THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MINES AND MINERAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The Generation and Retention of Aerosol Nanoparticles by comparing two PVC

filter membranes of different pore size at Kansanshi Mining PLC.

DECEMBER, 2014.

PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE

IN

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

BY

NGANDU ERIC

(10275959)

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

DR. P. MWAANGA

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LETTER OF TRANSIMITTAL

The Project Supervisor,

The Copperbelt University

Department of Environmental Engineering

P.O Box 21692.

KITWE.

Dear Sir,

REF: SUBMISSION OF THE FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

In partial fulfilment of a Bachelor’s Degree in Environmental Engineering, I submit this

report to the Copperbelt University in the faculty of the Environmental Engineering under

the school of Mines and Mineral Sciences.

My sincere hope is that this report will help meet the main objective and that the results

and recommendations can be applied to protect and understand the generation and

distribution of aerosol nanoparticles in mining environment.

Yours faithfully,

NGANDU ERIC

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DECLARATION

I, Ngandu Eric, declare that the work and information contained in this document is the

absolute truth and is my own. All the work by other persons and the sources has been

rightfully and duly acknowledged. To the best of my knowledge, I further affirm that this

work has never been presented at this or any other university.

Author’s Signature

……………………………….. Date ………………………………….

Supervisors Signature

……………………………… Date …………………………………..

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DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate this report to my family; Dad Geoffrey Ngandu , Mum Violet

Ngambo Makeche, my brother Elvis Ngandu, and my sisters; Angela Ngandu, Andrea

Ngandu and Catherine Ngandu for the support they rendered to me both financially and

morally. Above all I would like to thank my God for giving me strength and good health

throughout my project.

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ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS

I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Phenny Mwaanga for his guidance and support.

His patience, trust and professional spirit he devoted to this work helped me in pursuing

my academic goals. He constantly pushed me to become a better environmental engineer

and search for the truth.

I am also grateful to my friends, Danny Simwanza, Walubita Mufalo, Jethro Katantha Jr,

Chitoshi Mukuka, Musonda Chizinga, Mafunda Mukuma and Trevor Lee Barry for

providing counsel, insight, and encouragement throughout the past years.

Thank you to Mr Martin Gilchrist, Mr Fred Mangala and Stanley Mayonde of Kansanshi

Mine Safety Department, Mr M. Munyenyembe for providing guidance, as well as thought-

provoking discussions about experimental results.

Finally, I have to express the deepest gratitude to my family. Their love, pride and

encouragement have made all the difference. The work ethic that my mother and father

have instilled in me was my single most valuable tool throughout this process. I appreciate

the tremendous efforts and sacrifices that they have consistently made throughout their

own lives to ensure that I was never limited for opportunity.

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Table of Contents LETTER OF TRANSIMITTAL ................................................................................................................. i

DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................. ii

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ iii

ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS ..................................................................................................................... iv

List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. vi

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. vii

1.0. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………………….1

1.1. Problem Statement ……………………………………………………………………………..….3

1.2. Research Hypothesis………………………………………………………................................3

1.3. Justification………………………………………………………………………………………....3

1.4. Main Objective………………………………………………………………………………………4

2.0. MINE BACKGROUND …….………………………………………………………………………….5

2.1. Nanotechnology…………………………………………………………………………………..6

2.2. Nanoparticles ………………………………………………………………………………..……7

3.0. METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………………………………11

3.1. Sample Collection……………………………………………………………………………..…11

3.2. Lab Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………..21

4.0. RESULTS……………………………………………………………………………………………22

4.1. Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………..…26

5.0. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………….27

5.1. Recommendations………………………………………………………………………….......28

6.0. APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………………………29

7.0. REFERENCES ….…………………………………………………………………………………33

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List of Figures

Figure 1 Spectrum of PVC-acrylic filter taken at beam focus, 400 to 3400 cm-3 .................................. 10

Figure 2 Characteristic FTIR spectrum of sample on polymer membrane filter ................................... 10

Figure 3 Gyratory Crusher with dump truck feeding rocks and Aerosol nanoparticles being

generated ............................................................................................................................................ 14

Figure 4 Google earth map showing Gyro Crushers ............................................................................. 15

Figure 5 Main 8 showing moving Dump Trucks and Drillers generating aerosol nanoparticles .......... 17

Figure 6 Projection of mass differences of 0.5µm and 0.8µm filter membranes at Gyratory crushers

.............................................................................................................................................................. 22

Figure 7 Projection of mass differences of 0.5µm and 0.8µm filter membranes from the main pit ... 22

Figure 8 Projection of mass differences of 0.5µm and 0.8µm filter membranes from the underground

portal ..................................................................................................................................................... 23

Figure 9 Graph showing the concentration of silica retained on both filter membranes at the Gyratory

Crushers ................................................................................................................................................ 24

Figure 10 Graph showing the concentration of silica retained on both filter membranes at the Main Pit

.............................................................................................................................................................. 25

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ABSTRACT

Aerosol Nanoparticles are very tiny nanometre (one billionth of a metre) sized particles

which are ubiquitous on earth. One of the common places to get exposed to these

nanoparticles is the mining industry.

This study investigates the generation of these aerosol nanoparticles, shows how they can

be distributed, compares and contrasts the retention of these aerosol nanoparticles on a

0.5µm filter membrane and the 0.8µm filter membrane which is currently in use at

Kansanshi Mining PLC. The Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to

identify the presence of Crystalline Silica in the samples retained on both the 0.5µm and

0.8µm and the GIL 5 Air check was used to capture the aerosol nanoparticles on the filter

membranes that are equipped in the cassettes of the GIL 5 Air Check.

In Zambian mining regulations, aerosol nanoparticles monitoring in the mines has always

been a challenge and some critical component such as crystalline silica have no standard

exposure limits (Hambuyu et al, 2008). Samples were carefully collected from various

mining activities such as blasting, gyratory stone crushing and general surroundings by

placing them on the operators working in the areas being sampled. The GIL 5 air check

pump was used to collect the samples for a shift duration of not less than 6hours which

were later analysed using the FTIR which is used to identify the presence Crystalline Silica.

The results therefore showed how the concentration of crystalline silica that is exposed to

the workers through the mining activities, can be reduced by using the 0.5µm filter

membrane as a pore size of the personal protective equipment that is available for use.

Keywords: Aerosol Nanoparticles, Crystalline silica nanoparticles, Fourier

Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Mining

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0. INTRODUCTION

Zambia is one of the many fast developing nations in Africa and for this reason, it is

taking part in the most of the new sciences and technological frontiers (Ampian, et al,

2005). One such latest technological frontier is the venturing into Nanotechnology. The

term ‘’nanotechnology’’ refers to the technologies of the very small substances, with

dimensions in the nanometer range (Cui et al, 2002). Nanotechnologies exploit the

specific properties that arise from re-structuring matter at meso-scale characterized by

the interplay of classical physics and quantum mechanics (Cui et al, 2003).

The word nanoparticle is used to describe particles with diameters ranging from 1 to

more than 1000 nm. In addition to their size, these nanoparticles vary in their

morphology (Davda et al, 2002). A specific group of nanoparticles is categorized as

aerosol nanoparticles, and the nanoparticles that are discussed in this paper belong to

this group. The precise definition of an Aerosol Nanoparticle is a solid or liquid

suspended in a gas, thus the term aerosol refers to both the particle and the gas (Maria

et al, 2011). According to this definition, almost all nanoparticles could be considered

to be aerosol, but in this study only particles suspended in an air parcel will be termed

as aerosol nanoparticles.

Aerosol nanoparticles in mining environments may be generated from a wide variety of

sources, depending on the type of activity and processes taking place. Nanoparticle

aerosols arising from mechanical processes (e.g. underground mining, blasting, milling,

crushing and concentrator works) are likely to be formed. Nanoparticles exhibit

increased diffusivity with decreasing size and therefore show delayed sedimentation in

the earth’s gravitational field, which translates into potentially increased lifetimes for

nanoparticulate impurities at low concentration (Chen et al, 2012).

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The most myriad aerosol nanoparticles that are generated in mining environment are

crystalline silica nanoparticles. Crystalline silica is a hard, chemically inert and has a

high melting point; it is a substance which is a by-product of many mining activities and

processes (Jones et al, 1967). The most common form of this crystalline silica is quartz

(IMA Europe, 2014). Therefore the fact that this ubiquitous compound is found in all

mining processes, makes the possibility of exposure very high by mine workers. Thus

workers in a large variety of industries and specifically the mining industry may be

exposed to crystalline silica because of its widespread natural occurrence and the wide

use of the materials and products containing it (silica) (OSHA gazette, 2014).

This study was mainly aimed at comparing the particle retention of samples on two

PVC filter membranes fitted in an air sampling device and identifying the presence of

crystalline silica. A 0.8µm PVC filter membrane and a 0.5µm PVC filter membrane were

used to measure and investigate the particle retention. Devices that were used in this

study included a GIL 5 air sampling pump and a Fourier Transform Infrared

spectroscopy (FTIR).

The Gil 5 personal air sampling pump is a suction air pump that is fitted with a

membrane casket in which a filter membrane is fitted and left open on one end to suck

in the ambient air together with its particles. The person equips the pump by harnessing

it on the belt or putting it in the pocket while the tube runs up the person’s garments

and up to the individuals breathing area (Ampian, et al, 1992).

The Fourier transform Infrared Spectroscopy is a technique used to measure how well

a sample absorbs light. Because of this, the particles which could either be liquid or

solid and in this case the solid crystalline silica particles will be identified.

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1.1. Problem Statement

The generation of aerosol nanoparticles has always been an issue of major concern

in the mining sector in Zambia. Mining activities are a major contributor to the

generation of aerosol nanoparticles in which most particles generated do not get

trapped or retained by the conventional pore size of the filter membranes currently

used as protective dust masks. This exposure to these nanoparticles (mostly

crystalline silica) results in acquiring pulmonary diseases such as silicosis. Therefore

it is imperative that this problem is addressed in the effort to greatly reduce the

exposure.

1.2. Research Hypothesis

Some mining activities can generate crystalline silica nanoparticles that are found in

the respirable dust and are capable of passing through the 0.8µm filter membrane

currently in use in dust masks.

1.3. Justification

It is essential to investigate the aerosol nanoparticles generated as a result of mining

activities and identify them due to the fact that Zambia has for a long time published

a lot of information about Particulate Matter found in the dust emitted from the mining

activities but has neglected the possibility of this dust possessing very tiny particles

in the nanometre range that are capable of passing through the dust preventive filter

membranes being used. This study will integrate the new technology of nanoparticles

and promote the use of better and safer filter membrane pore size to help prevent the

acquiring of certain pulmonary diseases such as silicosis.

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1.4. Main Objective

Assessing the generation and distribution of aerosol nanoparticles as a result of

mining activities by contrasting and comparing the retention of nanoparticles on two

PVC filter membranes of 0.5µm and 0.8µm pore size.

1.4.1. Specific Objectives

To assess the respirable dust and investigate the presence of

aerosol nanoparticles as a result of mining activities like blasting,

drilling and crushing.

To measure the sizes and mineralogy of the aerosol nanoparticles.

Compare the mass concentrations of the nanoparticles on the

0.8µm PVC filter membrane and the 0.5µm PVC filter membrane.

Identify the presence of crystalline silica in the nanoparticles.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Mine Background

Kansanshi Mining Plc., a double owned firm by First Quantum Mining Ltd and the

Zambian government in a percentage ratio of 80 to 20 respectively, is located at about

10km north of Solwezi, the administrative centre and headquarters of North Western

province. Kansanshi area used to be an environmentally degraded site; however, its

recommissioning provided an ideal opportunity to rectify residual adverse

environmental impacts. This is done by ensuring that lands that were deforested are

now vegetated, acid spills are minimized and controlled, to mention but a few. The

recent introduction of a game reserve area has been welcomed, as this will enable

the preservation and conservation of biodiversity in the woodlands surrounding the

mine.

Occupational Health and Safety (OHS), a section of the Safety department at

Kansanshi Mining Plc. is particularly interested in the health and safety of its

employees and surrounding communities such as Kabwela and Mushtala

communities. Kansanshi employees are exposed to hazardous conditions such as

intense heat, light, noise, dust emissions and gases to mention but a few, therefore,

the Occupational Health and Safety officers have to ensure that the employees and

communities are protected in accordance with the statutory regulations given by

ZEMA so as to adhere to the Kansanshi Mining Plc.

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2.2. Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is the art and science of manipulating matter at the atomic or

molecular scale and holds the promise of providing significant improvements in

technologies for protecting the environment (Hoet, et al, 2004).

While many definitions for nanotechnology exist, the U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) uses the definition developed by the National Nanotechnology Initiative

(NNI), a U.S. Government research and development (R&D) program established to

coordinate multi-agency efforts in nanoscale science, engineering, and technology

(Oberd orster et al, 2007). The NNI (NNI 2007) requires nanotechnology to involve all

of the following:

Research and technology development at the atomic, molecular, or

macromolecular levels, in the length scale of approximately 1-100 nanometer

(nm) range in any direction;

Creating and using structures, devices, and systems that have novel

properties and functions as a result of their small and/or intermediate size; and

Ability to control or manipulate on the atomic scale.

Nanotechnology is thus the technology of the extremely small; one nm is defined as

one billionth of a meter. In comparison, 1 nm is one fifty-thousandth of the diameter

of a human hair, or, if a nanometer was scaled to the diameter of a child’s marble,

then a meter would have to be scaled to the diameter of the Earth (Sattler, 2010).

Nanotechnology is often regarded as being a product of the latter part of the twentieth

century, a product of the drive towards miniaturization led by the semiconductor

industry. However, in a broader sense, nanotechnology has been around, albeit

unrealized as such, for a long time. Two thousand years ago the ancient Greeks used

a permanent hair-dying recipe that worked by depositing 5 nm lead sulfide crystals

inside hair. High-quality steel made in India before the turn of the first millennium has

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been shown to contain—and owe its outstanding properties to—carbide structures

similar to modern carbon nanotubes. Medieval artists colored stained glass using

metal nanoparticles (Ampian, et al, 2005). The difference between these ancient

examples of “nanotechnology” and the current situation is the ability to understand—

or at least embark on a path towards understanding—the fundamental principles

underlying Nano technological behavior, the ability to assess the current state of

knowledge, and the ability to systematically plan for the future based on that

knowledge.

2.3. Nanoparticles

All human beings are exposed to nanoparticles in their everyday life. Nanoparticles

are generated by several mechanisms including nature itself (in forests, oceans, and

deserts), and arise from anthropogenic sources such as combustion engines, car

tires, coal fires, cooking, mining and construction. It is well known that nanoparticles

can have a major impact on climate (Ramanathan et al, 2001) and public health (Hoet,

et al, 2004). Nanoparticles in the atmosphere affect the climate both by direct

scattering of short-wave incoming solar radiation and by influencing cloud formation

(Andreae et al, 2005). Although nanoparticles may have a positive effect on climate,

due to their effects on cloud formation, which is believed to reduce global warming

nanoparticles in the air have severe negative effects on human health. It has been

demonstrated that long-term exposure to airborne nanoparticles is an important risk

factor in mortality due to cardiopulmonary disease and lung cancer (Pope, 2002) the

word nanoparticle is used to describe particles with diameters ranging from 1 to more

than 1000 nm. Throughout this thesis the term nanoparticles is used to describe

particles with diameters roughly between 1 and 200 nm. In addition to their size, the

shape of nanoparticles can also vary significantly. Some nanoparticles are spherical

or almost spherical, some have a hexagonal shape, and others exhibit a less compact,

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chain-like structure. Furthermore, the internal structure of nanoparticles, often

meaning the way in which their atoms are distributed, may also vary. Some are

amorphous (randomly distributed atoms) while others are crystalline (regularly

distributed atoms) (Simonis et al 2006). Crystalline materials may be polycrystalline,

which means that the structure (particle) contains different areas with different single

crystalline orientations.

A specific group of nanoparticles is categorized as aerosol particles, and the majority

of the particles discussed in this thesis belong to this group. The precise definition of

an aerosol is a solid or liquid particle suspended in a gas (Hinds, 1982) thus the term

aerosol refers to both the particle and the gas. It should be noted, however, that this

expression is often used for the particle only. According to this definition, almost all

nanoparticles could be considered to be aerosol particles, but in this thesis only solid

particles suspended in dust generated from mining activities, will be termed aerosol

nanoparticles (Simonis et al 2006).

Sources of Nanoparticles

Natural sources of nanoparticles

Nanoparticles are abundant in nature, as they are produced in many natural

processes, including photochemical reactions, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and

simple erosion, and by plants and animals, e.g. shed skin and hair (Pope, 2002).

Though we usually associate air pollution with human activities – cars industry, and

charcoal burning, natural events such as dust storms, volcanic eruptions and forest

fires can produce such vast quantities of nanoparticulate matter that they profoundly

affect air quality worldwide.

The aerosols generated by human activities are estimated to be only about 10% of

the total, the remaining 90% having a natural origin (Taylor et al, 2002). These large-

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scale phenomena are visible from satellites and produce particulate matter and

airborne particles of dust and soot ranging from the micro- to nanoscales.

Small particles suspended in the atmosphere, often known as aerosols, affect the

entire planet’s energy balance because they both absorb radiation from the sun and

scatter it back to space (Houghton, 2005).

It has been estimated that the most significant components of total global atmospheric

aerosols are, in decreasing mass abundance: mineral aerosols primarily from soil

deflation (wind erosion) with a minor component (<1%) from volcanoes

(16.8Terragram), sea salt (3.6 Terragram), natural and anthropogenic sulfates (3.3

Terragram), products of biomass burning excluding soot (1.8 Terragram), and of

industrial sources including soot (1.4 Terragram), natural and anthropogenic

nonmethane hydrocarbons (1.3 Terragram), natural and anthropogenic nitrates (0.6

Terragram), and biological debris (0.5 Terragram) (Buseck et al , 1999) (NOTE:

terragram, equal to 1012 grams).

Anthropogenic sources of nanoparticles

Many of the human activities generate different forms of nanoparticles. This can either

be a direct human impact or an indirect human impact (Pope, 2002). Mining is one

industry that as a result of its activities generates a lot of nanoparticles in particular

crystalline silica nanoparticles as a by-product of the target mineral extraction.

Crystalline Silica nanoparticles

Crystalline silica is a basic component of soil, sand, granite, and many other minerals.

Quartz is the most common form of crystalline silica. Cristobalite and tridymite are two

other forms of crystalline silica. All three forms may become respirable size particles

when workers chip, cut, drill, or grind objects that contain crystalline silica (Oberd

orster et al, 2007).

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Figure 2 Characteristic FTIR spectrum of sample on polymer membrane filter

Figure 1 Spectrum of PVC-acrylic filter taken at beam focus, 400 to 3400 cm-3

Crystalline silica nanoparticles have been classified as a human lung carcinogen.

Additionally, breathing crystalline silica nanoparticles can cause silicosis (Pope et al,

2002), which in severe cases can be disabling, or even fatal. The respirable crystalline

silica nanoparticles enter the lungs and cause the formation of scar tissue, thus

reducing the lungs’ ability to take in oxygen. There is no cure for silicosis (Pope et al,

2002). Since silicosis affects lung function, it makes one more susceptible to lung

infections like tuberculosis.

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

FT-IR stands for Fourier Transform InfraRed, the preferred method of infrared

spectroscopy. In infrared spectroscopy, IR radiation is passed through a sample.

Some of the infrared radiation is absorbed by the sample and some of it is passed

through (transmitted) (Houghton, 2005). The resulting spectrum represents the

molecular absorption and transmission, creating a molecular fingerprint of the sample.

Like a fingerprint no two unique molecular structures produce the same infrared

spectrum. This makes infrared spectroscopy useful for several types of analysis.

What information can FT-IR provide?

It can identify unknown materials.

It can determine the quality or consistency of a sample

It can determine the amount of components in a mixture

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CHAPTER THREE

3.0. Methodology

The following methodology was used in order to achieve the objectives of the project.

3.0. Sample Collection

This was the part where samples were collected from designated areas around the

mine premises. Areas of interest included those with heavy dust emission possibilities

such as the underground blasting area, the smelting area, the concentrator area and

the general ambient area where heavy trucks pass. A day was selected in a week

where one area was targeted. Before samples were collected, the two filter papers

were pre weighed and the weight was be recorded. The weighed filter papers were

then fitted in the pumps and two workers at the site were be equipped one with a

0.8µm PVC filter membrane and the other with a 5µm PVC filter membrane in it. The

sample collection time was between 4 to 8 hours. A detailed procedure is listed below.

Sampling Procedure

Personal samples for respirable crystalline silica nanoparticles were collected as

below;

Preparation of sampling equipment

The samplers were cleaned before use. Dismantling the parts that came into

contact with dust (referring to the manufacturer's instructions where necessary),

soaked in detergent solution, rinsed thoroughly with water, and allowed to dry

before reassembly.

Using clean flat-tipped tweezers, each sampler was loaded with a filter (pre-

weighed, in order to match blanks, when using dispersive IR; pre-scanned when

using FTIR), and label each sampler with a unique identification number. E.g. 4

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The volumetric flow rate was set on each sampler to the 2.2 l/m, to an accuracy of

±5 %.

Collection of samples

The sampler was attached to the wearer, as close to the mouth and nose as

possible. The Cyclone samplers were not generally sensitive to orientation, but

were attached to the wearer with the grit-pot at the base. The pump was attached

to a suitable belt or harness so that it caused minimum inconvenience to the

wearer, and safely secured any tubing connecting the pump and sampler.

For each sampler, the sample identity and all relevant sampling data was carefully

recorded.

To begin sampling, the protective cover was removed from the sampler and

switched on the pump. The time and volumetric flow rate was recorded at the

beginning of the sampling period.

At the end of the sampling period, the volumetric flow rate and the time were

recorded again, and the duration of the sampling period was calculated.

Background (fixed position) sampling

In use, the personal samplers were mounted at approximately head height, away

from obstructions, fresh air inlets or strong winds. The sampling procedures were

otherwise the same as for personal sampling. It was not appropriate to compare

fixed point (background) samples with the exposure limit. Fixed-position samples

could have been useful in identifying the main source(s) of crystalline silica

nanoparticles exposure. Comparison of airborne concentration measurements

from personal and fixed point samples were given some indication of the extent to

which exposure arises from local or general conditions.

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Sampling time

A long sampling time ensures a heavier deposit of dust on the filter, thus reducing

measurement inaccuracies. Sampling times were therefore made as long as is

reasonably practicable (preferably not less than four hours), and were a

representative of the working periods of the individuals being monitored. If the

aerosol nanoparticles concentration was so high that a single filter would be

overloaded, several filters were used consecutively.

Transport

The filter was removed from the sampler using flat-tipped tweezers, places it in an

airtight tin and closed with a lid. Particular care was taken to prevent material being

dislodged from the filter. Transportation the samples to the laboratory was carried

out in a container capable of preventing damage in transit, and labelled to ensure

proper handling.

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A. Area Sampled: Gyratory Crusher

Figure 3 Gyratory Crusher with dump truck feeding rocks and Aerosol nanoparticles being generated

A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel, or rock

dust. A gyratory crusher is similar in basic concept to a jaw crusher, consisting of a

concave surface and a conical head; both surfaces are typically lined with manganese

steel surfaces (James, Burke 1978). The inner cone has a slight circular movement, but

does not rotate; the movement is generated by an eccentric arrangement. As with the jaw

crusher, material travels downward between the two surfaces being progressively crushed

until it is small enough to fall out through the gap between the two surfaces.

A gyratory crusher is one of the main types of primary crushers in a mine or ore processing

plant. Gyratory crushers are designated in size either by the gape and mantle diameter or

by the size of the receiving opening. Gyratory crushers can be used for primary or

secondary crushing. The crushing action is caused by the closing of the gap between the

mantle line (movable) mounted on the central vertical spindle and the concave liners

(fixed) mounted on the main frame of the crusher. The gap is opened and closed by an

eccentric on the bottom of the spindle that causes the central vertical spindle to gyrate.

The vertical spindle is free to rotate around its own axis. The crusher illustrated is a short-

shaft suspended spindle type, meaning that the main shaft is suspended at the top and

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that the eccentric is mounted above the gear. The short-shaft design has superseded the

long-shaft design in which the eccentric is mounted below the gear.

Figure 4 Google earth map showing Gyro Crushers

Dust (Crystalline Silica Nanoparticles) Monitoring Log Sheet

0.5µm Filter paper weighing procedure (Using Mettler Toledo AB204-S weigh balance) Gyro 2 Crusher

Date weighed

Average filter

weight before

sampling

Average filter

weight after

sampling

Filter Difference

Dust Mass

(g)

Start Time

(hh:mm)

Stop Time

(hh:mm

Time Diff

(hh:mm)

Date Sampled

Location

15-Sep-14

0.02013 0.02087 0.00073 0.73 9:55 16:12 6:17 18-Sep-

14

Feeder

15-Sep-14

0.02083 0.02177 0.00093 0.93 9:57 16:12 6:15 18-Sep-

14

Conveyor

15-Sep-14

0.02080 0.02190 0.00110 1.10 9:15 16:00 6:45 18-Sep-

14

Secondary

Crusher

15-Sep-14

0.02010 0.02100 0.00090 0.90 9:18 16:02 6:44 18-Sep-

14

CR area

15-Sep-14

0.01917 0.02027 0.00110 1.10 9:20 16:02 6:42 18-Sep-

14

Stairway

15-Sep-14

0.01953 0.02037 0.00083 0.83 8:50 16:37 7:47 18-Sep-

14

MMD

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Dust (Crystalline Silica Nanoparticles) Monitoring Log Sheet

0.8µm Filter paper weighing procedure (Using Mettler Toledo AB204-S weigh balance) Gyro 2 Crusher

Date weighed

Average filter

weight before

sampling

Average filter

weight after

sampling

Filter Difference

Dust Mass

(g)

Start Time

(hh:mm)

Stop Time

(hh:mm

Time Diff

(hh:mm)

Date Sampled

Location

15-Sep-14

0.01957 0.01970 0.00013

0.13 9:55 16:12 6:17

18-Sep-14

Feeder

15-Sep-14 0.01963 0.01983 0.00020 0.20

9:57 16:12 6:15 18-Sep-

14

Conveyor

15-Sep-14

0.01977 0.02007 0.00030 0.30 9:15 16:00 6:45

18-Sep-14

Secondary

Crusher

15-Sep-14 0.01970 0.02017 0.00047 0.47

9:18 16:02 6:44 18-Sep-

14

CR area

15-Sep-14 0.01937 0.01983 0.00047 0.47

9:20 16:02 6:42 18-Sep-

14

Stairway

15-Sep-14 0.01973 0.02027 0.00053 0.53

8:50 16:37 7:47 18-Sep-

14

MMD

No. Sample ID Post Weight (mg) Instrument ID Silica (mg)

1 D 136 Pla 200 0.00115

2 E 207 Pla 201 0.00122

3 F 301 Pla 213 0.00126

4 H 477 Pla 214 0.00577

5 I 534 Pla 209 0.00432

6 Blank KBr Pla 211 0.00000

Table 1 Table 1 0.8µm Filter paper (Gyratory Crusher) Silica results

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Table 2 0.5µm Filter paper (Gyratory Crusher) silica results

B. Area Sampled: Main Pit

The main open pit, also known as Main 10 and Main 8 were areas in which sampling

took place. Open-pit mines are used when deposits of commercially useful minerals or

rock are found near the surface; that is, where the overburden (surface material covering

the valuable deposit) is relatively thin or the material of interest is structurally unsuitable

for tunneling (as would be the case for sand, cinder, and gravel).

No. Sample ID Post Weight (mg) Instrument ID Silica (mg)

1 A 731 Pla 217 0.01412

2 B 931 Pla 205 0.01482

3 C 1102 Pla 202 0.01841

4 J 904 Pla 214 0.01356

5 K 1107 Pla 216 0.00992

6 Blank KBr Pla 211 0.00000

Figure 5 Main 8 showing moving Dump Trucks and Drillers generating aerosol nanoparticles

18 | P a g e

Open-pit mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral resource is exhausted, or an

increasing ratio of overburden to ore makes further mining uneconomic. When this occurs,

the exhausted mines are sometimes converted to landfills for disposal of solid wastes

Dust (Crystalline Silica Nanoparticles) Monitoring Log Sheet

0.8µm Filter paper weighing procedure (Using Mettler Toledo AB204-S weigh balance) Main Pit

Date weighed

Average filter

weight before

sampling

Average filter

weight after

sampling

Filter Difference

Dust Mass

(g)

Start Time

(hh:mm)

Stop Time

(hh:mm

Time Diff

(hh:mm)

Date Sampled

Location

19-Sep-14 0.01940 0.01950 0.00010 0.10 9:18 15:32 6:14 23-Sep-

14

Main10

19-Sep-14 0.02013 0.02063 0.00050 0.50 9:20 15:33 6:13

23-Sep-14

Main10

19-Sep-14 0.02013 0.02053 0.00040 0.40 9:24 15:33 6:09

23-Sep-14

Main10

19-Sep-14 0.02037 0.02067 0.00030 0.30 8:23 12:11 3:48

23-Sep-14

Main 8

19-Sep-14 0.02083 0.02140 0.00057 0.57 8:54 12:15 3:21

23-Sep-14

Main 8

19-Sep-14 0.01990 0.02013 0.00023 0.23 8:56 12:16 3:20

23-Sep-14

Main 8

19 | P a g e

Dust (Crystalline Silica Nanoparticles) Monitoring Log Sheet

0.5µm Filter paper weighing procedure (Using Mettler Toledo AB204-S weigh balance) Main Pit

Date weighed

Average filter

weight before

sampling

Average filter

weight after

sampling

Filter Difference

Dust Mass

(g)

Start Time

(hh:mm)

Stop Time

(hh:mm

Time Diff

(hh:mm)

Date Sampled

Location

19-Sep-14

0.01957 0.02150 0.00193 1.93 9:18 15:32 6:14 23-Sep-

14

Main10

19-Sep-14

0.02113 0.02297 0.00183 1.83 9:20 15:33 6:13

23-Sep-14

Main10

19-Sep-14

0.02010 0.02143 0.00133 1.33 9:24 15:33 6:09

23-Sep-14

Main10

19-Sep-14

0.01983 0.02197 0.00213 2.13 8:23 12:11 3:48

23-Sep-14

Main 8

19-Sep-14

0.02080 0.02190 0.00110 1.10 8:54 12:15 3:21

23-Sep-14

Main 8

19-Sep-14

0.01983 0.02163 0.00180 1.80 8:56 12:16 3:20

23-Sep-14

Main 8

No. Sample ID Post Weight (mg)

Instrument ID Silica (mg)

1 H 102 Pla 201 0.00127

2 K 506 Pla 212 0.00172

3 I 402 Pla 209 0.00144

4 C 307 Pla 214 0.00382

5 E 571 Pla 202 0.00384

6 Blank KBr Pla 211 0.00000

Table 3 0.8µm Filter paper (Main Pit) silica results

Table 4 0.5µm Filter paper (Main Pit) silica results

No. Sample ID Post Weight (mg)

Instrument ID Silica (mg)

1 H 1928 Pla 209 0.01728

2 K 1832 Pla 213 0.01623

3 I 1337 Pla 217 0.01514

4 C 2129 Pla 213 0.01734

5 E 1105 Pla 205 0.01432

6 Blank KBr Pla 211 0.00000

20 | P a g e

C. Area Sampled: Underground Portal

The underground portal or otherwise referred to as the decline is a segment in the pit that

has been created to pump out excess water that might pose a threat of flooding to the pit.

Blasting and other mining activities are present in this area which is poses a high risk and

hence requires extra safety measures to work in.

Dust (Crystalline Silica Nanoparticles) Monitoring Log Sheet

0.8µm Filter paper weighing procedure (Using Mettler Toledo AB204-S weigh balance) Underground Decline

Date weighed

Average filter

weight before

sampling

Average filter

weight after

sampling

Filter Difference

Dust Mass

(g)

Start Time

(hh:mm)

Stop Time

(hh:mm

Time Diff

(hh:mm)

Date Sampled

Location

13-Oct-14 0.02233 0.02267 0.00033 0.33 10:30 16:06 5:36 15-Oct-

14

ID No.

M0072

13-Oct-14 0.02237 0.02290 0.00053 0.53 10:30 16:08 5:38

15-Oct-14

_ID No.

M0191

13-Oct-14

0.02227 0.02267 0.00040 0.40 9:30 12:41 3:11

15-Oct-14

Sub

Station

2_Entrance

13-Oct-14

0.02253 0.02273 0.00020 0.20 9:32 12:39 3:07

15-Oct-14

Sub

Station

2_Inside

13-Oct-14 0.02247 0.02270 0.00023 0.23 9:38 12:39 3:01

15-Oct-14 ID No.

M0073

13-Oct-14 0.02233 0.02263 0.00030 0.30 9:40 12:45 3:05

15-Oct-14 _ID No.

M0192

21 | P a g e

Dust (Crystalline Silica Nanoparticles) Monitoring Log Sheet

0.8µm Filter paper weighing procedure (Using Mettler Toledo AB204-S weigh balance) Underground Decline

Date weighed

Average filter

weight before

sampling

Average filter

weight after

sampling

Filter Difference

Dust Mass

(g)

Start Time

(hh:mm)

Stop Time

(hh:mm

Time Diff

(hh:mm)

Date Sampled

Location

13-Oct-14 0.02203 0.02400 0.00197 1.97 10:30 16:06 5:36 15-Oct-

14

ID No.

M0072

13-Oct-14 0.02227 0.02400 0.00173 1.73 10:30 16:08 5:38

15-Oct-14

_ID No.

M0191

13-Oct-14

0.02220 0.02397 0.00177 1.77 9:30 12:41 3:11

15-Oct-14

Sub

Station

2_Entrance

13-Oct-14

0.02227 0.02407 0.00180 1.80 9:32 12:39 3:07

15-Oct-14

Sub

Station

2_Inside

13-Oct-14 0.02183 0.02387 0.00203 2.03 9:38 12:39 3:01

15-Oct-14 ID No.

M0073

13-Oct-14 0.02197 0.02393 0.00197 1.97 9:40 12:45 3:05

15-Oct-14 _ID No.

M0192

3.1. Laboratory analysis

After sample collection was achieved and recorded from all the selected areas of the

mine, the filter membranes were then removed from the pumps and weighed again to

record the mass difference.

From the balance room, the filter papers were then taken to Mopani Copper Mines to

be analysed under the Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy which was able to

single out and identify the presence of Crystalline Silica by mass.

The following is the laboratory method used to obtain the silica from dust samples and

it was what was used to obtain silica from the nanoparticles that were retained on the

0.8µm and 0.5µm filter membranes.

22 | P a g e

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0. Results

The retention of samples on the filter membrane showed to be more on the 0.5µm.

This was shown by the mass that each filter paper projected after sampling time.

The tables below show graphs of the two filter membranes in comparison at each

sampling site.

Figure 6 Projection of mass differences of 0.5µm and 0.8µm filter membranes at Gyratory crushers

Figure 7 Projection of mass differences of 0.5µm and 0.8µm filter membranes from the main pit

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

Gyro 2Feeder

belt

Gyro 2Conveyor

belt

Gyro 2Secondary

Crusher

Gyro 2Secondary

CrusherArea

Gyro 2Secondary

Crusherstairway

Gyro 2Secondary

Crusher

Mas

s in

g

Gyratory Crusher

0.5µm

0.8µm

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Main10_Pit

Main10_Pit

Main10_Pit

Main8_Pit

Main8_Pit

Main8_Pit

Mas

s in

g

Main Pit

0.8µm

0.5µm

23 | P a g e

Figure 8 Projection of mass differences of 0.5µm and 0.8µm filter membranes from the underground portal

FTIR Results and analysis

Following the FTIR lab analysing carried out at Mopani Copper Mines, the following were

the results of crystalline silica nanoparticles content in each filter at a respective sampling

site. The concentration of silica was calculated in (mg/m3) following the following equation:

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂 =𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂 (𝒎𝒈)

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒅 (𝒎𝟑)

Flow rate (l/min) Pump time (min) Total Litres Silica mass (mg) Concentration(mg/m3)

2.2 377 829.4 0.01412 0.01702

2.2 375 825 0.01482 0.01798

2.2 405 891 0.01841 0.02066

2.2 404 888.8 0.01356 0.01526

2.2 402 884.4 0.00992 0.01122

Table 5 0.5µm Filter paper Silica Concentration (Gyratory Crusher)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

DeclinePortal_ID

No. M0072

DeclinePortal_ID

No. M0191

DeclineSub Station2_Entrance

DeclineSub Station

2_Inside

DeclinePortal_ID

No. M0073

DeclinePortal_ID

No. M0192

Mas

s in

gUnderground Portal

0.8µm

0.5µm

24 | P a g e

Flow rate (l/min) Pump time (min) Total Litres Silica mass (mg) Concentration(mg/m3)

2.2 377 829.4 0.00115 0.00139

2.2 375 825 0.00122 0.00148

2.2 405 891 0.00126 0.00141

2.2 404 888.8 0.00577 0.00649

2.2 402 884.4 0.00432 0.00488

Table 6 0.8µm Filter paper Silica Concentration (Gyratory Crusher)

Figure 9 Graph showing the concentration of silica retained on both filter membranes at the Gyratory Crushers

0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

Feeder Conveyor SecondaryCrusher

CR area Stairway

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

mg/

m3)

Concentration of Silica Retained on both Filter membranes

0.5µm

0.8µm

25 | P a g e

Flow rate (l/min) Pump time (min) Total Litres Silica mass (mg) Concentration(mg/m3)

2.2 374 822.8 0.01728 0.02100

2.2 375 825 0.01623 0.01967

2.2 369 811.8 0.01514 0.01865

2.2 228 501.6 0.01734 0.03457

2.2 381 838.2 0.01432 0.01708

Table 7 0.5µm Filter paper Silica Concentration (Main Pit)

Flow rate (l/min) Pump time (min) Total Litres Silica mass (mg) Concentration(mg/m3)

2.2 374 822.8 0.00127 0.00154

2.2 375 825 0.00172 0.00208

2.2 369 811.8 0.00144 0.00177

2.2 228 501.6 0.00382 0.00762

2.2 381 838.2 0.00384 0.00458

Table 8 0.8µm Filter paper Silica Concentration (Main Pit)

Figure 10 Graph showing the concentration of silica retained on both filter membranes at the Main Pit

0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0.04

Main10 Main10 Main10 Main 8 Main 8 Main 8

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

mg/

m3 )

Concentration of Silica Retained on both Filter membranes

0.5µm

0.8µm

26 | P a g e

4.1. Discussion

Gyratory Crusher: 0.5µm vs. 0.8µm

The crushers is one of the busiest areas on the mining lease. The average mass of

the 0.5µm filter membrane showed a retention of more nanoparticles. This was

attributed to the mass (in grams) being higher than that of the 0.8µm filter membrane

average mass. The crushers receive the raw material that is just from being blasted

and crush it yet into smaller stones. It is for this reason that the crystalline silica

concentration showed to be higher in the 0.5µm filter at this area also after the FTIR

analysis was carried out.

Main Pit: 0.5µm vs. 0.8µm

The main pit, which is always dusty, is an area expected to have a lot of aerosol

nanoparticles because of the activities that are found in this area such as blasting,

rock punching, and constant dump truck movement raising the aerosol nanoparticles.

The spotters and operators of the drilling machines are required to wear a dust mask

at all times in this area together with other necessary Personal Protective Equipment

(PPE) and as the results show, the individuals that were samples in this area, all the

workers wearing the 0.5µm filter membrane had shown a higher mass concentration

retention on the filter membrane.

27 | P a g e

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusion

This study basically assessed the generation of aerosol nanoparticles which are as

the result of mining activities. The distribution of these aerosol nanoparticles was done

by the contrasting of the sample retention of two filter membranes. As expected the

0.5µm filter membrane retained more samples than the 0.8µm filter and this was

shown by the mass differences that was projected by the average two filter

membranes.

Mining activities such as drilling, blasting and crushing reduce the particle size of the

rock that contains many elements. One of the elements contained in the rock is

crystalline silica which was an element of interest in this study. The presence of

crystalline silica nanoparticles which was done by the use of the Fourier Transform

Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) showed that there was more crystalline silica

nanoparticles retained on the 0.5µm filter membrane. This showed a significant sign

of how a reduction in pulmonary diseases is achievable by the use of dust masks that

have a pore size of preferably less than 0.5µm.

28 | P a g e

5.2. Recommendations

Following the main objective of this study and the findings thereof, the following

recommendations have been made;

The current pore size filter membrane for most dust masks is 0.8µm, this

should be changed to dust masks used in specific areas in the mine that

generate a lot of aerosol nanoparticles to a 0.5µm pore sized filter membrane.

Improved dust suppression systems must be employed in places such as pits

and crushing areas.

29 | P a g e

6.0. APPENDICES

Document No. BO-OH-002 Document Owner

Senior Occupational Hygiene Co-ordinator (Chemist)

Reviewer Group Head- Occupational Hygiene

Revision No. 2.0 Approver HSE Manager

Date Approved 02nd November, 2011. Department

HSE Section:

Occupational Hygiene

Scope The scope covers the analysis of respirable dust samples collected at Nkana and Mufulira mine sites using FT-IR instrument.

Objectives To quantify quartz silica in respirable dust at Mopani mine sites.

PPE

Requirements

(Place a ■ below

the appropriate

PPE required)

X X X X

STEP ACTIVITY HSEQ MESSAGE

1

A) MEASURING SAMPLES

SAMPLE PREPARATION

a) Place filter samples and blanks in individual porcelain crucibles, loosely cover and ash in Muffle Furnace for 2 hours at 600 oC

b) Add 300mg KBr dried overnight at 110 oC to each sample

c) Mix the sample ash and KBr thoroughly with a pestle

d) Transfer to motor to complete mixing

e) Transfer mixture to a 7-mm evacuable pellet die using camel’s hair brush

Press a pellet using standard technique

Quality

Label sample identification

Weighed to 0.1mg accuracy

Safety

Use MCM or NIOSH (N95)

approved dust respirator during

sample preparation

2

(B) CHECK INSTRUMENT

Check FTIR instrument set-up and proceed as follows

and ensure that it passes the following test by showing a

Quality

Accuracy of 0.001mg should

be observed

30 | P a g e

STEP ACTIVITY HSEQ MESSAGE

green circular icon located at the bottom far right end of

screen.

a) Laser

b) Source

c) Electronic

d) Automation

e) Detector

f) Interferometer

g) Transmission

Encase of red circular icon at the bottom far right end of

screen, select diagnosis and run appropriate test

3

(C) SAMPLE MEASUREMENT

a) Select MEASURE and click on measurement

b) Enter sample Name

c) Start background measurement

d) Click ON EVALUATION Tab and then Quantitative Analysis button on Opus wizard

e) Activate SHOW RESULTS IMMEDIATELY button

f) Load required Quant Method

g) Click on ANALYSE

h) Repeat above steps for the remaining samples

4

(D) CALCULATIONS

Concentration quartz = weight of quartz/ volume of air

sampled (mg/m3)

5

31 | P a g e

OCCUPATIONAL ILLNESSES RELATING TO WORK

ILLNESS SYMPTOM

Exposure to quartz dust cause

Bronchitis coughing

Exposure to quartz dust cause Silicosis Lung damage, breathing difficulties

Irritation of respiratory tract due

inhalation of potassium Bromide dust

Ingestion will cause nausea and

abdominal pains

Skin contact will result in mild irritation

Eye contact cause irritation

Coughing, sore throat and shortness of breath

skin rash, blurred vision & eye effects, drowsiness, irritability, dizziness, mania, hallucinations and coma

Redness, pain and skin burns

Redness and pain

DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

TERM DESCRIPTION

KBr Potassium Bromide

FT-IR Fourier Transmittance Infrared Spectrometer

REFERENCES

REFERENCE AUTHOR TITLE

NIOSH Method 7602, Fourth Edition, 8/15/94 NIOSH Silica, Crystalline by IR (KBr pellet)

Bruker Optics Quant Method using FTIR Bruker Optics Quantitative Analysis

DOCUMENT REVISION CONTROL

REVISION

NUMBER

PAGE

NUMBER/S

CHANGE EFFECTED DATE OF CHANGE

1.0 All APPROVAL 20th JUNE, 2011.

2.0 All APPROVAL 02nd November, 2011.

32 | P a g e

REVIEW AND APPROVAL SIGNATURES RECORD

REVIEWER ROLE TITLE SIGNATURE DATE

Originator (Document Owner) Senior Occupational

Hygiene Co-ordinator

Original Signed 02nd November, 2011.

Reviewer 1 Group Head – Occupational

Hygiene

Original Signed 02nd November, 2011.

APPROVED BY: Manager Group Manager - HSE Original Signed 02nd November, 2011.

33 | P a g e

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