ethiopian education research on education

Enhancing Active Learning through Teachers’

Peer and self Reflections in Selected Primary

Schools in Ethiopia

Research Team

Asmaru Berihun, Ministry of EducationAdane Tesera, Bahir Dar University

Daniel Desta, Addis Ababa university

Africa- Asia University Dialogue for Basic Education Development

Center for the Study of International Cooperation in Education CICE

Hiroshima University

13 March 2006

Africa- Asia University Dialogue for Basic Education Development Center for the Study of International Cooperation in Education CICE Hiroshima

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Enhancing Active Learning through Teachers’ Peer and

self Reflections in Selected Primary Schools in Ethiopia

Background

Providing quality primary education for all school age children by the

year 2015 is a commitment of many countries. To achieve this goal

special emphasis has been given to the question of access in quite

many cases. The commitment to achieve the goal is not limited to

provision of access. It is also a concern for quality education. The

Ethiopian Education system with the New Education and Training Policy

(TGE, 1994) and consecutive Education Sector Development Programs

(ESDP I and ll) has made significant efforts to creating access to

thousands of children. Consequently, the primary enrollment has

increased dramatically. However, the quality of students’ learning has

been a challenge.

The problem of quality in primary education has become a serious

concern of the government, educators and teachers.

The problems in quality could be related to input factors like student-

teacher ratio, student-text book ratio, teachers’ qualification, etc.

However, of the most important factors that may be responsible to

learning quality could relate to the way the teaching-learning process

occurs, the extent to which teachers examine their own practice of

teaching, how much school supervision is directed towards helping

them improve instruction and making the learning process active and

learner centered are some to mention. Accordingly, the quality of the

Enhancing Active Learning through Teachers’ Peer and self Reflections in Selected Primary

Schools in Ethiopia 2


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teaching learning process can be improved can be improved by a

multiple of interventions. Along wit those input factors, teachers can be

assisted to improve their practices through school based – collegial and

collaborative supervision. Involving teachers in action research can

also be another important means of improving teaching and learning.

In

this respect, teachers can also be supported through peer assessment

based feedback. Most important complementary move to peer

assessment is self-reflection of once practice as a measure of

improving the quality if teaching and learning. This is based on the

assumption that the more teachers make their classrooms and their

teaching practices open to peer observation and assessment, the

better the lesson they obtain to improve their practice and thus,

improved student learning. Student centered learning would

encourage active participation in their lessons which in turn would

have positive contributions to develop abilities for creative thinking,

problem solving and relating learning to real life experiences thereby

achieving the envisaged goal of schooling. This can be more

consolidated when a teacher is ready to engage in a continuous

professional reflection on his/her own practice. Moreover, peer

assessment would further enhance the professional development of

teachers which have greater contribution to active learning and quality

education.

The present study focuses on making an intervention to enhance

active learning through the employment of teachers’ peer assessment

and personal reflections of their lessons.

Statement of the problem




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Despite the strong criticisms on the conventional teacher based

approach in education, the teaching leaning process in most schools in

Ethiopia has persisted to be teacher dominated. Most classes are

characterized by a situation where students are made to listen to their

teachers and copy notes from the blackboard. Learning by doing,

problem solving, cooperative learning and group approaches are

limited. Consequently, there is a widely shared concern that the quality

of learning in schools is very low.

The Education Sector Development Program III (2005) underlines that

the education system faces serious problems pertaining to teacher

qualification, shortage of text books, and high student-teacher ratio.

The dropout rate has been high. The survival rate at grade 5 is only

about 55 per cent. In addition to this, there is a wide gender gap of

18% favoring boys. Moreover, research findings, Pauline and et al,

1997; a study by Women’s Affairs Department, 2000, indicate lower

participation of girls in class activities. Studies also indicate that

teachers do not encourage girls’ participation in their classes. These

situations have lead to a serious concern among educators and the

ministry of education about quality of education.

The Ministry of Education has reacted to this situation in different

ways. The Ministry in its Education Sector development program III (ESDPIII

20005/20006/- 2010/2011) document indicates the following main points as part of

quality enhancement endeavors:

In the School Improvement Program among the major focus areas student –centered learning, professional development and collaboration and quality of instructional program.

Improvising teachers professional capability in continuous professional development




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Strengthening Cluster based local in service training mainly focus on active learning methodology action research, etc.

Strengthening In-school-supervision so that experienced, skilled and innovative teachers can share their experiences and coach the inexperienced teachers. It further indicates that the content of pre-service and in-service teachers training programs will be revised to enable teachers acquire and develop appropriate pedagogical skills that are academically sound, child friendly, and gender sensitive together with individual life skills which takes into account the current HIV crises.

To this end, this study is timely and will have positive contribution to the implementation the policy statement in to action (ESDPIII August 2005 MOE).

Concerning active learning, the extent teachers understand the

concept and the skills they have to implement it are essential

conditions. Moreover, the quality and amount of feed back teachers

get on their own teaching, the extent of their readiness to accept

constructive comments of their peers on their teaching are issues that

are subject for investigation. Moreover, the practice of self reflection

and making continuous effort to improve once own work (teaching) is

not visible in the schools. Hence, this study is designed to assess the

role of teachers’ peer assessment and self reflections in enhancing

active learning in selected primary schools in Ethiopia. The study also

attempts to develop workable mechanisms for self reflection and peer

assessment practices in order to enhance active learning.

Research questions

1. What is the teachers conception of active learning?

2. To what extent are the students actively involved in the learning

process? Are there differences between boys and girls in class

participation?




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3. What role do teachers’ peer assessment and self-reflections play

in improving teachers’ instructional skills to enhance active

learning?

Objectives

The study is aimed at:

identifying the gap between teachers’ perception of active

learning and their practice

introducing peer assessment and self reflection practices among

teachers in primary schools

developing workable mechanisms for self reflection and peer

assessment practices in order to enhance active learning in

schools

Review of Related Literature

Active learning

The theoretical framework of the proposed research is grounded in the constructivist’s perspective and assumptions about learning. Active learning, one of the main concepts in this research, refers to a situation where "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences. Active learning environments simply mean students taking an active role in their learning, and instructors moving beyond teacher-centered “instruction,” coming to see themselves along with their students as part of a learning community. The instructor provides collaborative learning experiences, encouraging multiple perspectives in problem solving. Such diversity allows learners to develop new ideas and understanding in conversations and increase retention. Broadly speaking, active learning refers to a methodology that requires the learner to take responsibility for his or her learning through active participation in learning activities. In this methodology, students are engaged in higher-order thinking skills as analysis, synthesis and




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evaluation to build, test and revise their knowledge. Gagnon and Collay have summarized six important elements: Situation, Groupings, Bridge, Questions, Exhibit, and Reflections as central for active learning.

1. Situation: that enable children solve problems, answering questions, create metaphors, make decisions, draw conclusions, or set goals. This situation should include what you expect the students to do and how students will make their own meaning. The work of Duckworth (1987) describes situations to engage students in having their own wonderful ideas about science, Steffe and Ambrosio (1995) use situations for students to explain in math, and Fosnot (1996) provides similar examples from writing and art.

2. Groupings: depending on the teacher’s expectations and the types of resources students are provided. Schmuck and Schmuck (1988) introduced group process dynamics to classrooms, and heterogeneous groupings are common to the cooperative learning work of Johnson and Johnson (1975) or Slavin (1980a). The materials category is often included in lesson plans.

3. Bridge: between what they already know and what they might learn by explaining the situation. This might involve such things as giving them a simple problem to solve, having a whole class discussion, playing a game, or making lists. This has some grounding in the set induction described by Gagne (1970), the anticipatory set of Madeline Hunter (1982) and the advanced organizer of Ausubel (1978).

4. Questions: guiding questions to be used to introduce the situation, to arrange the groupings, to set up the bridge, to keep active learning going, to prompt exhibits, and to encourage reflections. There is precedence in Bloom's (1956) taxonomy of educational objectives in the cognitive domain which led to higher level thinking questions, Sanders' (1966) work on kinds of classroom questions, and Flanders' (1970) work describing classroom questioning strategies.

5. Exhibit: involves having students make an exhibit for others of whatever record they made to record their thinking as they were explaining the situation. The work of Theodore Sizer (1973) and the coalition for essential schools includes an exhibition as part of the learning process. The passages of the Jefferson County Open School in Colorado and the validations of the St. Paul Open School in Minnesota put into practice authentic assessment approaches from a variety of




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sources including Wiggins (1995). Documentation from Engel (1994), portfolios from Carini (1986), and alternative assessment from the North Dakota Study Group on Evaluation led by Perrone (1988) encouraged teachers to move from testing memorization of information to demonstration of student learning.

6. Reflections: students' reflections of what they thought about while explaining the situation and then saw the exhibits from others. We see earlier work in Hunter's (1982) description of "transfer," the work of Schon (1987) about reflective practice of teachers, which also applies to student learning, reflection about learning through journaling as described by Cooper (1991), and Brookfield's (1986) work on critical reflection. These precedents provide a theoretical framework for a constructivist learning design.

Teacher Self- and Peer reflection and Active learning

Reflective practice is a vehicle that allows teachers the ability to explore, contemplate, and analyze experiences in the classroom. Reflecting on experiences helps individuals improve their actions and professional practice (Kolb, 1984; Schön,1983). According to Osterman and Kottkamp (1993, p. 19), “reflective practice is a means by which practitioners can develop a greater level of self-awareness about the nature and impact of their performance.” This awareness of one’s performance makes individuals think about and mull over their experiences, classroom activities, and assignments, leading to improved practice.

Teachers use reflection to facilitate their own learning as well as for the facilitation of students’ learning. According to Sch ö n (1983, 1987), reflective practice is the integration of theory and practice, a critical process in refining one’s artistry or craft in a specific discipline and bringing to the conscious level those practices that are implicit. Schön further describes the reflective practitioner as not just skillful or competent, but thoughtful, wise, and contemplative. Two types of reflection facilitate professionals’ learning: reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action (Schön, 1983, 1987). Reflection-in-action occurs during the activity; the activity is reshaped while in progress. Reflection-on-action occurs either following an activity or when an activity is interrupted, a retrospective thinking about an experience. According to Kottkamp (1990), reflection-on-action takes place after an




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activity and an analysis with the potential assistance of others. Reflection-on-action brings about an understanding of practice and is a way practitioners may learn from their experience (Clarke, James, & Kelly, 19960) Schön (1991) identified three stages or levels of reflection: conscious reflection, criticism, and action. Boud et al. (1985) presented a four-stage model of reflection: analyze, interpret information, prepare an evaluation report, and prepare an action plan. The four-stage model focused on the behaviors, ideas, and feelings that comprise experience. Atkins and Murphy (1993) conducted a literature review of educational theorists that analyzed processes of reflection. Based on the commonalities of the authors cited, Atkins and Murphy developed a three-stage reflective process that included awareness, critical analysis, and reflection.

Peters (1991) described a four-step process called DATA: describe, analyze, theorize, and act. In the first step, the critical aspect of practice was described. The second step included the identification of assumptions that supported practitioners’ current approaches and underlying beliefs, rules, and motives governing teaching and learning. In the third step, practitioners theorized about alternative ways to approach learning, taking theory developed from the previous step, and creating a new theory. In the fourth step, the practitioner tested the new theory. Success of this process would occur only through additional thought and reflection.

The reflective cycle by Rodgers (2002) encompassed Dewey’s (1933) conception of reflective thought. Rodgers illustrates reflection as a cyclical process comprised of four phases:

1. Presence in experience: learning to see 2. Description of experience: learning to describe and differentiate 3. Analysis of experience: learning to think from multiple

perspectives and form multiple explanations 4. Experimentation: learning to take intelligent action

According to Rodgers, practitioners move forward and backward through the reflective cycle, especially between description and analysis.

. Teachers reflect because they want to improve their teaching experiences and the learning experiences for students. A number of researchers state the importance of reflective practice. As a result of




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engaging in a reflective process, individuals acquire knowledge and understanding (Clarke et al., 1996; Schön, 1983), learn from their experiences (Kolb, 1984; Schön, 1983), apply knowledge to practice while being coached by professionals in the discipline (Schön, 1996), and explore assumptions they bring to the workplace (Brookfield, 1995). As reflective practitioners, teachers gain a deeper understanding of their teaching approaches and effectiveness as teachers.

The critical self reflection of teachers would be enhanced by peer observation and reflection. Conducting observations on peer classes and engaging in critical conversations is another important tool in promoting active learning. When discussing events teachers have experienced, colleagues describe what has happened benefits the teacher being observed; and at the same time they examine their own experiences and check, reframe, and broaden their own theories of practice. Reflection within one’s classroom is the first step of the reflection process but should not be the final step. When teachers discuss their experiences with others, the reflection process enhances their own individual practice (Bruner, 1990).

Summative evaluation rarely provides sufficient information to teachers forimproving teaching. In recent years, in fact, time-honored practices of faculty evaluation have been rather harshly criticized.

In response to this, scholars have recommended that --assessment specifically designed to improve teaching--be put into place alongside, but apart from, summative evaluation. Other scholars have suggested that formative peer-assessment, a process in which work collaboratively to assess each others' teaching and to assist one another in efforts to strengthen teaching, be developed and implemented. Collaborative peer review probably should include opportunities to teachers to learn how to teach more effectively, to practice new teaching techniques and approaches, to get regular feedback on their classroom performance, and to receive coaching from colleagues (Menges 1985). The thrust, thus, is developmental rather than judgmental.A number of methods have been employed in formative peer evaluation. They include direct classroom observation,, evaluation of course materials, an assessment of the academic work of his students, and analysis of teaching portfolio .The following have been




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identified as events occurring during delivery that should be focused at .by knowledgeable colleagues.

1.Physical factors2. The procedures used by the teacher in conducting the class;3. The teacher's use of language to inform, explain, persuade, and motivate4. The roles played by teacher and students as they interact;5. The relationship of what is occurring in a particular class to other classes, 6. The outcomes of teaching, as reflected in student learning methods (1987).

Scholars have suggested that a number of personal and institutional benefits might be realized from teachers participation in the formative peer evaluation of teaching. These include improvement teaching, teachers’ morale, collegiality and student learning.

Methodology

Research design

Both Qualitative and Quantitative approaches shall be employed for

conducting the study. A total of six primary schools (2 urban and four

rural) shall be selected from Amhara and Oromia regions for purpose of

convenience. In each of the six schools, one section shall be selected

from grades 4 and 7 in each school. A total of 12 sections, with 6 male

and 6 female teachers teaching science subjects shall be involved.

Instruments

Observations, interviews, questionnaires and focus group discussions

shall be used to collect data. One pre-intervention observation and

three post intervention observations will be conducted in each of the




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12 sections. General school observation shall also be conducted. The

principals of the six schools shall be interviewed on the overall

situation of the school. Two interviews shall be conducted with each of

the 12 teachers. The first interview shall be conducted before the

intervention whereas the second interview takes place after the

intervention. One focus group discussion each consisting of 7 members

shall be conducted in each school. Moreover, one focus group

discussion of parents (community members) shall be conducted in

each school. In each school, twenty teachers and 50 students shall be

involved in completing questionnaires. The questionnaires aim at

collecting data regarding teachers’ conception of active learning, self

reflection as well as peer reflection. Students’ questionnaire shall be

administered twice i.e.; before and after the intervention activities.

Students’ questionnaires focus on gathering data concerning how

active learning takes place in their respective classrooms. Relevant

documents and reports on the subject under investigation shall also be

consulted.

Procedures

The study shall follow the following procedures concerning the data

collection and implementation of intervention.

1. Selecting 8 schools from four larger regions

2. Visiting the schools and conducting consultative discussions with

teachers and principals

3. Developing interview schedules, observation checklists,

questionnaires, etc;

4. Translating instruments in to local languages

5. Developing manuals for field work




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6. Piloting and selecting teachers whose classrooms shall be

observed and interventions shall be made

7. Conducting class and school observations I (pre-

intervention); Conducting interviews (teachers, principals);

Conducting focus group discussions of teachers

8. Identifying training needs/gaps

9. Developing training materials

10. Selecting and training teachers that conduct peer

assessment

11. Conducting peer class observation I

12. Organizing reflections meeting I

13. Conducting peer class observation II

14. Organizing reflections meeting II

15. Conducting peer class observation III

16. Organizing reflections meeting III

17. Post-intervention interview with teachers

Data Analysis

Appropriate statistical package shall be employed for the analysis of

quantitative data. The qualitative data shall be analyzed by using

themes and categories for making comparisons and contrast.

Work Plan

This project shall be conducted in six phases in about two years period

Phase I (April 2006-September 2006)




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– Discussions with the Ministry of Education, JICA country

office, UNESCO national office, and conducting Kick-off

meeting(s) involving different stakeholders

– Review of related literature and developing conceptual

framework of the study

– School visits and preliminary consultative discussions

Phase II (October 2006-December 206)

– Developing research instruments

– Developing training materials

– Translating instruments in to local languages

– Piloting of instruments

Phase III (January 2007- June 2007)

– Conducting class observation I (pre-intervention)

– Conducting training of teachers on active learning, self

reflections and peer assessment

– Conducting peer class observation I and organizing

reflection meeting I

– Conducting peer class observation II and organizing

reflection meeting II

– Conducting peer class observation III and organizing

reflection meeting III

Phase IV (July 2007- October 2007)

– Analysis and writing draft report

Phase V (November- December 2007)




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– Discussion of preliminary findings at school level and

gathering comments; integrating the comments

– Workshop/conference

– Writing final report

Phase VI (January-February 2008)

– Developing action plan to scale up the intervention

activities

Expected Outcome of the Project

This research project has been designed with aim of addressing issues related quality of teaching and learning in selected primary schools in Ethiopian. Specifically, the research project attempts to investigate in to the conditions of active learning and seek mechanisms to promote it through self and peer reflections of teachers. The findings of the study shall have multiple of outcomes.

Primary school teachers shall develop clear conceptions about active learning and its implementation in the classroom.

Teachers shall appreciate and employ peer and self reflection practices in their teaching.

Students (both boys and girls) shall have improved participation in class activities; and hence better learning.

The positive outcomes of the project shall be replicated in other schools.

School-University and policy makers links and interactions shall be enhanced towards development of basic education

The Asia-Africa Universities network and dialogue in promoting basic education shall be strengthened




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References

Ausubel, D. (1978). In defense of advance organizers: A reply to the critics. Review of Educational Research, 48, 251-259.

Bloom, Benjamin. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.

Brookfield, Stephen. (1986) Understanding and facilitating adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cooper, Joanne. (1991) Telling our own stories: The reading and writing of journals or diaries. In Stories Lives Tell, (eds. Witherell, C. & Noddings, N.) New York: Teachers College Press.

Duckworth, Eleanor. (1987) The having of wonderful ideas. New York: Teachers College Press.

Engel, Brenda. (1994) Portfolio assessment and the new paradigm: New instruments and new places. The Educational Forum, 59 (Fall, 94) 22-27. Flanders, N. (1970) Analyzing teacher behavior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Ministry of Education ( 2005) ESDPIII. Addis Ababa

Fosnot, Catherine. (1996) Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice. New York: Teachers College Press.




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Gagne, Robert. (1970) The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. . Hunter, Madeline. (1982) Mastery Learning. El Segundo, CA: TIP Publications. Johnson, David and Johnson, Roger. (1975) Learning together and alone. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Perrone, Vito. (1988). Alternative assessment. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Sanders, Norris. (1966). Classroom questions: what kinds?. New York: Harper & Row.Schmuck, Richard. & Schmuck, Pat. (1988) Group processes in the classroom. Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown.Schon, David. (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Slavin, R. E. (1980a). Cooperative Learning. Review of educational research, 50, 317-343.Sizer, Theodore. (1992) Horace's school: redesigning the American

high school. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.



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