essays on suicide and the immortality of the soul

7/31/2019 Essays on Suicide and the Immortality of the Soul

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ESSAYS ON SUICIDE

AND THE

IMMORTALITY OF THE

SOUL

THE COMPLETE 1783 EDITION

David Hume


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-lee"s"ree"' a(d Pa"er(os"erro5

1783

6Pri)e 3 s 9 d se5ed:

;iiie)" of re?ues" "ha( "he 5ould o"her5isehave bee( ;ivudi)es of his )ou("rme( had' i( all

appeara()e' )o(si=(ed "hem2 a(d eve( "he reli=ious par" of ma(4i(d

have some reaso( of "riumph from "he s"ri4i(= i(s"a()e here =ive( of"ru"h0s superiori" "o error' eve( 5he( error has all "he adva("a=e

of a( ele=a(" =e(ius' a(d a =rea" li"erar repu"a"io( "o re)omme(d

i"

;1ud=me(" di)"a"es' 5he( "he limbs obe2 "his

is all "he opera"io( of od' a(d upo( "hese a(ima"e pri()iples' as

5ell as upo( "he i(a(ima"e' has he es"ablished "he =over(me(" of "heu(iverse Ever eve(" is ali4e impor"a(" i( "he ees of "ha"

i(fi(i"e bei(=' 5ho "a4es i( a" o(e =la()e "he mos" dis"a(" re=io(sof spa)e' a(d ;8< remo"es" periods of "ime There is (o eve("'

ho5ever impor"a(" "o us' 5hi)h he has e@emp"ed from "he =e(eral la5s

"ha" =over( "he u(iverse' or 5hi)h he has pe)uliarl reserved forhis o5( immedia"e a)"io( a(d opera"io( The revolu"io( of s"a"es a(d

empires depe(ds upo( "he smalles" )apri)e or passio( of si(=le me(2

a(d "he lives of me( are shor"e(ed or e@"e(ded b "he smalles"a))ide(" of air or dies' su(shi(e or "empes" Na"ure s"ill )o("i(ues

her pro=ress a(d opera"io(2 a(d if =e(eral la5s be ever bro4e b

par"i)ular voli"io(s of "he Dei"' 0"is af"er a ma((er 5hi)h

e("irel es)apes huma( observa"io( $s o( "he o(e ha(d' "he eleme("sa(d o"her i(a(ima"e par"s of "he )rea"io( )arr o( "heir a)"io(

5i"hou" re=ard "o "he par"i)ular i("eres" a(d si"ua"io( of me(2 some( are e("rus"ed "o "heir o5( >ud=me(" a(d dis)re"io( i( "he

various sho)4s of ma""er' a(d ma emplo ever fa)ul" 5i"h 5hi)h

"he are e(do5ed' i( order "o provide for "heir ease' happi(ess' or;< preserva"io( !ha" is "he mea(i(= "he( of "ha" pri()iple' "ha" a


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ma( 5ho "ired of life' a(d hu("ed b pai( a(d miser' bravel

over)omes all "he (a"ural "errors of dea"h' a(d ma4es his es)apefrom "his )ruel s)e(eA "ha" su)h a ma( I sa' has i()urred "he

i(di=(a"io( of his Crea"or b e()roa)hi(= o( "he offi)e of divi(e

provide()e' a(d dis"urbi(= "he order of "he u(iverse &hall 5easser" "ha" "he $lmi=h" has reserved "o himself i( a( pe)uliar

ma((er "he disposal of "he lives of me(' a(d has (o" submi""ed "ha"

eve("' i( )ommo( 5i"h o"hers' "o "he =e(eral la5s b 5hi)h "heu(iverse is =over(ed This is plai(l false2 "he lives of me( depe(d

upo( "he same la5s as "he lives of all o"her a(imals2 a(d "hese aresub>e)"ed "o "he =e(eral la5s of ma""er a(d mo"io( The fall of a

"o5er' or "he i(fusio( of a poiso(' 5ill des"ro a ma( e?uall 5i"h

"he mea(es" )rea"ure2 a( i(u(da"io( s5eeps a5a ever "hi(= 5i"hou"dis"i()"io( "ha" )omes 5i"hi( "he rea)h of i"s fur &i()e "herefore

"he lives of me( ;1J< are for ever depe(da(" o( "he =e(eral la5s ofma""er a(d mo"io(' is a ma(0s disposi(= of his life )rimi(al'be)ause i( ever )ase i" is )rimi(al "o e()roa)h upo( "hese la5s' or

dis"urb "heir opera"io( *u" "his seems absurd2 all a(imals are

e("rus"ed "o "heir o5( prude()e a(d s4ill for "heir )o(du)" i( "he5orld' a(d have full au"hori" as far as "heir po5er e@"e(ds' "o

al"er all "he opera"io(s of (a"ure !i"hou" "he e@)er)ise of "his

au"hori" "he )ould (o" subsis" a mome("2 ever a)"io(' evermo"io( of a ma(' i((ova"es o( "he order of some par"s of ma""er' a(d

diver"s from "heir ordi(ar )ourse "he =e(eral la5s of mo"io(Pu""i(= "o=e"her' "herefore' "hese )o()lusio(' 5e fi(d "ha" huma(

life depe(ds upo( "he =e(eral la5s of ma""er a(d mo"io(' a(d "ha" i"

is (o e()roa)hme(" o( "he offi)e of provide()e "o dis"urb or al"er"hese =e(eral la5sA Has (o" ever o(e' of )o(se?ue()e' "he free

disposal of his o5( life $(d ma he (o" la5full emplo "ha" po5er

5i"h 5hi)h (a"ure has e(do5ed him I( order ;11< "o des"ro "heevide()e of "his )o()lusio(' 5e mus" she5 a reaso( 5h "his

par"i)ular )ase is e@)ep"ed2 is i" be)ause huma( life is of su)h

=rea" impor"a()e' "ha" 0"is a presump"io( for huma( prude()e "o

dispose of i" *u" "he life of a ma( is of (o =rea"er impor"a()e "o"he u(iverse "ha( "ha" of a( os"er $(d 5ere i" of ever so =rea"

impor"a()e' "he order of huma( (a"ure has a)"uall submi""ed i" "ohuma( prude()e' a(d redu)ed us "o a (e)essi"' i( ever i()ide("' of

de"ermi(i(= )o()er(i(= i" !ere "he disposal of huma( life so

mu)h reserved as "he pe)uliar provi()e of "he $lmi=h"' "ha" i" 5erea( e()roa)hme(" o( his ri=h"' for me( "o dispose of "heir o5( lives2


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i" 5ould be e?uall )rimi(al "o a)" for "he preserva"io( of life as

for i"s des"ru)"io( If I "ur( aside a s"o(e 5hi)h is falli(= upo(m head' I dis"urb "he )ourse of (a"ure' a(d I i(vade "he pe)uliar

provi()e of "he $lmi=h"' b le(="he(i(= ou" m life beo(d "he

period 5hi)h b "he =e(eral la5s of ma""er a(d mo"io( he hadassi=(ed i" 6edi"or0s (o"e 3: ;1Boed' a(d for "he po5er 5i"h 5hi)h I am

e(do5ed of es)api(= "he ill "ha" ;13< "hrea"e(s me3 To ou i"belo(=s "o repi(e a" provide()e' 5ho foolishl ima=i(e "ha" ou have

(o su)h po5er' a(d 5ho mus" s"ill prolo(= a ha"ed life' "ho0 loaded5i"h pai( a(d si)4(ess' 5i"h shame a(d pover" Do (o" ou "ea)h'

"ha" 5he( a( ill befals me' "ho0 b "he mali)e of m e(emies' I

ou=h" "o be resi=(ed "o provide()e' a(d "ha" "he a)"io(s of me( are"he opera"io(s of "he $lmi=h" as mu)h as "he a)"io(s of i(a(ima"e

bei(=s !he( I fall upo( m o5( s5ord' "herefore' I re)eive m dea"h

e?uall from "he ha(ds of "he Dei" as if i" had pro)eeded from alio(' a pre)ipi)e' or a fever The submissio( 5hi)h ou re?uire "o

provide()e' i( ever )alami" "ha" befals me' e@)ludes (o" huma(

s4ill a(d i(dus"r' if possible b "heir mea(s I )a( avoid or es)ape

"he )alami"A $(d 5h ma I (o" emplo o(e remed as 5ell asa(o"her If m life be (o" m o5(' i" 5ere )rimi(al for me "o pu"

i" i( da(=er' as ;1F< 5ell as "o dispose of i"2 (or )ould o(e ma(deserve "he appella"io( of hero' 5hom =lor or frie(dship

"ra(spor"s i("o "he =rea"es" da(=ers' a(d a(o"her meri" "he reproa)h

of 5re")h or miserea(" 5ho pu"s a period "o his life' from "hesame or li4e mo"ives There is (o bei(=' 5hi)h possesses a(


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po5er or fa)ul"' "ha" i" re)eives (o" from i"s Crea"or' (or is

"here a( o(e' 5hi)h b ever so irre=ular a( a)"io( )a( e()roa)hupo( "he pla( of his provide()e' or disorder "he u(iverse I"s

opera"io(s are his 5or4s e?uall 5i"h "ha" )hai( of eve("s 5hi)h i"

i(vades' a(d 5hi)h ever pri()iple prevails' 5e ma for "ha" verreaso( )o()lude i" "o be mos" favoured b him *e i" a(ima"e' or

i(a(ima"e' ra"io(al' or irra"io(al' 0"is all a )aseA i"s po5er is

s"ill derived from "he supreme Crea"or' a(d is ali4e )omprehe(ded i("he order of his provide()e !he( "he horror of pai( prevails over

"he love of life2 5he( a volu("ar a)"io( a("i)ipa"es "he effe)"s ofbli(d )auses' 0"is o(l i( )o(se?ue()e of "hose ;1G< po5ers a(d

pri()iples 5hi)h he has impla("ed i( his )rea"ures Divi(e

provide()e is s"ill i(viola"e' a(d pla)ed far beo(d "he rea)h ofhuma( i(>uries 0Tis impious sas "he old #oma( supers"i"io(F "o

diver" rivers from "heir )ourse' or i(vade "he prero=a"ives of(a"ure 0Tis impious sas "he -re()h supers"i"io( "o i(o)ula"e for"he smallpo@' or usurp "he busi(ess of provide()e b volu("aril

produ)i(= dis"empers a(d maladies 0Tis impious sas "he moder(

Europea( supers"i"io(' "o pu" a period "o our o5( life' a(d"hereb rebel a=ai(s" our Crea"or2 a(d 5h (o" impious' sa I' "o

build houses' )ul"iva"e "he =rou(d' or fail upo( "he o)ea( I( all

"hese a)"io(s 5e emplo our po5ers of mi(d a(d bod' "o produ)e somei((ova"io( i( "he )ourse of (a"ure2 a(d i( (o(e of "hem do 5e a(

more The are all of "hem "herefore e?uall i((o)e("' or e?uall)rimi(al *u" ou are pla)ed b provide()e' li4e a )e("i(al' i( a

par"i)ular s"a"io(' ;19< a(d 5he( ou deser" i" 5i"hou" bei(=

re)alled' ou are e?uall =uil" of rebellio( a=ai(s" our almi=h"soverei=(' a(d have i()urred his displeasure I as4' 5h do ou

)o()lude "ha" provide()e has pla)ed me i( "his s"a"io( -or m par"

I fi(d "ha" I o5e m bir"h "o a lo(= )hai( of )auses' of 5hi)h ma(depe(ded upo( volu("ar a)"io(s of me( *u" provide()e =uided all

"hese )auses' a(d (o"hi(= happe(s i( "he u(iverse 5i"hou" i"s

)o(se(" a(d )oopera"io( If so' "he( (ei"her does m dea"h'

ho5ever volu("ar' happe( 5i"hou" i"s )o(se("2 a(d 5he(ever pai( orsorro5 so far over)ome m pa"ie()e' as "o ma4e me "ired of life' I

ma )o()lude "ha" I am re)alled from m s"a"io( i( "he )leares" a(dmos" e@press "erms 0Tis provide()e surel "ha" has pla)ed me a"

"his prese(" i( "his )hamberA *u" ma I (o" leave i" 5he( I "hi(4

proper' 5i"hou" bei(= liable "o "he impu"a"io( of havi(= deser"ed mpos" or s"a"io( !he( I shall be dead' "he pri()iples of ;17< 5hi)h


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I am )omposed 5ill s"ill perform "heir par" i( "he u(iverse' a(d

5ill be e?uall useful i( "he =ra(d fabri)4' as 5he( "he )omposed"his i(dividual )rea"ure The differe()e "o "he 5hole 5ill be (o

=rea"er "ha( be"5i@" m bei(= i( a )hamber a(d i( "he ope( air The

o(e )ha(=e is of more impor"a()e "o me "ha( "he o"her2 bu" (o" moreso "o "he u(iverse

0T.I&/ a 4i(d of blasphem "o ima=i(e "ha" a( )rea"ed bei(=)a( dis"urb "he order of "he 5orld' or i(vade "he busi(ess of

Provide()eK I" supposes' "ha" "ha" bei(= possesses po5ers a(dfa)ul"ies' 5hi)h i" re)eived (o" from i"s )rea"or' a(d 5hi)h are (o"

subordi(a"e "o his =over(me(" a(d au"hori" $ ma( ma dis"urb

so)ie" (o doub"' a(d "hereb i()ur "he displeasure of "he $lmi=h"A*u" "he =over(me(" of "he 5orld is pla)ed far beo(d his rea)h a(d

viole()e $(d ho5 does i" appear "ha" "he $lmi=h" is displeased5i"h "hose a)"io(s "ha" dis"urb so)ie" * "he pri()iples ;18ud=eme("s of "his (a"ure'

5e )a((o" 4(o5 from a( o"her pri()iple' 5he"her ma""er' b i"s

s"ru)"ure or arra(=eme("' ma (o" be "he )ause of "hou=h" $bs"ra)"

reaso(i(=s )a((o" de)ide a( ?ues"io( of fa)" or e@is"e()e *u"admi""i(= a spiri"ual subs"a()e "o be dispersed "hrou=hou" "he

u(iverse' li4e "he e"herial fire of "he &"oi)s' a(d "o be "he o(li(here(" sub>e)" of "hou=h"' 5e have reaso( "o )o()lude ;BG< from

a(alo= "ha" (a"ure uses i" af"er "he ma((er she does "he o"her

subs"a()e' ma""er &he emplos i" as a 4i(d of pas"e or )la2modifies i" i("o a varie" of forms a(d e@is"e()es2 dissolves af"er


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a "ime ea)h modifi)a"io(' a(d from i"s subs"a()e ere)"s a (e5 form

$s "he same ma"erial subs"a()e ma su))essivel )ompose "he bodiesof all a(imals' "he same spiri"ual subs"a()e ma )ompose "heir

mi(dsA Their )o(s)ious(ess' or "ha" ss"em of "hou=h" 5hi)h "he

formed duri(= life' ma be )o("i(uall dissolved b dea"h $(d(o"hi(= i("eres"s "hem i( "he (e5 modifi)a"io( The mos" posi"ive

asser"ers of "he mor"ali" of "he soul' (ever de(ied "he immor"ali"

of i"s subs"a()e $(d "ha" a( imma"erial subs"a()e' as 5ell as ama"erial' ma lose i"s memor or )o(s)ious(ess' appears i( par" from

e@perie()e' if "he soul be imma"erial #easo(i(= from "he )ommo()ourse of (a"ure' a(d 5i"hou" supposi(= a( (e5 i("erposi"io( of "he

supreme )ause' 5hi)h ou=h" al5as "o be e@)luded from philosoph'

;B9< 5ha" is i()orrup"ible mus" also be i(=e(erable The &oul"herefore if immor"al' e@is"ed before our bir"h2 a(d if "he former

e@is"e()e (o 5as )o()er(ed us' (ei"her 5ill "he la""er $(imalsu(doub"edl feel' "hi(4' love' ha"e' 5ill' a(d eve( reaso(' "ho0 i(a more imperfe)" ma((er "ha( me(2 are "heir souls also imma"erial

a(d immor"al 6edi"or0s (o"e 3:

II L.ET/ us (o5 )o(sider "he moral ar=ume("s' )hiefl "hosederived from "he >us"i)e of od' 5hi)h is supposed "o be far"her

i("eres"ed i( "he far"her pu(ishme(" of "he vi)ious a(d re5ard of"he vir"uous *u" "hese ar=ume("s are =rou(ded o( "he supposi"io(

"ha" od has a""ribu"es beo(d 5ha" he has e@er"ed i( "his u(iverse'

5i"h 5hi)h alo(e 5e are a)?uai("ed !he()e do 5e i(fer "he e@is"e()eof "hese a""ribu"es 0Tis ver safe for us "o affirm' "ha"

5ha"ever 5e 4(o5 "he Dei" "o have a)"uall do(e' is bes"2 bu" 0"is

ver da(=erous "o affirm' "ha" he mus" al5as do ;B7< 5ha" "o usseems bes" I( ho5 ma( i(s"a()es 5ould "his reaso(i(= fail us 5i"h

re=ard "o "he prese(" 5orld *u" if a( purpose of (a"ure be

)lear' 5e ma affirm' "ha" "he 5hole s)ope a(d i("e("io( of ma(0s

)rea"io(' so far as 5e )a( >ud=e b (a"ural reaso(' is limi"ed "o"he prese(" life !i"h ho5 5ea4 a )o()er( from "he ori=i(al i(here("

s"ru)"ure of "he mi(d a(d passio(s' does he ever loo4 far"her !ha")ompariso( ei"her for s"eadi(ess or effi)a)' be"5i@" so floa"i(= a(

idea' a(d "he mos" doub"ful persuasio( of a( ma""er of fa)" "ha"

o))urs i( )ommo( life There arise i(deed i( some mi(ds someu(a))ou("able "errors 5i"h re=ard "o fu"uri"2 bu" "hese 5ould


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?ui)4l va(ish 5ere "he (o" ar"ifi)iall fos"ered b pre)ep" a(d

edu)a"io( $(d "hose 5ho fos"er "hem' 5ha" is "heir mo"ive O(l "o=ai( a livelihood' a(d "o a)?uire po5er a(d ri)hes i( "his 5orld

Their ver eal a(d i(dus"r "herefore is a( ar=ume(" a=ai(s" "hem

;B8us"i)e i( (a"ure' "o

)o(fi(e all our )o()er(' as 5ell as all our 4(o5led=e' "o "heprese(" life' if "here be a(o"her s)e(e s"ill 5ai"i(= us' of

i(fi(i"el =rea"er )o(se?ue()e Ou=h" "his barbarous de)ei" "o beas)ribed "o a be(efi)e(" a(d 5ise bei(= Observe 5i"h 5ha" e@a)"

propor"io( "he "as4 "o be performed a(d "he performi(= po5ers are

ad>us"ed "hrou=hou" all (a"ure If "he reaso( of ma( =ives him =rea"superiori" above o"her a(imals' his (e)essi"ies are propor"io(abl

mul"iplied upo( him2 his 5hole "ime' his 5hole )apa)i"' a)"ivi"')oura=e' a(d passio(' fi(d suffi)ie(" emplome(" i( fe()i(= a=ai(s""he miseries of his prese(" )o(di"io(' a(d fre?ue("l' (a almos"

al5as are "oo sle(der for "he busi(ess assi=(ed "hem $ pair of

shoes perhaps 5as (ever e" 5rou=h" "o "he hi=hes" de=ree ofperfe)"io( 5hi)h "ha" )ommodi" is )apable of a""ai(i(= +e" i" is

(e)essar' a" leas" ver useful' "ha" "here should be some

poli"i)ia(s a(d moralis"s' ;B< eve( some =eome"ers' poe"s' a(dphilosophers amo(= ma(4i(d The po5ers of me( are (o more superior

"o "heir 5a("s' )o(sidered merel i( "his life' "ha( "hose of fo@esa(d hares are' )ompared "o "heir 5a("s a(d "o "heir period of

e@is"e()e The i(fere()e from pari" of reaso( is "herefore obvious

O.N/ "he "heor of "he &oul0s mor"ali"' "he i(feriori" of

5ome(0s )apa)i" is easil a))ou("ed for Their domes"i) lifere?uires (o hi=her fa)ul"ies' ei"her of mi(d or bod This

)ir)ums"a()e va(ishes a(d be)omes absolu"el i(si=(ifi)a("' o( "he

reli=ious "heorA "he o(e se@ has a( e?ual "as4 "o perform as "he

o"her2 "heir po5ers of reaso( a(d resolu"io( ou=h" also "o have bee(e?ual' a(d bo"h of "hem i(fi(i"el =rea"er "ha( a" prese(" $s ever

effe)" implies a )ause' a(d "ha" a(o"her' "ill 5e rea)h "he firs")ause of all' 5hi)h is "he Dei"2 ever "hi(= "ha" happe(s is

ordai(ed b him' a(d (o"hi(= )a( be "he ob>e)" of his pu(ishme(" or

ve(=ea()e * 5ha" rule are pu(ishme("s ;3J< a(d re5ardsdis"ribu"ed !ha" is "he divi(e s"a(dard of meri" a(d demeri" shall


16/54

5e suppose "ha" huma( se("ime("s have pla)e i( "he Dei" Ho5 bold

"ha" hpo"hesis !e have (o )o()ep"io( of a( o"her se("ime("s $))ordi(= "o huma( se("ime("s' se(se' )oura=e' =ood ma((ers'

i(dus"r' prude()e' =e(ius' ) are esse("ial par"s of perso(al

meri"s &hall 5e "herefore ere)" a( elsium for poe"s a(d heroesli4e "ha" of "he a("ie(" m"holo= !h )o(fi(e all re5ards "o o(e

spe)ies of vir"ue Pu(ishme("' 5i"hou" a( proper e(d or purpose' is

i()o(sis"e(" 5i"h our ideas of =ood(ess a(d >us"i)e' a(d (o e(d)a( be served b i" af"er "he 5hole s)e(e is )losed Pu(ishme("'

a))ordi(= "o our )o()ep"io(' should bear some propor"io( "o "heoffe()e !h "he( e"er(al pu(ishme(" for "he "emporar offe()es of

so frail a )rea"ure as ma( Ca( a( o(e approve of $le@a(der0s

ra=e' 5ho i("e(ded "o e@"irmi(a"e a 5hole (a"io( be)ause "he hadseied his favori"e horse *u)ephalus9 ;31e)"s are so )losel )o((e)"ed "ha" all al"era"io(s 5hi)h 5e have

ever see( i( "he o(e' are a""e(ded 5i"h propor"io(able al"era"io(s

i( "he o"her2 5e ou=h" "o )o()lude ;3F< b all rules of a(alo='"ha"' 5he( "here are s"ill =rea"er al"era"io(s produ)ed i( "he

former' a(d i" is "o"all dissolved' "here follo5s a "o"aldissolu"io( of "he la""er &leep' a ver small effe)" o( "he

bod' is a""e(ded 5i"h a "emporar e@"i()"io(' a" leas" a =rea"

)o(fusio( i( "he soul The 5ea4(ess of "he bod a(d "ha" of "hemi(d i( i(fa() are e@a)"l propor"io(ed' "heir vi=our i( ma(hood'

"heir smpa"he"i) disorder i( si)4(ess2 "heir )ommo( =radual de)a

i( old a=e The s"ep fur"her seems u(avoidable2 "heir )ommo(dissolu"io( i( dea"h The las" smp"oms 5hi)h "he mi(d dis)overs are

disorder' 5ea4(ess' i(se(sibili"' a(d s"upidi"' "he foreru((ers

of i"s a((ihila"io( The far"her pro=ress of "he same )auses

e()reasi(=' "he same effe)"s "o"all e@"i(=uish i" ud=i(= b "heusual a(alo= of (a"ure' (o form )a( )o("i(ue 5he( "ra(sferred "o a

)o(di"io( of life ver differe(" from "he ori=i(al o(e' i( 5hi)h i"5as pla)ed Trees perish i( "he 5a"er' fishes i( "he air' a(imals i(

"he ear"h Eve( so small a differe()e as "ha" of )lima"e is of"e(

;3G< fa"al !ha" reaso( "he( "o ima=i(e' "ha" a( imme(se al"era"io('su)h as is made o( "he soul b "he dissolu"io( of i"s bod a(d all


18/54

i"s or=a(s of "hou=h" a(d se(sa"io(' )a( be effe)"ed 5i"hou" "he

dissolu"io( of "he 5hole Ever "hi(= is i( )ommo( be"5i@" soul a(dbod The or=a(s of "he o(e are all of "hem "he or=a(s of "he o"her

The e@is"e()e "herefore of "he o(e mus" be depe(da(" o( "ha" of "he

o"her The souls of a(imals are allo5ed "o be mor"al2 a(d "hesebear so (ear a resembla()e "o "he souls of me(' "ha" "he a(alo=

from o(e "o "he o"her forms a ver s"ro(= ar=ume(" Their bodies are

(o" more resembli(=2 e" (o o(e re>e)"s "he ar=ume(" dra5( from)ompara"ive a(a"om The Me"emps)hosis is "herefore "he o(l

ss"em of "his 4i(d "ha" philosoph )a( har4e( "o 6edi"or0s (o"eF:

N.OTHIN/ i( "his 5orld is perpe"ual' ever "hi(= ho5everseemi(=l firm is i( )o("i(ual flu@ a(d )ha(=e' "he 5orld i"self

=ives smp"oms of frail" a(d dissolu"io( Ho5 )o("rar "o a(alo='"herefore' "o ima=i(e ;39< "ha" o(e si(=le from' seemi(=l "hefrailes" of a(' a(d sub>e)" "o "he =rea"es" disorders' is immor"al

a(d i(dissoluble 6edi"or0s (o"e G: !ha" dari(= "heor is "ha"K

ho5 li=h"l' (o" "o sa ho5 rashl e("er"ai(edK Ho5 "o dispose of"he i(fi(i"e (umber of pos"humous e@is"e()es ou=h" also "o embarrass

"he reli=ious "heor Ever pla(e" i( ever solar ss"em 5e are a"

liber" "o ima=i(e peopled 5i"h i("elli=e(" mor"al bei(=s' a" leas"5e )a( fi@ o( (o o"her supposi"io( -or "hese "he( a (e5 u(iverse

mus" ever =e(era"io( be )rea"ed beo(d "he bou(ds of "he prese("u(iverse' or o(e mus" have bee( )rea"ed a" firs" so prodi=iousl

5ise as "o admi" of "his )o("i(ual i(flu@ of bei(=s 6edi"or0s

(o"e 9: Ou=h" su)h bold supposi"io(s "o be re)eived b a(philosoph' a(d "ha" merel o( "here pre"e@" of a bare possibili"

!he( i" is as4ed 5he"her $=amem(o( Thersi"es Ha((ibal' arro'

a(d ever s"upid )lo5( "ha" ever e@is"ed i( I"al' &)"hia'*a)"ria or ui(ea' are (o5 alive2 )a( a( ma( "hi(4' "ha" a

s)ru"i( of (a"ure 5ill fur(ish ar=ume("s ;37< s"ro(= e(ou=h "o

a(s5er so s"ra(=e a ?ues"io( i( "he affirma"ive The 5a(" of

ar=ume(" 5i"hou" revela"io( suffi)ie("l es"ablishes "he (e=a"ive Qua("o fa)ilius 6sas Pli(8: )er"ius ?ue sibi ?uem?ue

)redere' a) spe)ime( se)uri"a"is a("i=e(e "ali sumere e@perime("oOur i(se(sibili" before "he )omposi"io( of "he bod' seems "o

(a"ural reaso( a proof of a li4e s"a"e af"er dissolu"io( !ere our

horrors of a((ihila"io( a( ori=i(al passio(' (o" "he effe)" of our=e(eral love of happi(ess' i" 5ould ra"her prove "he mor"ali" of


19/54

"he soul -or as (a"ure does (o"hi(= i( vai(' she 5ould (ever =ive

us a horror a=ai(s" a( impossible eve(" &he ma =ive us a horrora=ai(s" a( u(avoidable2 e" "he huma( spe)ies )ould (o" be preserved

had (o" (a"ure i(spired us 5i"h a(d aversio( "o5ard i" $ll

do)"ri(es are "o be suspe)"ed 5hi)h are favoured b ;38< ourpassio(s' a(d "he hopes a(d fears 5hi)h =ave rise "o "his do)"ri(e

are ver obvious

0T.I&/ a( i(fi(i"e adva("a=e i( ever )o("rovers "o defe(d "he

(e=a"ive If "he ?ues"io( be ou" of "he )ommo( e@perie()ed )ourse of(a"ure' "his )ir)ums"a()e is almos" if (o" al"o=e"her de)isive *

5ha" ar=ume("s or a(alo=ies )a( 5e prove a( s"a"e of e@is"e()e'

5hi)h (o o(e ever sa5' a(d 5hi)h (o 5a resembles a( "ha" ever 5assee( !ho 5ill repose su)h "rus" i( a( pre"e(ded philosoph as "o

admi" upo( i"s "es"imo( "he reali" of so marvellous a s)e(e &ome(e5 spe)ies of lo=i) is re?uisi"e for "ha" purpose' a(d some (e5fa)ul"ies of "he mi(d' "ha" ma e(able us "o )omprehe(d "ha" lo=i)

N.OTHIN/ )ould se" i( a fuller li=h" "he i(fi(i"e obli=a"io(s5hi)h ma(4i(d have "o divi(e revela"io(' si()e 5e fi(d "ha" (o o"her

medium )ould as)er"ai( "his =rea" a(d impor"a(" "ru"h ;3us" a(dliberal se("ime("s' a(d i( publi)4l a(d u(iforml dis)laimi(= a(

i("e("io( of es"ablishi(= a 4i(=dom for i"s vo"aries or believers i("his 5orld

T.HE/ do)"ri(es of "he =ospel are (o" i("e(ded "o i(s"ru)" usi( "he 4(o5led=e of ever "hi(= 5hi)h ma be reall useful i( "he

prese(" life' far less of ever "hi(=' 5hi)h' from )uriosi" alo(e'5e ma have a mi=h" desire "o 4(o5 #evela"io( )o(siders ma(4i(d i("heir hi=hes" )apa)i"' as "he ra"io(al a(d a))ou("able sub>e)"s of

od' a(d as )apable bo"h of prese(" a(d fu"ure happi(ess or miser'

a))ordi(= "o "heir behaviour I"s )hief' if (o" i"s sole desi=(' is"o =ive us "hose vie5s a(d impressio(s of our (a"ure' of our s"a"e'

of "he perfe)"io(s' "he )ou(sels' "he la5s' a(d "he =over(me(" of

od' 5hi)h' u(der "he i(flue()e of provide()e' are "he immedia"e a(di(fallible mea(s of "he puri"' of "he )omfor"' a(d of "he moral

order' re)"i"ude' a(d e@)elle()e of our immor"al souls $s )orrup"eda(d disordered' 5e are i()apable of "rue happi(ess' "ill purified

a(d res"ored "o order $s =uil" a(d ;F1< mor"al )rea"ures' 5e )a(

have (o "rue )o(sola"io( 5i"hou" "he hopes of pardo( i( a fu"ure a(dsepera"e s"a"e of e@is"e()e $s surrou(ded 5i"h da(=ers' a(d

ob(o@ious "o ever dismal apprehe(sio(' 5e )a( possess (o solid' or

perma(e(" )o("e("' bu" i( "he si()ere a(d 5ell =rou(ded )o(vi)"io(sof "ha" =ra)ious a(d ri=h"eous admi(is"ra"io( so mi(u"el a(d

e@pli)i"l deli(ea"ed i( "he s)rip"ures I" is evide("' "herefore'

"ha" "he pri()ipal e@)elle()e a(d u"ili" of revealed "ru"hs upo(

"he sa()"ifi)a"io( a(d )o(sola"io( of our hear"s The "all e@a)"l5i"h "he prese(" )ir)ums"a()es of ma(4i(d' a(d are admirabl adap"ed

"o )ure ever disease' ever disorder of "he huma( mi(d' "o be=e"'"o )herish' a(d )o(firm ever pure' ever vir"uous' ever pious

disposi"io(

M.$N%IND/ are )er"ai(l a" prese(" i( a s"a"e of "he deepes"


21/54

)orrup"io( a(d depravi"' a(d a" "he same "ime ap" "o )o("i(ue

s"ra(=el i(se(sible of "he miser a(d da(=er "o 5hi)h' u(der "he=over(me(" of i(fi(i"e 5isdom' i" (e)essaril re(ders "hem No"hi(=

)a( be )o()eived more fi" "o rouse "hem from "heir le"har=' a(d "o

a5a4e( "hem "o a >us" se(se of "heir )o(di"io(' "ha( a messe(=erfrom Heave(' )lo"hed 5i"h divi(e au"hori"' se""i(= before "hem "he

i("ri(si) ;FB< base(ess' mali=(i"' a(d 5re")hed(ess of vi)e'

"o=e"her 5i"h "he )er"ai(' "he dreadful' "he e"er(al )o(se?ue()es of)o("i(ui(= i( i"

C.O,LD/ 5e e("er upo( a par"i)ular vie5 of all "hose maladies

a(d disorders 5hi)h i(fes" a(d des"ro "he souls of me(' i" 5ere

eas "o she5' "ha" a s"eadfas" belief of reli=io( is' i( "ru"h' "hemos" (a"ural a(d "he bes" a("ido"e or remed for ea)h of "hem I" is

obvious' or leas"' "ha" "he )lear a(d full ma(ifes"a"io(' 5hi)h "he=ospel has =ive( of "he )hara)"er of od' a(d "he la5s of his moral=over(me("' a(d of "he "erms of salva"io( "hrou=h fai"h i( "he

reli=io( of his so(' are all fi(el )al)ula"ed "o roo" ou" "he

pri()iples of supers"i"io(' a(d all false (o"io(s' des"ru)"ive "o"he vir"ue a(d happi(ess of ma(4i(d' a(d "o pla(" i( "heir room

5ha"ever has a (a"ural a(d dire)" "e(de() "o promo"e our vir"ue'

our perfe)"io(' our feli)i"

6B: C.LEOMENE&/' 4i(= of &par"a' 5he( sufferi(= u(dermisfor"u(e' 5as advised "o 4ill himself b Thar)eo( Thi(4es"

"hou' 5i)4ed ma(' 6said he: "o she5 "h for"i"ude b rushi(= upo(

dea"h' a( e@pedie(" al5as a" ha(d' "he das"ardl resour)e of "he;F3< bases" mi(ds *e""er "ha( 5e' b "he for"u(e of arms' or

overpo5ered b (umbers' have lef" "he field of ba""le "o "heir

e(emies2 bu" he 5ho' "o avoid pai(' or )alami"' or )e(sures of me('=ives up "he )o("es"' 5e are "o see4 dea"h' "ha" dea"h ou=h" "o be

i( a)"io( I" is base "o live or die o(l for ourselves $ll 5e =ai(

b sui)ide is "o =e" our o5( repu"a"io(' or doi(= "he leas" servi)e

"o our )ou("r I( hopes' "he(' 5e ma e" be of some use "o o"hers'bo"h me"hi(4s are bou(d "o preserve life as lo(= as 5e )a( !he(ever

"hese hopes shall have al"o=e"her aba(do(ed us' dea"h' if sou=h"for' 5ill readil be fou(d

63: O.-/ all "he refi(es )ob5ebs' "o 5hi)h sophis"r has =ive(bir"h' "his seems a" o()e "he mos" elabora"e a(d "he mos" flims I"


22/54

seems o(e of "he firs" a(d mos" i(dispu"able ma@ims i( all fou(d

reaso(i(=' "ha" (o ideas 5ha"ever should have a pla)e i( "hepremises' 5hi)h do (o" )ommu(i)a"e a se(sible e(er= "o "he

)o()lusio( *u" 5here is "he )o((e)"io( be"5ee( "he be=i((i(= a(d

e(d of "his 5iredra5( ar=ume(" !ha" have "he various beau"ifulfa)"s' "hus ele=a("l s"a"ed' "o do 5i"h a ma(0s "a4i(= a5a his o5(

;FF< life Thou=h "he =rea"es" philosopher be of (o more )o(se?ue()e

"o "he =e(eral ss"em of "hi(=s "ha( a( os"er' a(d "hou=h "he lifeof "he o(e 5ere' i( ever respe)"' as perfe)"l i(si=(ifi)a(" as

"ha" of "he o"her' s"ill "he mea(es" of ma(4i(d is (o" 5i"hou"impor"a()e i( his o5( ees $(d 5here is he 5ho is =uided u(iforml'

i( all his a)"io(s' more b a se(se of his rela"io( "o "he u(iverse

a" lar=e' "ha( b "he value he re"ai(s for himself' or "he defere()ehe has "o his o5( opi(io(

N.O/ dedu)"io(' ho5ever plausible' )a( produ)e )o(vi)"io( i(a( ra"io(al mi(d' 5hi)h ori=i(a"es i( a supposi"io( =rossl absurd

Is i" possible "o )o()eive "he au"hor of (a"ure )apable of

au"he("i)a"i(= a deed' 5hi)h ul"ima"el "ermi(a"es i( "he "o"ala((ihila"io( of "he ss"em * 5hi)h of "he )rea"ures be(ea"h us is

"he firs" la5 of "heir bei(= "hus dari(=l viola"ed $(d if sui)ide

be eli=ible "o ma(' u(der a( possible misfor"u(e or dis"ress' 5h(o" "o "hem $re (o" "he also sub>e)" "o "he various miseries 5hi)h

arise from 5a5ard a))ide("s a(d hos"ile eleme("s !h' "herefore'ope( a door for our es)ape from "hose evils of 5hi)h o"hers have

"heir share' "o 5hom' ho5ever' i" mus" remai( for ever shu" ;FGurisprude()e' "o "he )o(di"io( of huma( (a"ure' a(d

"o "he =e(eral es"ablishme(" of "hi(=s

T.H$T/ a ma( 5ho re"ires from life ad libi"um' does (o harm

"o so)ie"' is a proposi"io( pe)uliarl absurd a(d erro(eous !ha"

is ;F9< la5ful for o(e' ma be la5ful for all' a(d (o so)ie" )a(subsis" i( "he )o(vi)"io( of a pri()iple "hus hos"ile "o i"s bei(=

I.T/ seems "o be a ma@im i( huma( e@is"e()e' "ha" (o )rea"ure

has a ri=h" "o de)ide peremp"oril o( "he impor"a()e' u"ili"' or

(e)essi" of his o5( bei(= There are a( i(fi(i"e varie" of se)re")o((e)"io(s a(d asso)ia"io(s i( "he vas" ss"em of "hi(=s' 5hi)h "he

ee of )rea"ed 5isdom )a((o" e@plore

M.$N/ is (o"' perhaps' so i=(ora(" of a("hi(=' or a(

)rea"ure' as of himself His o5( ss"em' af"er all "he ar" a(d

i(?uisi"io( of huma( i(=e(ui"' is s"ill "o him "he profou(des"ms"er i( (a"ure His 4(o5led=e a(d fa)ul"ies are ade?ua"e "o "he

sphere of his du" *eo(d "his' his resear)hes are imper"i(e("' a(d

all his a)?uisi"io(s useless He has (o ade?ua"e (o"io(s 5ha" "hela5s of "he u(iverse are 5i"h respe)" "o a( spe)ies of e@is"e()e

5ha"ever $ )loud res"s o( "he )ompli)a"ed moveme("s of "his =rea"ma)hi(e' 5hi)h baffles all "he pe(e"ra"io( of mor"alsA a(d i" 5ill

for ever remai( impossible for ma(' from "he mos" )omple"e a(alsis

of his prese(" si"ua"io(' "o >ud=e' 5i"h a( de=ree of pre)isio(' ofhis o5( )o(se?ue()e' ei"her as a )i"ie( of "he 5orld a" lar=e' or

as a member of a( par"i)ular so)ie" ;F7o for "he po5er of )ommu(i)a"i(= "hose

adva("a=es "he (o5 implore from o"hers i( vai( !hile' a" "he same"ime' "he have' perhaps' "he addi"io(al miser of seei(= "he mos"

e(deared rela"io(s i(volved i( "he same deplorable fa"eK Ho5 of"e(

do 5e see "hose "ies 5hi)h u(i"e "he soul a(d bod' 5or( ou" b "he=radual adva()es of a li(=eri(= disease' or burs" a" o()e b "he

sudde( effor"s of u(u""erable a=o( !hile "he u(happ sufferers'

had "he bee( )o("i(ued i( life' mi=h" have diffused happi(ess' (o"o(l "hrou=h "he (arro5 )ir)le of "heir ;91< frie(ds a(d

(ei=hbourhood' bu" as e@"e(sivel as "heir )ou("r' a(d eve( "he5orld a" lar=e Ho5 ma( (ames do 5e see buried i( obs)uri"' or

soiled 5i"h de"ra)"io(' 5hi)h ou=h" "o have sho(e "he firs" i( fame

Ho5 ma( heroes have survived "he liber"ies of "heir )ou("r' ordied i( abor"ive a""emp"s "o preserve "hem2 a(d' b "heir fall' o(l

lef" a lar=er field for "he la5less rava=es of "ra(( a(doppressio(

*u" 5ere i" possible' ho5 lo(= a(d i(superable 5ould be "he

"as4 "o e(umera"e all "he i(=redie("s 5hi)h )ompose "he prese(" )upof bi""er(ess $(d is "his "he )o(summa"io( of "hi(=s !ill supreme

a(d esse("ial =ood(ess (o 5a dis"i(=uish su)h as have i(variabl

pursued his ho(our' a(d "he i("eres" of his =over(me("' from "hose5ho have i(dus"riousl viola"ed "he order he has appoi("ed i(

"hi(=s 5ho have blo""ed "he fa)e of (a"ure 5i"h havo)4' murder' a(ddesola"io(2 a(d she5( a )o(s"a(" i("e("io( "o )ou("era)" all "he

be(evole(" desi=(s of provide()e I" is )o(fessed "ha" "he vir"uous'

happ i( "he possessio( of vir"ue alo(e' ma4e "heir e@i" from "heprese(" s)e(e 5i"h blessi(=s "o "he Crea"or' for havi(= )alled "hem

"o e@is"e()e' a(d =ive( "hem "he =lorious oppor"u(i" of e(>oi(=

5ha" is i( i"self supremel eli=ible The are )o(s)ious "ha" "hisfeli)i" )a( re)eive (o a))essio( from a( e@"er(al lus"re or

adva("a=e ;9B< 5ha"ever +e" i" seems hi=hl (e)essar i( "he divi(e

admi(is"ra"io(' "ha" "hose 5ho have bee( daled 5i"h "he false

=lare of prosperous 5i)4ed(ess' should a" las" be u(de)eived2 "ha""he should a" las" behold vir"ue )o(spi)uous' i( all her (a"ive

sple(dor a(d ma>es" as she shi(es' "he )hief deli=h" of od' a(dul"ima"e happi(ess of all i("elli=e(" (a"ure

The la(=ua=e of reli=io(' a(d our o5( hear"s' o( "his impor"a("ar=ume("' is e?uall )omfor"able a(d de)isive I" a))umula"es a(d


32/54

e(for)es 5ha"ever )a( i(spire us 5i"h )o(fide()e i( "ha" od' 5ho is

(o" "he od of "he dead' bu" of "he livi(=2 5ho rei=(s i( "hei(visible' as 5ell as i( "he visible 5orld2 a(d 5hose a""e("io( "o

our 5elfare )eases (o" 5i"h our lives' bu" is )omme(sura"e "o "he

full e@"e(" of our bei(= I(deed "he vo"aries of "he soul0smor"ali" ma as 5ell be ho(es" for o()e' a(d spea4 ou" 5ha" so ma(

fools "hi(4 i( "heir hear"s -or 5ha" is od "o us' or 5e "o him' if

our )o((e)"io( e@"e(ds bu" "o "he pi"iful spa)e allo""ed us i( su)ha pi"iful 5orld as "his is To be sure' (o absurdi" 5ill be

re>e)"ed' 5hi)h )a( smo"her "he feeli(=s' or 4eep "he vi)es ofprofli=a"es i( )ou("e(a()e2 bu"' if o(l made li4e 5orms a(d

rep"iles be(ea"h our fee"' "o live "his mome("' a(d e@pire "he (e@"'

"o s"ru==le i( a 5re")hed life 5i"h ever i("er(al a(d e@"er(al)alami"' ;93< "ha" )a( assaul" our bodies' or i(fes" our mi(ds2 "o

bear "he mor"ifi)a"io(s of mali=(i"' a(d "he u(meri"ed abhorre()eof "hose 5ho perhaps ma o5e us "he =rea"es" a(d "e(deres" es"eem'a(d "he(' su(4 i( everlas"i(= oblivio(' our fa"e 5ould s"a(d o(

re)ord' i( "he a((als of "he u(iverse' a( e"er(al e@)ep"io( "o all

"ha" )a( be )alled =ood

&uppose a fa"her possessed of "he mos" e@?uisi"e "e(der(ess for

his so(' deli=h"ed 5i"h his similari" of form' his promisi(=)o(s"i"u"io(' his s"re(="h' =ra)eful(ess' a(d a=ili"' his

u(dis=uised emo"io(s of filial affe)"io(' 5i"h "he various presa=esof a superior =e(ius a(d u(ders"a(di(= Le" us suppose "his fa"her

pleased 5i"h "he emplome(" of improvi(= his fa)ul"ies' a(d

i(spiri(= him 5i"h fu"ure hopes of happi(ess a(d di=(i"A bu" "ha"he ma =ive him a ?ui)4er se(sibili" "o "he misfor"u(es of o"hers'

a(d a more u(sha4e( for"i"ude "o sus"ai( his o5(' he of"e( prefers

ou(=er bre"hre(' a(d eve( s"ra(=ers' "o "hose adva("a=es 5hi)ho"her5ise meri"' a(d "he for)e of (a"ure 5ould de"ermi(e him "o

bes"o5 o( so 5or"h a( offspri(= Le" us =o fur"her' a(d ima=i(e' if

5e )a(' "ha" "his fa"her' 5i"hou" "he leas" dimi(u"io( of

"e(der(ess' or a( o"her appare(" reaso(' des"ros his so( i( "hebloom of life' a(d hei=h" of e@pe)"a"io(A !ho 5ould (o" lame(" "he

fa"e of su)h a ou"h 5i"h i()o(solable "ears ;9F< Doomed (ever more"o behold "he a=reeable li=h" of Heave(K (ever more "o displa his

perso(al =ra)es' (or e@er)ise his ma(l po5ers' (ever more "o feel

his hear" 5arm 5i"h be(evole(" re=ards' (or "as"e "he soul"ra(spor"i(= pleasure of obli=i(= a(d bei(= obli=edK *lo""ed a" o()e


33/54

from e@is"e()e' a(d "he fair )rea"io(' he si(4s i("o sile()e a(d

oblivio(' 5i"h all his sublime hopes disappoi("ed' all his imme(sedesires u(=ra"ified' a(d all his i("elle)"ual fa)ul"ies u(improved

!i"hou" me("io(i(= "he i(s"i()"ive horror 5hi)h mus" a""e(d su)h a(

a)"io(' ho5 absurd "o reaso(' a(d ho5 i()o(sis"e(" 5i"h "he )ommo(feeli(=s of huma(i" 5ould i" be "o suppose a fa"her )apable of su)h

a deed -orbid i"' odK forbid i"' Na"ureK "ha" 5e should impu"e "o

"he mu(ifi)e(" fa"her of bei(= a(d happi(ess' 5ha"' eve( i( "helo5es" of ra"io(al )rea"ures' 5ould be mo(s"rous a(d de"es"ableK

6G: The "ru"h is' "ha" form 5hi)h all ma(4i(d have deemed

immor"al' is so far from bei(= "he frailes"' "ha" i" seems i( fa)"

"he mos" i(dissoluble a(d perma(e(" of a( o"her 5e 4(o5 $ll "hera"io(al a(d i(ve("ive po5ers of "he mi(d happil )o(spire "o

pro)laim her i(fi(i"el differe(" i( (a"ure' a(d superior i( di=(i""o ever possible modifi)a"io( of pure ma""er !ere ma(4i(d ;9Goi(ed i( so)ie"' 5as life polished a(d )ul"iva"ed' 5ere "he

s)ie()es a(d ar"s' (o" o(l of u"ili"' bu" ele=a()e' produ)ed b

ma""er b a bru"e mass $ subs"a()e so )o("rar "o all a)"ivi" a(di("elli=e()e' "ha" i" seems "he 5or4 of a( om(ipo"e(" ha(d alo(e "o

)o((e)" "hem !ha" >ud=eme(" should 5e form of "ha" pri()iple 5hi)h

i(formed a(d e(li=h"e(ed a alileo' a Coper(i)us' or a Ne5"o( !ha"i(spira"io( "au=h" "hem' "o pla)e "he fu( i( "he )e("er of "his

ss"em' a(d assi=( "he various orbs "heir revolu"io(s rou(d him'redu)i(= mo"io(s so diverse a(d u(e?ual' "o u(iform a(d simple la5s

!as i" (o" some"hi(= li4e "ha" =rea" e"er(al mi(d' 5hi)h firs" =ave

e@is"e()e "o "hose lumi(ous orbs' a(d pres)ribed ea)h of "hem "heirprovi()e !he()e "he i(fi(i"e harmo( a(d varie" of sou(d' "he

)opious flo5s of elo?ue()e' "he bolder =ra)es a(d more i(spired

eleva"io(s of poe"r' bu" from a mi(d' a( imma"erial bei(=' "herefle)"ed ima=e of her allperfe)" Crea"or' i( 5hom e"er(all d5ells

all beau" a(d e@)elle()e !ere ma( o(l e(do5ed 5i"h a pri()iple of

ve=e"a"io(' fi@ed "o o(e pe)uliar spo"' a(d i(se(sible of all "ha"

passed arou(d him2 5e mi=h"' "he(' 5i"h some )olour' suppose "ha"e(er=' if i" ma be so )alled' perishable !ere' he li4e a(imals

possessed of mere vi"ali"' a(d ?ualified o(l "o move a(d feel's"ill 5e mi=h" have some reaso( "o fear "ha"' ;99< i( some fu"ure

period of dura"io(' our Crea"or mi=h" resume his =if" of e@is"e()e

bu" )a( a( o(e' 5ho pre"e(ds "o "he leas" refle)"io(' ima=i(e "ha"su)h a bei(= as "he huma( soul' ador(ed 5i"h su)h e@"e(sive


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i("elle)"ual po5ers' 5ill ever )ease "o be "he ob>e)" of "ha" love

a(d )are 5hi)h e"er(all holds "he u(iverse i( i"s embra)e Did sheob"ai( su)h a bou(dless u(ders"a(di(= merel "o "as"e "he pleasure

of e@er)isi(= i" "o )a")h a "ra(sie(" =la()e of i"s ob>e)"s' a(d

perish -ormed' as she is' "o opera"e o( herself' a(d all "hi(=srou(d her' mus" she )ease from a)"io(' 5hile e" "he mi=h" "as4 is

s)ar)e be=u( mus" she lose "hose fa)ul"ies' b 5hi)h she re"ai(s

"he pas"' )omprehe(ds "he prese("s a(d presa=es "he fu"ure mus" she)o("empla"e (o more "hose bri=h" impressio(s of divi(i"' 5hi)h are

dis)overed i( "he ma"erial 5orld2 (or "hose s"ro(=er' a(d morea(ima"ed fea"ures of "he same e"er(al beau" 5hi)h shi(e i( her o5(

=odli4e form $(d mus" she be absorbed forever i( "he 5omb of

u(esse("ial (o"hi(= &"ra(=e' "ha" i( "he vie5' a(d eve( i( "he armsof i(fi(i"e po5er a(d =ood(ess' a da5( so fair a(d promisi(=' should

a" o(e be )louded 5i"h all "he horrors of e"er(al (i=h" &u)h asupposi"io( 5ould be )o("rar "he 5hole )o(du)" a(d la5s of (a"ure;97urious "o o"hers !he(

our life "herefore be)omes a miser "o ourselves' a(d is ofadva("a=e "o (o o(e' 5e are a" liber" "o pu" a( e(d "o our bei(=

If "here is a( su)h "hi(= as a )lear a(d selfevide(" ;7Jus"i)e a(d =ood(ess are "he fou(da"io( of mhopes2 a(d if I "hou=h" "ha" dea"h 5ould 5i"hdra5 me from his po5er'

I 5ould =ive up m resolu"io( "o die

This is o(e of "he ?uibbles of "he Phaedo' 5hi)h' i( o"her

respe)"s' abou(ds 5i"h sublime "ru"hs If our slave des"ros

himself' sas &o)ra"es "o Cebes' 5ould ou (o" pu(ish him' forhavi(= u(>us"l deprived ou of our proper"2 ;73< pri"hee' =ood

&o)ra"es' do 5e (o" belo(= "o od af"er 5e are dead The )ase oupu" is (o" appli)able2 ou ou=h" "o ar=ue "husA if ou i()umber our

slave 5i"h a habi" 5hi)h )o(fi(es him from dis)har=i(= his du"

properl' 5ill ou pu(ish him for ?ui""i(= i"' i( order "o re(derou be""er servi)e "he =ra(d error lies i( ma4i(= life of "oo =rea"

impor"a()e2 as if our e@is"e()e depe(ded upo( i"' a(d "ha" dea"h 5asa "o"al a((ihila"io( Our life is of (o )o(se?ue()e i( "he si=h" ofod2 i" is of (o impor"a()e i( "he ees of reaso(' (ei"her ou=h" i"

"o be of a( i( our si=h"2 5he( 5e ?ui" our bod' 5e o(l la aside

a( i()o(ve(ie(" habi" Is "his )ir)ums"a()e so pai(ful' "o be "heo))asio( of so mu)h dis"urba()e M Lord' "hese de)laimers are (o"

i( ear(es" Their ar=ume("s are absurd a(d )ruel' for "he a==rava"e

"he supposed )rime' as if i" pu" a period "o e@is"e()e' a(d "hepu(ish i"' as if "ha" e@is"e()e 5as e"er(al

!i"h respe)" "o Pla"o0s Phaedo' 5hi)h has fur(ished "hem 5i"h

"he o(l spe)ious ar=ume(" "ha" has ever bee( adva()ed' "he ?ues"io(

;7F< is dis)ussed "here i( a ver li=h" a(d desul"or ma((er&o)ra"es bei(= )o(dem(ed' b a( u(>us" >ud=me("' "o lose his life i(

a fe5 hours' had (o o))asio( "o e("er i("o a( a))ura"e e(?uir

5he"her he 5as a" liber" "o dispose of i" himself &upposi(= himreall "o have bee( "he au"hor of "hose dis)ourses 5hi)h Pla"o

as)ribes "o him' e" believe me' m lord' he 5ould have medi"a"ed

5i"h more a""e("io( o( "he sub>e)"' had he bee( i( )ir)ums"a()es

5hi)h re?uired him "o redu)e his spe)ula"io(s "o pra)"i)e2 a(d as"ro(= proof "ha" (o valid ob>e)"io( )a( be dra5( from "ha" immor"al

5or4 a=ai(s" "he ri=h" of disposi(= of our o5( lives' is' "ha" Ca"oread i" "5i)e "hrou=h "he ver (i=h" "ha" he des"roed himself

The same sophis"ers ma4e i" a ?ues"io( 5he"her life )a( ever bea( evil bu" 5he( 5e )o(sider "he mul"i"ude of errors' "orme("s' a(d


38/54

vi)es' 5i"h 5hi)h i" abou(ds' o(e 5ould ra"her be i()li(ed "o doub"

5he"her i" )a( ever be a blessi(= uil" i()essa("l besie=es "hemos" vir"uous of ma(4i(d Ever mome(" he lives he is i( da(=er of

falli(= a pre "o "he 5i)4ed' or of bei(= 5i)4ed himself To ;7Gus"ifiable "o )ure a "ra(sie(" disorder b "he appli)a"io( of

remedies' "ha( "o free ourselves from a( i()urable evil b pu""i(=a( e(d "o our life2 a(d le" "hem she5 ho5 i" )a( be less )rimi(al "o

use "he bar4 for a fever' "ha( "o "a4e opium for "he s"o(e If 5e)o(sider "he ob>e)" i( vie5' i" is i( bo"h )ases "o free ourselves

from pai(ful se(sa"io(s2 if 5e re=ard "he mea(s' bo"h o(e a(d "he

o"her are e?uall (a"ural2 if 5e )o(sider "he repu=(a()e of our(a"ure' i" opera"es e?uall o( bo"h sides2 if 5e a""e(d "o "he 5ill

of provide()e' )a( 5e s"ru==le a=ai(s" a( evil of 5hi)h i" is (o""he au"hor )a( 5e deliver ourselves from a( "orme(" 5hi)h "he ha(dof od has (o" i(fli)"ed 5ha" are "he bou(ds 5hi)h limi" his po5er'

a(d 5he( resis"a()e la5ful are 5e "he( "o ma4e (o al"era"io( i( "he

)o(di"io( of "hi(=s' be)ause ever "hi(= is i( "he s"a"e heappoi("ed mus" 5e do (o"hi(= i( "his life' for fear of i(fri(=i(=

his la5s' or is i" i( our po5er "o brea4 "hem if 5e 5ould (o' m

lord' "he o))upa"io( of ma( is more =rea" a(d (oble od did (o"=ive him life "ha" he should supi(el ;83< remai( i( a s"a"e of

)o(s"a(" i(a)"ivi" *u" he =ave him freedom "o a)"' )o(s)ie()e "o5ill' a(d reaso( "o )hoose 5ha" is =ood He has )o(s"i"u"ed him sole

>ud=e of all his a)"io(s He has e(=raved "his pre)ep" i( his hear"'

Do 5ha"ever ou )o()eive "o be for our o5( =ood' provided ou"hereb do (o i(>ur "o o"hers If m se(sa"io(s "ell me "ha" dea"h

is eli=ible' I resis" his orders b a( obs"i(a"e resolu"io( "o live2

for' b ma4i(= dea"h desirable' he dire)"s me "o pu" a( e(d "o mbei(=

M lord' I appeal "o our 5isdom a(d )a(dour2 5ha" more

i(fallible ma@ims )a( reaso( dedu)e from reli=io(' 5i"h respe)" "osui)ide If Chris"ia(s have adop"ed )o("rar "e(e"s' "he are

(ei"her dra5( from "he pri()iples of reli=io(' (or from "he o(lsure =uide' "he &)rip"ures' bu" borro5ed from "he Pa=a(

philosophers La)"a("ius a(d $u=us"i(e' "he firs" 5ho propa=a"ed

"his (e5 do)"ri(e' of 5hi)h esus Chris" a(d his apos"les "a4e (o(o"i)e' =rou(d "heir ar=ume("s e("irel o( "he reaso(i(= of Phaedo'


42/54

5hi)h I have alread ;8F< )o("rover"ed2 so "ha" "he believers' 5ho'

i( "his respe)"' "hi(4 "he are suppor"ed b "he au"hori" of "heospel' are i( fa)" o(l )ou("e(a()ed b "he au"hori" of Pla"o I(

"ru"h' 5here do 5e fi(d' "hrou=hou" "he 5hole bible a( la5 a=ai(s"

sui)ide' or so mu)h as a bare disapproba"io( of i"2 a(d is i" (o"ver u(a))ou("able' "ha" amo(= "he i(s"a()es produ)ed of perso(s 5ho

devo"ed "hemselves "o dea"h' 5e do (o" fi(d "he leas" 5ord of

improba"io( a=ai(s" e@amples of "his 4i(d (a' 5ha" is more' "hei(s"a()e of &amso(0s volu("ar dea"h is au"horied b a mira)le' b

5hi)h he reve(=es himself of his e(emies !ould "his mira)le havebee( displaed "o >us"if a )rime2 a(d 5ould "his ma(' 5ho los" his

s"re(="h b sufferi(= himself "o be sedu)ed b "he allureme("s of a

5oma(' have re)overed i" "o )ommi" a( au"horised )rime' as if odhimself 5ould pra)"i)e de)ei" o( me(

Thou shal" do (o murder' sas "he de)alo=ue2 5ha" are 5e "oi(fer from "his if "his )omma(dme(" is "o be "a4e( li"erall' 5e

;8G< mus" (o" des"ro malefa)"ors' (or our e(emiesA a(d Moses' 5ho

pu" so ma( people "o dea"h' 5as a bad i("erpre"er of his o5(pre)ep" If "here are a( e@)ep"io(s' )er"ai(l "he firs" mus" be i(

favour of sui)ide' be)ause i" is e@emp" from a( de=ree of viole()e

a(d i(>us"i)e' "he "5o o(l )ir)ums"a()es 5hi)h )a( ma4e homi)ide)rimi(al2 a(d be)ause (a"ure' moreover' has' i( "his respe)"' "hro5(

suffi)ie(" obs"a)les i( "he 5a

*u" s"ill "he "ell us' 5e mus" pa"ie("l e(dure "he evils

5hi)h od i(fli)"s' a(d ma4e a meri" of our sufferi(=s Thisappli)a"io( ho5ever of "he ma@ims of Chris"ia(i"' is ver ill

)al)ula"ed "o sa"isf our >ud=me(" Ma( is sub>e)" "o a "housa(d

"roubles' his life is a )ompli)a"io( of evils' a(d he seems "o havebee( bor( o(l "o suffer #easo( dire)"s him "o shu( as ma( of

"hese evils as he )a( avoid2 a(d reli=io(' 5hi)h is (ever i(

)o("radi)"io( "o reaso(' approves of his e(deavours *u" ho5

i()o(siderable is "he a))ou(" of "hese evils' i( )ompariso( 5i"h"hose he is obli=ed "o e(dure a=ai(s" his 5ill I" is 5i"h ;89ud=e 5hi)h of us is mos" dear "o "he o"her

!h should 5e dela doi(= "ha" 5hi)h 5e mus" do a" las" shall

5e 5ai" "ill old a=e a(d de)repid base(ess a""a)h us "o life' af"er

"he have robbed i" of i"s )harms' a(d "ill 5e are doomed "o dra= a(i(firm a(d de)repid bod 5i"h labour' a(d i=(omi(' a(d pai( !e are

a" a( a=e 5he( "he soul has vi=our "o dise(=a=e i"self 5i"h ease

from i"s sha)4les' a(d 5he( a ma( 4(o5s ho5 "o die as he ou=h"2 5he(far"her adva()ed i( ears' he suffers himself "o be "or( from life'

5hi)h he ?ui"s 5i"h relu)"a()e Le" us "a4e adva("a=e of "his "ime'

5he( "he "edium of life ma4es dea"h desirable2 a(d le" us "remble

for fear i" should )ome i( all i"s horrors' a" "he mome(" 5he( 5e)ould 5ish "o avoid i" I remember ;8< "he "ime' 5he( I praed "o

heave( o(l for a si(=le hour of life' a(d 5he( I should have diedi( despair if i" had (o" bee( =ra("ed $hK 5ha" a pai( i" is "o

burs" asu(der "he "ies 5hi)h a""a)h our hear"s "o "his 5orld' a(d

ho5 advisable i" is "o ?ui" life "he mome(" "he )o((e)"io( isbro4e(K I am se(sible' m lord' "ha" 5e are bo"h 5or"h of a purer


44/54

ma(sio(2 vir"ue poi("s i" ou"' a(d des"i( i(vi"es us "o see4 i"

Ma "he frie(dship 5hi)h i(vi"es us preserve our u(io( "o "he la"es"hourK O 5ha" a pleasure for "5o si()ere frie(ds volu("ar "o e(d

"heir das i( ea)h o"hers arms' "o i("ermi(=le "heir la"es" brea"h'

a(d a" "he same i(s"a(" "o =ive up "he soul 5hi)h "he shared i()ommo(K !ha" pai(' 5ha" re=re" )a( i(fe)" "heir las" mome("s !ha"

do "he ?ui" b "a4i(= leave of "he 5orld The =o "o=e"her2 "he

?ui" (o"hi(= ;Jud=me(" bu" )hoi)e2 for I )o(sidered our i(flue()e as a(addi"io(al mo"ive "o e@)i"e me "o "he s"ud of 5isdom *u" 5ha" do I

per)eive (o5 i( "he ar=ume("s of our le""er' 5i"h 5hi)h ou appear

"o be so hi=hl sa"isfied $ 5re")hed a(d perpe"ual sophis"r' 5hi)hi( "he erro(eous devia"io(s of our reaso( she5s "he disorder of

our mi(d' a(d 5hi)h I 5ould (o" s"oop "o refu"e' if I did (o"

)ommisera"e our delirium ;Be)" 5hi)h ma4es i" ei"her =ood or bad $f"er all' 5ha" are "hese

)ruel "orme("s 5hi)h for)e ou "o aba(do( life do ou ima=i(e' "ha"u(der our affe)"ed impar"iali" i( "he e(umera"io( of "he evils of

"his life' I did (o" dis)over "ha" ou 5as ashamed "o spea4 of our

o5( Trus" me' a(d do (o" a" o()e aba(do( ever vir"ue Preserve a"

leas" our 5o("ed si()eri"' a(d spea4 "hus ope(l "o our frie(d2I have los" all hope of sedu)i(= a modes" 5oma(' I am oli=ed

"herefore "o be a ma( of vir"ue2 I had mu)h ra"her die

+ou are 5ear of livi(=2 a(d ou "ell me' "ha" life is a( evil

&oo(er or la"er ou 5ill ;9< re)eive )o(sola"io(' a(d "he( ou 5illsa life is a blessi(= +ou 5ill spea4 5i"h more "ru"h' "hou=h (o"


47/54


48/54

*u" i" is o"her5ise 5i"h "he affli)"io(s of "he mi(d' 5hi)h'

le" "hem be ever so a)u"e' al5as )arr "heir remed 5i"h "hem I(fa)"' 5ha" is i" "ha" ma4es a( evil i("olerable No"hi(= bu" i"s

dura"io( The opera"io(s of sur=er are =e(erall mu)h more pai(ful

"ha( "he disorders "he )ure2 bu" "he pai( o))asio(ed b "he la""eris las"i(=' "ha" of "he opera"io( is mome("ar' a(d "herefore

preferable !ha" o))asio( is "here "herefore for a( opera"io( "o

remove "roubles 5hi)h die of )ourse b "heir dura"io(' "he o(l)ir)ums"a()e 5hi)h )ould re(der "hem i(suppor"able Is i" reaso(able

"o appl su)h despera"e remedies "o evils 5hi)h e@pire of"hemselves To a ma( 5ho values himself o( his for"i"ude' ;< a(d

5ho es"ima"es ears a" "heir real value' of "5o 5as b 5hi)h he ma

e@"ri)a"e himself from "he same "roubles' 5hi)h 5ill appearpreferable' dea"h or "ime Have pa"ie()e' a(d ou 5ill be )ured

!ha" 5ould ou desire more

OhK ou 5ill sa' i" doubles m affli)"io(s "o refle)" "ha"

"he 5ill )ease a" las"K This is "he vai( sophis"r of =riefK a(

apoph"he=m void of reaso(' of proprie"' a(d perhaps of si()eri"!ha" a( absurd mo"ive of despair is "he hope of "ermi(a"i(=

miserK1J Eve( allo5i(= "his fa("as"i)al refle)"io(' 5ho 5ould (o"

)huse "o e()rease "he prese(" pai( for a mome("' u(der "he assura()eof pu""i(= a( e(d "o i"' as 5e s)arif a 5ou(d i( order "o heal i"

a(d admi""i(= a( )harm i( =rief' "o ma4e us i( love 5i"h sufferi(=';1JJ< 5he( 5e release ourselves from i" b pu""i(= a( e(d "o our

bei(=' do 5e (o" a" "ha" i(s"a(" i()ur all "ha" 5e apprehe(d

hereaf"er

#efle)" "horou=hl' ou(= ma(2 5ha" are "e(' "5e("' "hir"

ears' i( )ompe"i"io( 5i"h immor"ali" Pai( a(d pleasure pass li4ea shado52 life slides a5a i( a( i(s"a("2 i" is (o"hi(= of i"self2

i"s value depe(ds o( "he use 5e ma4e of i" The =ood "ha" 5e have

do(e is all "ha" remai(s' a(d i" is "ha" alo(e 5hi)h mar4s i"s

impor"a()e

Therefore do (o" sa a( more "ha" our e@is"e()e is a( evil'si()e i" depe(ds upo( ourself "o ma4e i" a blessi(=2 a(d if i" be

a( evil "o have lived' "his is a( addi"io(al reaso( for prolo(=i(=

life Do (o" pre"e(d (ei"her "o sa a( more "ha" ou are a" liber""o die2 for i" is as mu)h as "o sa "ha" ou have po5er "o al"er


49/54

our (a"ure' "ha" ou have a ri=h" "o revol" a=ai(s" "he au"hor of

our bei(=' a(d "o frus"ra"e "he e(d of our e@is"e()e *u" 5he( ouadd' "ha" our dea"h does i(>ur "o ;1J1< (o o(e' do ou re)olle)"

"ha" ou ma4e "his de)lara"io( "o our frie(d

+our dea"h does i(>ur "o (o o(e I u(ders"a(d ouK +ou "hi(4

"he loss I shall sus"ai( b our dea"h of (o impor"a()e2 ou deem m

affli)"io( of (o )o(se?ue()e I 5ill ur=e "o ou (o more "he ri=h"sof frie(dship' 5hi)h ou despise2 bu" are "here (o" obli=a"io(s

s"ill more dear'11 5hi)h ou=h" "o i(du)e ou "o preserve ourlife If "here be a perso( i( "he 5orld 5ho loved ou "o "ha" de=ree

as "o be u(5illi(= "o survive ou' a(d 5hose happi(ess depe(ds o(

ours' do ou "hi(4 "ha" ou have (o obli=a"io(s "o her !ill (o""he e@e)u"io( of our 5i)4ed desi=( dis"urb "he pea)e of a mi(d'

5hi)h has bee( 5i"h su)h diffi)ul" res"ored "o i"s formeri((o)e()e $re (o" ou afraid "o add fresh "orme("s "o a hear" ofsu)h se(sibili" $re (o" ou apprehe(sive lef" our dea"h should be

a""e(ded ;1JB< 5i"h a loss more fa"al' 5hi)h 5ould deprive "he 5orld

a(d vir"ue i"self of i"s bri=h"es" or(ame(" $(d if she shouldsurvive ou' are (o" ou afraid "o rouse up remorse i( her bosom'

5hi)h is more =rievous "o suppor" "ha( life i"self Thou u(=ra"eful

frie(dK "hou i(deli)a"e loverK 5il" "hou al5as be "a4e( up 5holl5i"h "hself !il" "hou al5as "hi(4 o( "h o5( "roubles alo(e Has"

"hou (o re=ard for "he happi(ess of o(e 5ho 5as so dear "o "hee a(d)a((o" "hou resolve "o live for her 5ho 5as 5illi(= "o die 5i"h

"hee

+ou "al4 of "he du"ies of a ma=is"ra"e' a(d of a fa"her of a

familA a(d be)ause ou are (o" u(der "hose )ir)ums"a()es' ou "hi(4

ourself absolu"el free $(d are ou "he( u(der (o obli=a"io(s "oso)ie"' "o 5hom ou are i(deb"ed for our preserva"io(' our

"ale("s' our u(ders"a(di(= do ou o5e (o"hi(= "o our (a"ive

)ou("r' a(d "o "hose u(happ people 5ho ma (eed our e@is"e()eK O

5ha" a( a))ura"e )al)ula"io( ou ma4eK amo(= "he obli=a"io(s ouhave e(umera"ed' ;1J3< ou have o(l omi""ed "hose of a ma( a(d of a

)i"ie( !here is "he vir"uous pa"rio"' 5ho refused "o e(lis" u(dera forei=( pri()e' be)ause his blood ou=h" (o" "o be spli" bu" i( "he

servi)e of his )ou("r2 a(d 5ho (o5' i( a fi" of despair' is read

"o shed i" a=ai(s" "he e@press prohibi"io( of "he la5s The la5s'"he la5s' ou(= ma(K did a( 5ise ma( ever despise "hem &o)ra"es'


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"hou=h i((o)e("' ou" of re=ard "o "hem refused "o ?ui" his priso(

+ou do (o" s)ruple "o viola"e "hem b ?ui""i(= life u(>us"l2 a(dou as4' 5ha" i(>ur do I

+ou e(deavour "o >us"if ourself b e@ample +ou presume "ome("io( "he #oma(sA ou "al4 of "he #oma(sK i" be)omes ou i(deed "o

)i"e "hose illus"rious (ames Tell me' did *ru"us die a lover i(

despair' a(d did Ca"o plu(=e "he da==er i( his breas" for hismis"ress Thou 5ea4 a(d ab>e)" ma(K 5ha" resembla()e is "here

be"5ee( Ca"o a(d "hee &he5 me "he )ommo( s"a(dard be"5ee( "ha"sublime soul a(d "hi(e $h vai( 5re")hK hold "h pea)eA I am afraid

"o profa(e ;1JF< his (ame b a vi(di)a"io( of his )o(du)" $" "ha"

au=us" a(d sa)red (ame ever frie(d "o vir"ue should bo5 "o "he=rou(d' a(d ho(our "he memor of "he =rea"es" hero i( sile()e

Ho5 ill ou have sele)"ed our e@amples' a(d ho5 mea(l ou>ud=e of "he #oma(s' if ou ima=i(e "ha" "he "hou=h" "hemselves a"

liber" "o ?ui" life so soo( as i" be)ame a burde( "o "hem #e)ur "o

"he e@)elle(" das of "ha" republi)' a(d see( 5he"her ou 5ill fi(da si(=le )i"ie( of vir"ue' 5ho "hus freed himself from "he

dis)har=e of his du" eve( af"er "he mos" )ruel misfor"u(es !he(

#e=ulus 5as o( his re"ur( "o Car"ha=e' did he preve(" "he "orme("s5hi)h he 4(e5 5ere prepari(= for him b des"roi(= himself !ha"

5ould (o" Pos"humus have =ive(' 5he( obli=ed "o pass u(der "he o4ea" Caudium' had "his resour)e bee( >us"ifiable Ho5 mu)h did eve(

"he se(a"e admire "ha" effor" of )oura=e' 5hi)h e(abled "he )o(sul

arro "o survive his defea" -or 5ha" reaso( did so ma( =e(eralsvolu("ar surre(der "hemselves "o "heir e(emies' "he "o 5hom

i=(omi( 5as so dreadful' ;1JG< a(d 5ho 5ere so li""le afraid of

di(= I" 5as be)ause "he )o(sidered "heir blood' "heir life' a(d"heir la"es" brea"h' as devo"ed "o "heir )ou("r2 a(d (ei"her shame

(or misfor"u(e )ould dissuade "hem from "his sa)red du" *u" 5he(

"he la5s 5ere subver"ed' a(d "he s"a"e be)ame a pre "o "ra((' "he

)i"ie(s resumed "heir (a"ural liber"' a(d "he ri=h" "he had over"heir o5( lives !he( #ome 5as (o more' i" 5as la5ful for "he #oma(s

"o =ive up "heir lives2 "he had dis)har=ed "heir du"ies o( ear"h'"he had (o lo(=er a( )ou("r "o defe(d' "he 5ere "herefore a"

liber" "o dispose of "heir lives' a(d "o ob"ai( "ha" freedom for

"hemselves 5hi)h "he )ould (o" re)over for "heir )ou("r $f"erhavi(= spe(" "heir das i( "he servi)e of e@piri(= #ome' a(d i(


51/54

fi=h"i(= for "he defe()e of i"s la5s' "he died =rea" vir"uous as

"he had lived' a(d "heir dea"h 5as a( addi"io(al "ribu"e "o "he=lor of "he #oma( (ame' si()e (o(e of "hem beheld a fi=h" above all

o"hers mos" disho(ourable' "ha" of a "rue )i"ie( s"oopi(= "o a(

usurper ;1J9ud=es of o"hers b

himself Never"heless' ho5 ma( i(s"a()es are "here' 5ell a""es"ed'

of me(' i( ever o"her respe)" perfe)"l dis)ree"' 5ho' 5i"hou"remorse' ra=e' or despair' have ?ui""ed life for (o o"her reaso(

"ha( be)ause i" 5as a burde( "o "hem' a(d have died 5i"h more)omposure "ha( "he lived

1JNo' m lord' 5e do (o" pu" a( e(d "o miser b "hese mea(s'bu" ra"her fill "he measure of affli)"io(' b burs"i(= asu(der "he


54/54

las" "ies 5hi)h a""a)h us "o feli)i" !he( 5e re=re" 5ha" 5as dear

"o us' =rief i"self s"ill a""a)hes us "o "he ob>e)" 5e lame("' 5hi)his a s"a"e less deplorable "ha( "o be a""a)hed "o (o"hi(=

11Obli=a"io(s more dear "ha( "hose of frie(dshipK Is i" aphilosopher 5ho "al4s "hus *u" "his affe)"ed sophis" 5as of a(

amorous disposi"io(

essays on suicide and the immortality of the soul

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