the national language along with Urdu. Bengalis werein majority but their demand to give their language the status of national language was ignored.This attitude of ruling elite created sense of Bengali nationalism. Later on status of nationallanguage was given to Bengali but existing gulf cannot be bridged and this gulf led towards theseparation of East Pakistan in 1971.Sindhi language is an important aspect of Sindhi identity in the presence of Urdu-speakingMohajirs. Sindhi is considered as an essential part of cultural heritage by Sindhi ethno-

nationalist.

32

Ethnic problem is highly important in Sindh where Sindhi, Mohajirs, Punjabis,Pathans, Baloch, and Gujrati are interacting with each other. These linguistic groups have beeninvolved in conflicting situation with each other on various occasions. Language riots broke outin sindh in 1972 as a result of challenging the dominance of Urdu. Sindhi nationalists becameactive in the politics of Sindh. During Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Regime Sindh Assembly passed a bill

declaring Sindhi as the official language of Sindh.33

Mohajirs demonstrated against the bill inKarachi and Hyderabad and serious riots erupted between Sindhi and Urdu speaking ethnicgroups. Government through issuing an ordinance in favour of Urdu diffused tension betweentwo groups.Balochi, Brahvi, Pashto are spoken by major ethnic groups in Balochistan. Baloch have beenfacing different problems since 1947. They perceive they have been deprived by the centralruling authority to preserve their specific identity. In 1972, Baloch felt a sigh of relief after having

their own government in the province of Balochistan. Baloch were hopeful that their languagewould get due status. But in 1972, the Governor of Balochistan , who was non other than thewell known Baloch nationalist, Ghaus Baksh Bizenjo declared Urdu as the language of official

correspondence and routine office work.34

It was done by the Baloch government to avoid anyconflicting situation between Baloch, Pathans and Brahvis. Language issue was exploited bythe Baloch politicians for securing maximum power. But Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in Pakistan 59


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they gave air to the hidden flames of distrust among major ethnic groups and sub groups.In Khyber Pakhtun Khawa majority of population speak Pashto. Pakhtun nationalists alwayssupported their language. Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan always used Pashto as an identity markereven in the days of pre-partition. NAP (National Awami Party) supported Pashto throughout theperiod of One Unit and during Yahya Khan Regime. But surprisingly, when NAP came intopower in 1972, it declared Urdu as official language of Khyber Pakhtun Khawa. Pathans did not

create so much trouble for the integrity of Pakistan due to language issue because Pakhtunshave become more prosperous and better integrated in the economic and power structure ofPakistan.Southern Punjab is known as the Siraiki area. The area is, on the whole, underdeveloped andthe Siraiki language movement started in the 1960s. Sense of ethnic nationalism emergedamong Siraiki speaking people due to injustice, lack of development, less access to power,goods and services. Siraiki-speaking people dislike or oppose distribution of Siraiki areas tonon-Siraikies. The sense of deprivation among Siraiki speaking in southern Punjab has led tothe assertion of a separate identity of which language is the most powerful symbol.Punjabis dominate political structure of Pakistan and being rulers give less importance toPunjabi than other ethnic identities.Ethnic Conflict On the Basis of Territoriality.

Territoriality has been another dominant cause for sowing seeds of conflicting situation amongdifferent ethnic groups of different regions of Pakistan. Issues like distribution of economicresources through NFC (National Finance Commission), water-sharing problem betweenprovinces and dominant position of one ethnic group at the power structure created a sense ofalienation among deprived ethnic identities.The basic structure of Pakistan is that of a federation comprising federating units (calledprovinces). After 9 years the constitution of 1956 was framed. The 1956 constitution had 3 lists

of powers such as federal, provincial and concurrent.35

This constitution remained unable toresolve the problem of provincial autonomy because people of East Pakistan and deprivedprovinces of west Pakistan were not happy with Punjabi domination. The 1962 constitutionprovided for a presidential form of government. The provincial governors performed theirfunctions according to the expectations of central ruling authority and created a sense of

alienation among the people of both wings. Ill planned economic and political strategies followedby the central ruling elite kept under developed to different ethnic identities. Gulshan Majeed60


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Particularly Bengalis were not happy with the policies of central ruling authority. The constitution

of 1973 had a federal and concurrent list leaving the residuary powers to provinces.36

Concurrent list has been abolished by the Pakistan Peoples Party government. The mainintention of government is to create a strong sense of responsibilities on the part of provincesthat they have authority to manage their affairs themselves. Federal government should try totake into confidence the government of different provinces regarding formulation process ofvarious domestic and external policies. It has been observed that whenever central governmentfinds that the policies of any province not compliance with the center, it dismisses thegovernment of that province as it was done in case the government of NAP in Balochistan by

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.37

Political stability, peace, harmony and unity can be achieved throughremoval of sense of deprivation among various ethnic groups and it is only possible if there iseconomic equilibrium at national as well as at regional level and all the economic fruits of growthare equitably distributed among all the ethnic groups without making any kind of discrimination.Ethnic groups come into conflict when they are deprived from basic necessities of life. Ithappens when a particular group becomes successful to have authority at the helm of the affairsand formulates policies in the best interests of their own specific group by ignoring other ethnicgroups. Ultimately deprived group resists against such policies and this resistance can be in

form of violent conflicting situation. For instance, during Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto era Sindhis becamesuccessful to have more facilities than Urdu speaking Mohajirs in the province of Sindh. Thesemoves created tussle between Sindhis and Mohajirs. Economic resources should be allocatedaccording to the pressing needs of ethnic groups of different regions. National Financecommission is the constitutional organ for the allocation of state revenues among the federationand units. Smaller provinces were not happy regarding allocation of resources based on thepercentage of population of each unit. Small provinces used to feel a sense of deprivation, whenPunjab having large population achieved more resources than Sindh , Khyber Pakhtun Khawaand Balochistan. Pakistan Peoples Party government altered the formula to allocate resourcesamong province on the basis of population.

Another irritant, which becomes cause of conflict among different ethnic groups of Pakistan, isdomination of one province or one specific ethnic group at the power structure. Ruling elite

always followed the policy of centralization of power instead of decentralization. Pakistan had toface disintegration process due to this policy.Ethnic Conflict on the basis of Caste.In caste tained Pakistan, the biradary system is strong and deep rooted. The Arains of Toba TekSingh, the Makhdoom of Hala and Chaudhris of Gujrat Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in Pakistan 61


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would vote for their own Kith and Kin. There is a chain of main castes and sub-castes. For thetime being different caste groups become dormant but again emerge with new name. Caste based conflicts usually can be observed during the elections. Caste system not only dominatesrural politics but also the politics of urban areas.Electoral process is one of the major variables that can contribute in determining the role ofdifferent castes groups in politics. In the countryside collective clan voting has a huge impact on

election result. During the elections attempts are made to add fuel to fire of ethnic conflicts.Eminent members of different ethnic groups are assassinated in order to sabotage the electionprocess. Instead of discouraging this trend, some politicians extract political mileage out of itand as a consequence give further depth to the roots of ethnic hatred. Caste system plays animportant role in the politics of Pakistan than the political parties. Generally it can be stated thatwith the working of political parties ethnic groups are assimilated in the main stream of thesociety. In Pakistan political parties are vehicle of the castes to obtain power. Political partiesissue party tickets to those candidates who belong to dominant caste. In all Pak istans nationalelections it can be observed that caste system has been effectively hegemonic not only in ruralareas but in urban centers too. People of a specific caste cast their vote to the candidate who isfrom their specific caste without analyzing the manifesto of relative candidate. Caste system isone of the major sources to give birth tension among different segments of society.

ConclusionInterethnic group conflict in Pakistan, has destabilized the political system and underminefoundations of the state. The inter-tribal conflict in the tribal areas, the Sindhi and non-Sindhiviolent conflict in Sindh, Shia-Sunni cruel and regressive activities have become a norm ofPakistani society. No doubt the decision makers try their level best to diffuse the situation,control violence and minimize conflicts, but the strategies and policies, formulated andimplemented in the country fall short of achieving the objectives. In many ways the policiesbackfired and the situation was aggravated to a point of insecurity. Whenever escalation takesplace the government and agencies try their utmost to deescalate the conflict. The ethnicimbalance demanded the society a lot is to be done. Gulshan Majeed62


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References1

Peter ,David et.al., Second Thought About Race In America, London, Madison Books, 1991,p.127-28.2

Marvin, Ronald et.al., Racism and the Denial of Human Rights: Beyond Ethnicity, Minneapolis,MEP Publication, 1984, p.1303

Parmatma, Saran et.al., The New Ethnic Asian Indians in the United States, New York,Praeger Publishers, 1980, p.8.4

Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism, New York, Pluto Press, 1990, p.2.5

Ibid, p.56

Raymond L. Hall, Ethnic Autonomy Comparative Dynamics the American, Europe and theDeveloping World, New York, Pergamon Press, 1979, p.xviii7

S.Haroon Ahmed, Contemporary Conflicts, Karachi, Pakistan Psychiatric, 1991, p.918

Ibid, p.929

Ibid, p.9110

N.Seavaratnam,The Tamil National Question and the Indo-Seri Lanka Accord, Delhi, Konark

Publishers, 1989, p.2811

Imtiaz Ahmed,et.al., Pluralism and Equality Values in Indian Society and Politics , New Delhi,Sage Publication, 2000, p.18212

Op.cit Ramond L.Hall, p.xxv13

Op.cit Thomas Hylland Eriksen, p.314

Dr. Inayatullah, Politics of Ethnicity and Separatism in South Asia, University of the PunjabLahore, Centre for South Asian Studies, 1997, p.115

Ibid, p.316

Op.cit Thomas Hylland eriksen, p.417

Op.cit Imtiaz Ahmed, Parthas Ghosh, Helmit Reifled,(eds) p.18118

E. Ellis Cashmore, Dictionary of Ethnicity: Race and Ethnic Relations, London, Routledge &Kegan Paul, 1988, p.9719

David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia, London, Cambridge University Press, 1991,p.42120

Feroz Ahmed, Ethnicity, State and national Integration in Asian SurveyVolxx, 6 June 1984,p.26821

Ibid, p.26722

Mohammad Aslam Syed, Islam and Democracy in Pakistan, Islamabad, National Institute ofhistorical and Cultural Research, 1995, p.12523

Ibid, p.12624 Op.cit, Mohammad Aslam Syed, p.12825

Javeed Ahmad, Pakistans Political, Economic & Diplomatic Dynamics, Lahore, Studio 4,1999, p.12926

Mohammad waseem, Politics and State in Pakistan, Islamabad, National Institute of historicaland Cultural Research, 1994, p.26227

Manzooruddin ahmad, Contemporary Pakistan Politics, Economy and society, Lahore, Royal

Book Company, 1982, p.209 Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in Pakistan 63


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28

Rounaq Jahan, Pakistan: Failure in National Integration, New York, Columbia UniversityPress, 1972, p.429

Musa khan Jalalzai, Sectarianism and Politico- Religious Terrorism in Pakistan, Lahore,Tarteeb Publishers, 993, p.16430

Ali,Myron.et.al,The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan,

Lahore, Vanguard Books (PVT) Ltd, 1987, p.27831

Ahmad Rasheed, The Taliban: Exporting Terrorism in Current Affairs Digest, Book 92 April2002, p.10532

Mohammad Waseem, Ethnic Conflict in Pakistan: The Case of MQM, in PakistanDevelopment Review Vol.34 No 4, 1996, p.62033

Tariq Rehman, Language and Politics in Pakistan, Karachi, Oxford University Press, 1996,p.11234

Rasool Bakhsh Rais, State Society and democratic Change in Pakistan, Karachi, OxfordUniversity Press, p.14935

Op.cit, Tariq Rehman, p.16636

Ghulam. W Chaudhary, Pakistan Transition from Military to Civilian Rule, England, ScorpionPublishing Ltd, 1998, p.18737

Ibid, p.19038

M.Nazrul Islam, Pakistan A Study in National Integration, Lahore, Vanguard Books (PVT) Ltd, 1990,

p.53

ethnicity and ethnic conflict in pakistan

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