ethics, trust and expectations

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International Journal of Hospitality Management

Volume 23, Issue 5, December 2004, Pages 523-544

2003 Review Issue

doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2004.02.005 | How to Cite or Link Using DOI

Copyright 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

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Ethics, trust and expectations regarding the treatment of disabled staff within a

tourism/hospitality industry context

Glenn F. Ross ,

School of Business, Tourism Program, Cairns Campus, James Cook University, Cairns 2004,

Australia

Available online 9 July 2004.

Abstract

Whilst it has long been recognized that disabled employees can be the recipients of

discrimination in the workplace, occasioned by many factors including physical appearance,

relatively little is known regarding the ethical conceptualizations, trust responses and also

problem-solving architecture that potential employees bring to such contexts, particularly in

service industries such as tourism/hospitality. This study has examined discrimination shown to a

disabled hospitality industry employee within an ethical framework, investigating personal

ethical beliefs, individual ethical influences upon behaviour and also perceived managementproblem-solving response influences in the face of disability discrimination. The study has been

conducted among a sample of university management students in a major Australian tourism

destination, many of whom on graduation would seek employment within the tourism/hospitality

industry.

Three personal ethical belief types were identified: equity or procedural justice, competence and

integrity, with both competence and integrity ethics being regarded as of higher value than

equity. Major individual ethical influences included one's own values and also those of the

ambient society; the most highly rated perceived management response involved the protection

of company image whereas the least expected involved a management perspective focusing on

justice of all people involved in the ethical dilemma.

The competence ethical belief was found to predict the individual who would be influenced by a

legal perspective; the justice for all management perspective was employed as a measure of

respondent trust in management, with analyses revealing that the competence ethical belief, the

career and societal influences and also gender being found associated with lower levels oftrust

in management's willingness to respond to disability discrimination in a just manner. The

protection of company image as a management response, employed as a measure of mistrust,

was associated with integrity personal ethical values, and also with career, societal and own
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ethical influences upon responses to an incident of disability discrimination. Implications for

future research in this domain together with implications for the tourism/hospitality industry are

examined.

Author Keywords: Disabled employees; Discrimination; Ethical values; Trust ;

Tourism/hospitality management

Article Outline

1. Introduction

1.1. Ethical decision-making

1.2. Ethics and tourism

1.3.Trust

2. Method

2.1. Subjects

2.2. Measures

3. Results

4. Discussion5. Conclusions

References

1. Introduction

Furnham (1997) has found that a major cause of work stress can be the frustration of reasonable

career development expectations. When a worker attempts to obtain a position for which he or

she is qualified and suitable, and is prevented from doing so by reason of prejudice and

discrimination, then frustration and stress are typically experienced.Van Hoof et al. (1996) have

made the point that workplace discrimination may be understood as a process wherein

preferential treatment is afforded to members of certain groups or one particular group at theexpense of other groups of individuals. They suggest that such a practice is not only unlawful

and personally destructive, but also that it makes no sense. Holding negative stereotypes in

regard to particular groups, whether they be cultural, gender, age or physical ability groups, can

result in the rejection of able, well-motivated and valuable workers who hold the potential to

become distinct assets to the organization and the industry. Van Hoof et al. go on to suggest that

discriminatory practices against various groups may be understood within an ethical context;

indeed they characterize such discrimination by means of ethical precepts such as inequality,

unfairness and the denial of equal opportunities; they would further argue that an appropriate

method by which such behaviour may be conceptualized and investigated is by way of an ethical

perspective.

There is within many industries such as the tourism/hospitality industry an awareness of the

ever-present possibility of discrimination. Commentators such as Lucas (1993) and Warr

(1995) have averred to the discrimination often faced by older workers; Wood (1994) has written

of the power of factors such as social class, gender and ethnicity in the perpetuation of

discrimination in employment practices within the hospitality industry.Tharenou (2001) has

suggested that, despite the perceived advances made by women in the workplace, many still

report encountering discrimination in contexts such as the promotion process. Those workers
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with physical disabilities also encounter such barriers.Peterson and Gonzalez (2000) report that

career development can often be restricted or blocked altogether for those employees with a

physical disability. It is also the case that previous workplace limitations experienced by these

individuals can result in fewer social and vocational opportunities. Moreover, Springer

(2001) would suggest that such a group of people is not small in number, with almost 20% of the

adult population reporting some form of disablement.There is a yet more subtle form of physical discrimination that can manifest itself within service

industries, particularly in areas such as the appointment of staff to positions dealing directly with

the public. Schultz and Schultz (2002) describe a physical discrimination based upon physical

attractiveness, termed beautyism, wherein those regarded as more physically attractive are

deemed to possess more desirable personal and social traits, to be more sociable, dominant and

mentally healthy than less physically attractive people. Such a bias, they point out, can lead to

clear cases of discrimination, inappropriate appointment and the loss of competent and well-

motivated staff who do not fit the stereotype of physical attractiveness. Again, such acts of

discrimination may be regarded as not only causing distress and harm to the recipients of this

behaviour, but also impoverishing the organization when competent and dedicated staff are not

appointed to a position for spurious reasons.

Baum (1995) has suggested that the demographic structures in many western countries is now in

the process of major change, and that the ongoing decline of the youth population will have a

major influence on recruitment within the tourism/hospitality industry. This shrinkage in the

traditional pool of cheap and flexible labour means that previously ignored or underutilized

groups, such as individuals with a physical disability are regarded as more likely to be deemed

suitable for employment. Baum suggests that such groups should be afforded a number of basic

rights, such as the provision of clear and public criteria for promotion and access to career

development which in no way discriminates on the basis of factors such as a physical disability.

Baum would regard the provision of such rights as falling within a sustainable perspective of

industry employment that makes no assumptions about a staff member based upon status,gender, race, educational background or physical disability. He concludes that any organization

that does not contain the ability to recognize the potential for growth in every individual will not

function effectively and therefore not be sustainable within the industry.

Whilst there are now a growing number of studies addressing the topic of disability from the

perspective of the employer, the organization and the industry (e.g. Kreismann and Palmer,

2001;Lee, 1996; Cleveland et al., 1997; Jen-Gwo Chen and He Zesheng, 1997), relatively few

studies have examined this issue by way of an employee perspective (e.g. den Uijl and

Bahlmann, 2002; Konur, 2002). One investigation that has attempted such an approach among

those individuals currently in training for employment was that ofLoo (2001), who examined

attitudes of management undergraduates toward people with disability: Loo makes the point that

such a population will likely be the next generation of professionals and managers who hire andwork with employees with disabilities. He has found that whilst respondents did generally

express a complex array of attitudes toward the disabled, a number of attitudes were found to be

negative and potentially discriminatory; it was concluded that a need clearly exists to sensitize

many management students to issues regarding the abilities and employment potential of people

with disabilities.
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&_ct=21870&_#bib52http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBH-4CTN2J4-3&_user=2740144&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=1470996816&_rdoc=46&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5927&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21870&_#bib3http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBH-4CTN2J4-3&_user=2740144&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=1470996816&_rdoc=46&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5927&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21870&_#bib26http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBH-4CTN2J4-3&_user=2740144&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=1470996816&_rdoc=46&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5927&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21870&_#bib26http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBH-4CTN2J4-3&_user=2740144&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=1470996816&_rdoc=46&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5927&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21870&_#bib30http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBH-4CTN2J4-3&_user=2740144&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=1470996816&_rdoc=46&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5927&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21870&_#bib8http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBH-4CTN2J4-3&_user=2740144&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=1470996816&_rdoc=46&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5927&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21870&_#bib21http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBH-4CTN2J4-3&_user=2740144&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=1470996816&_rdoc=46&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5927&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21870&_#bib10http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBH-4CTN2J4-3&_user=2740144&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=1470996816&_rdoc=46&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5927&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21870&_#bib10http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBH-4CTN2J4-3&_user=2740144&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=1470996816&_rdoc=46&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5927&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21870&_#bib23http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBH-4CTN2J4-3&_user=2740144&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=1470996816&_rdoc=46&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5927&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21870&_#bib32


4/18

1.1. Ethical decision-making

Cross and Prusak (2002) have suggested that, within any workplace, employees are constantly

encountering the need to make decisions, with each decision outcome representing the

employees responses to some need or problem. Moreover, each decision is the outcome of a

dynamic process that is shaped by a variety of personal and psychological forces. Researcherssuch as Rokeach (1973), Ball-Rokeach et al. (1984),Feather (1975)and Feather (1996), Maio

(2002), andSchwartz (1996) have argued that personal ethical values are crucial components of

this decision-making process. Ethical values in this domain are said to be the guidelines for

personal conduct to which an individual refers when confronted with a situation wherein a choice

has to be made. Commentators such as Rokeach argue that ethical values are typically acquired

early in life, and are a fundamental, though often unexamined element of an individual's

reasoning process.

It has long been suggested that ethics play a major role in decision-making within a work context

(Peterson and Gonzalez, 2000; Schultz and Schultz, 2002). In the establishment of organizational

or occupational objectives, it is suggested that value judgments are frequently made regarding

the selection of opportunities and the allocation of priorities; in the development of alternatives,

and then the choice of one, in particular, the ethics of the employee will often determine the

focus of possible behaviour; in the implementation of the decision made, ethical precepts will

likely guide the means of implementation; finally, in any evaluation, ethical precepts are likely to

manifest themselves in any corrective or follow-up action. Furnham (1997)andSchultz and

Schultz (2002) suggest that it is by way of such processes that ethical values of various types

clearly influence the workplace decision-making process; they are further said to be reflected in a

decision-maker's behaviour before making a decision, in making the decision and then in putting

the decision into effect.

Managements too are said to manifestly exhibit their ethical values when they come to the

decision-making process (Gibson et al., 2000). This process may be seen in stark relief within theorganization development domain. Basically, organizational development can be regarded as a

managerial technique for the implementation of systematic change within any organization; it

involves applying powerful techniques, sometimes in a directive or even coercive manner, so as

to achieve goals such as performance improvements. The type and degree of ethical precepts

espoused by management and also their change agents become evident in the unfolding of power

relationships among various participants within the organization undergoing modification.

Practices such as coercion, misrepresentation and exploitation of the weaker members, usually

lower-level workers, are frequently cited as examples of unethical processes and behaviours that

may emerge within organizational development programs. Management, conclude Gibson et al.,

in these circumstances must bear a major responsibility for any possible widespread perceptions

of unethical conduct and resultant mistrust among employees.Rectification of such abuses within the process by management and their change agents may be

found in an organizational culture that fosters a clear articulation and incorporation of ethical

behaviour. An organizational climate of this type would present senior management as

advocating ethical behaviour as the norm; all individuals would be expected and assumed to

conduct themselves in an ethical manner, even when such integrity would prove costly to the

organization in economic and strategic terms. The management of an organization it has thus
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been suggested, particularly members of the senior management team, bear a particular

responsibility to encourage and model ethical behaviour, so that such behaviour becomes an

inalienable part of the organizational climate, and is regarded as such by employees.

Ethical values within a workplace setting have been understood by way of a variety of schemas,

often as conceptualizations by which codes of ethics could be examined and their individual

elements understood and classified. At least 12 ethical dimensions have been proposedby Kaptein and Wempe (1998), including the positive or negative direction of elements or

precepts, and also the explicit or general nature of components.Getz (1990)has argued that

ethical values within the workplace may be understood within the context of the two major

theories of moral philosophy, utilitarianism and deontology. Within a philosophical context, the

topics of ethics, until the latter half of the twentieth century, was generally understood as the

domain of two major theories: utilitarianism and Kantian or deontological philosophy.

Deontological theory emanated largely from the writings of the eighteenth century philosopher

Immanual Kant; utilitarianism is typically associated with the writings of philosophers Jeremy

Bentham and J.S. Mill ( Rachels (1995) andRachels (1998)). A third ethical notion in recent

years has gained considerable currency. Virtue ethics represents an approach to ethics

highlighting ethical character, and is in clear contrast to the approaches that emphasize rules and

duties (deontological) or an emphasis upon the consequences of a citizen's action (utilitarianism).

Within this schema virtue ethics emphasizes the character of the person in the understanding of

any ethical action.Hursthouse (1999)argues that virtue ethics is both an old and a new theory:

old in that it may be traced back to Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, and new in that it has been

revived in the second part of the twentieth century. Aristotle suggested that virtues are general

traits of character revealed in habitual actions; Pincoffs (1996) has posited that Aristotelian

virtues can be more precisely defined as traits of character manifested in habitual actions that are

said to be good for a person to have.

In contrast, Raiburn and Payne (1990)have proposed a relatively straightforward yet cogent

classification of ethical values in the workplace, consisting of principles such as equity orprocedural justice, competence and integrity. Equity includes precepts such as being

incorruptible, impartiality and frankness, being responsible and being conscientious. Competence

is represented by the individual who is capable, hardworking, efficient and who shows initiative.

Integrity involves those personal virtues about which Aristotle wrote (see Tredennick, 1976), and

embraces notions such as honesty, genuineness, sociability, altruism and understanding. Tucker

et al. (1999)and Wiley (2000) have moreover found such dimensions of utility in their

classifications of workplace ethical values.

Ethical orientations as influences upon decision-making in the workplace, particularly within

contexts such as tourism/hospitality, have now begun to receive some research attention. One

such contribution to this area is that offered by Whitney (1990). Whitney has proposed a

conceptualization involving four major orientations, and has labeled them individual orientation,traditional or societal orientation, legal orientation and career orientation. For the individual

orientation, he suggests that the person's ethical philosophy is basically their own, even though it

may include elements taken from the schemas and principles of others; it has been, he suggests,

assimilated uniquely by the individual through both thought and life experiences. Within the

societal orientation, the individual's beliefs are said to emanate largely from one's community,

family or religious context; whilst the beliefs many now be internalized, they are other-centered

insofar as relatively little critical reflection may be involved. The legal orientation, Whitney
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6/18

argues, is relatively straightforward; a person here holds strongly to the notion that it is the law

that guarantees or orders society, and that society defines ethics principally through the law.

Finally, Whitney's career-oriented person understands personal ethical standards as equivalent to

and generated from the industry or organization within which he or she works; these are said to

be self-chosen insofar as one's career is self-chosen. This individual, it is suggested, may take

great care to nurture and to prevent any damage to his or her career, and therefore adoptgenerally acceptable practices as touchstones of workplace ethical behaviour. Whitney finally

reports on an exploration of this schema among managers in the hospitality industry, and

identifies distinct ethical orientation profiles related to variables such as age, rank and size of the

property managed.

1.2. Ethics and tourism

Vallen and Casado (2000), Enghagen and Hott (1992),Richter and Richter (1999),Ross

(1998) andRoss (2003a) and Stevens (2001) have all suggested that ethical understandings of

behaviour have broad and consequential application in tourism/hospitality, extending to areas

such as tertiary education and training, staff selection, training, promotion and management

operations. In regard to education, Stevens observes that the encouragement of an awareness of

the importance of personal and professional ethical principles ought to be a prime goal of any

tertiary education program. Similarly,Vallen and Casado (2000)andWheeler (1994)have noted

that education programs in areas such as hospitality, because they are charged with the

preparation of individuals for hospitality employment, need to expose students to critical ethical,

professional and legal issues, all of which will undoubtedly confront them.

Stevens (1999) and Stevens and Brownell (2000), commenting on some of the mechanisms of

this preparation, have suggested that graduates who have become aware of and are comfortable

with their personal ethical beliefs, and whose ethical beliefs are in large measure, compatible

with that of their employing organization, will be more likely to act ethically, and also have apositive influence upon subordinates ethical perspectives. Graduates are likely then to be more

effective communicators of an organizations ethical code and expectations regarding acceptable

behaviour in the workplace. In regard to the education process, Vallen and Casado

(2000), Martin (1998), Stevens (2001) and Stevens and Brownell (2000) all suggest that students

in tertiary institutions may be assisted in the development of an awareness of ethical standards by

way of case studies, vignettes and hypothetical employment dilemmas wherein each participant

is confronted with the complexities, competing interests and personal perceptions associated with

a series of hospitality workplace ethical confrontations. It is suggested that critical thinking skills

are more likely to be fostered in participants who have to grapple with and arrive as a satisfying

solution that holds in some balance their personal ethical precepts, the legal mores of the society,

and the ethical climate of the organization. Morrison and OMahony (2003),Ross

(2003b) andRoss (2003c) andLashley (1999);Lashley (2000) and Lashley (2002) have variously

suggested that employees who graduate with an understanding of such a cognitive architecture of

problem solving will be of much greater utility to an organization, and also the society at large,

than will those graduates who are not confronted with dilemmas and are not challenged to find

robust, workable and personally acceptable solutions, but rather simply told what to absorb, what

to believe, and instructed on precisely how the job ought to be done.
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7/18

Tribe (2002) has convincingly argued for the value of an understanding of the epistemologies of

ethical tourism. He has suggested that conceptual notions such as Schon's idea of the reflective

practitioner, Aristotle's principles of practical wisdom, and also Habermas's formulation of

communicative wisdom all have an important place in the tourism curriculum as a precursor to

and as offering understandings and benefits within an ethical tourism practicum. By way of an

example of the value of such formulations, Tribe cites the idea of the good, and points out thatAristotle clearly meant this to refer to the good of all people; the good life-concerned truth,

responsibility for actions, and right actions. Tribe points out that good for modern management is

likely to have a much more constrained focus: good for profits, for business and for growth.

Moreover, whilst Aristotle would focus broadly on all of humanity, modern management has no

such frame of reference; managers typically narrow their interest down to a particular group such

as the worker. Tribe has found that absent in this impoverished frame of reference generally

adopted by present day management is the concept of the community, the role of the common

good; he concludes that hospitality students exposed to a more holistic perspectives will graduate

with an optimal understanding of their ethical responsibilities in regard to the broad range of

people who they will later encounter.

1.3. Trust

Commentators such as Furnham (1997) have suggested that an important goal of organizational

psychology has been the identification of factors that might predict intraorganizational

cooperation, coordination and control.Trust, a variety of researchers now hold, plays a major

role in such endeavours (see Fukayama, 1995; Kramer, 1999; Pollitt, 2002; Putnam, 2000; Ross

(2003a) and Ross (2004); and Seligman, 1997) It is also the case that an absence of trust, such

as that which might exist as between employees and management within an organization, can

have severely debilitating effects upon the climate and also the productivity of a workplace

( Badaracco, 2002). The idea of trust has been used in fields such as economics, organizationalpsychology, social psychology, sociology, management and marketing. Despite the prevalence

and generally regarded importance of this construct, a succinct and universally acceptable

definition appears unattainable; it has been employed in a variety of ways, both within and

between disciplines. Hosmer (1995),Kramer (1999) suggest, would characterize trust as an

expectation of ethically justifiable behaviour which encompasses morally correct decisions that

are founded on ethical principles, whereasBurt and Knez (1996) are cited as conceptualizing

trust as simply an anticipati

ethics, trust and expectations

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